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63-533: Roman historian Livy mentioned the Fanum Voltumnae five times in his works and indicated "... apud Volsinios ..." as the place where the shrine was located. Modern historians have been looking for the Fanum since at least the 15th century but the exact location of the shrine is still unknown, though it may have been in an area near modern Orvieto , believed by many to be the ancient Volsinii . Livy describes

126-408: A lucumo (the equivalent of Pontifex Maximus ). In spring 1988, news was published that Fanum Voltumnae was at last discovered on the volcanic ridge of Lake Bolsena . The hill (633 m a.s.l.), known as Poggio Evangelista (commune of Latera ), retains the ruins of a temple, visibly located on a strategic place, with a wide view over Umbria , Lazio and Tuscany (Berlingo and Timperi, 1995). It

189-400: A Scotsman involved in the first Jacobite uprising of 1715 was recaptured (and executed) because, having escaped, he yet lingered near the place of his captivity in "the hope of recovering his favourite Titus Livius ". The authority supplying information from which possible vital data on Livy can be deduced is Eusebius of Caesarea , a bishop of the early Christian Church . One of his works

252-620: A book on geography and a daughter married Lucius Magius, a rhetorician. Titus Livius died at his home city of Patavium in AD 17. The tombstone of Livy and his wife might have been found in Padua. Livy's only surviving work is commonly known as History of Rome (or Ab Urbe Condita , 'From the Founding of the City';). Together with Polybius it is considered one of the main accounts of

315-503: A century after Livy's time, described the Emperor Augustus as his friend. Describing the trial of Cremutius Cordus , Tacitus represents him as defending himself face-to-face with the frowning Tiberius as follows: I am said to have praised Brutus and Cassius , whose careers many have described and no one mentioned without eulogy. Titus Livius, pre-eminently famous for eloquence and truthfulness, extolled Cn. Pompeius in such

378-442: A common pastime. He was familiar with the emperor Augustus and the imperial family. Augustus was considered by later Romans to have been the greatest Roman emperor, benefiting Livy's reputation long after his death. Suetonius described how Livy encouraged the future emperor Claudius , who was born in 10 BC, to write historiographical works during his childhood. Livy's most famous work was his history of Rome . In it he narrates

441-502: A complete history of the city of Rome, from its foundation to the death of Augustus. Because he was writing under the reign of Augustus, Livy's history emphasizes the great triumphs of Rome. He wrote his history with embellished accounts of Roman heroism in order to promote the new type of government implemented by Augustus when he became emperor. In Livy's preface to his history, he said that he did not care whether his personal fame remained in darkness, as long as his work helped to "preserve

504-599: A complex formula (made so by the 0 reference point not falling on the border of an Olympiad), these codes correspond to 59 BC for the birth, 17 AD for the death. In another manuscript the birth is in 180.4, or 57 BC. Bagnoregio Bagnoregio is a comune (municipality) in the Province of Viterbo in the Italian region of Lazio , located about 90 kilometres (56 mi) northwest of Rome and about 28 kilometres (17 mi) north of Viterbo . The current main town

567-509: A dedication to the god Vertun (Latin: Vertumnus, Voltumna). It comes from the nearly Etruscan cemetery. Titus Livius Titus Livius ( Latin: [ˈtɪtʊs ˈliːwiʊs] ; 59 BC – AD 17), known in English as Livy ( / ˈ l ɪ v i / LIV -ee ), was a Roman historian. He wrote a monumental history of Rome and the Roman people, titled Ab Urbe Condita , ''From

630-473: A panegyric that Augustus called him Pompeianus, and yet this was no obstacle to their friendship. Livy's reasons for returning to Padua after the death of Augustus (if he did) are unclear, but the circumstances of Tiberius 's reign certainly allow for speculation. During the Middle Ages , due to the length of the work, the literate class was already reading summaries rather than the work itself, which

693-535: A pre-etruscan civilization settled down near to Lake Bolsena and later elected by the Etruscans as their religious centre. Giovanni Feo also pointed out the borders of this sacred area, which delimited the Fanum, divided into four parts centred around the intersection point between the earth and heaven gods. In the commune of Farnese , deep in the Selva del Lamone , location Voltone is assumed to get its name from

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756-416: A result, standard information in a standard rendition is used, which gives the impression of a standard set of dates for Livy. There are no such dates. A typical presumption is of a birth in the 2nd year of the 180th Olympiad and a death in the first year of the 199th Olympiad, which are coded 180.2 and 199.1 respectively. All sources use the same first Olympiad , 776/775–773/772 BC by the modern calendar. By

819-653: A search for the now missing books. Laurentius Valla published an amended text initiating the field of Livy scholarship. Dante speaks highly of him in his poetry, and Francis I of France commissioned extensive artwork treating Livian themes; Niccolò Machiavelli 's work on republics , the Discourses on Livy , is presented as a commentary on the History of Rome . Respect for Livy rose to lofty heights. Walter Scott reports in Waverley (1814) as an historical fact that

882-473: A team coordinated by Adriano Maggiani Archived 27 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine (teacher of Etruscology and Italic Archaeology Archived 27 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine at Ca' Foscari University of Venice ), which may shed new lights on Etruscan culture at San Lorenzo Nuovo [e.g. Maccarino's tomb and other Etruscan tombs at San Lorenzo Nuovo]. An Etruscan mirror exhibited in

945-520: Is likely a sacred Etruscan place of worship dating back to the 6th – 4th centuries BC. In 1976 and 1977, Danish excavations were carried out at Monte Becco (at 556 m a.s.l.), in the area of Valentano , near to the Lake Mezzano (ancient Lacus Statoniensis). Traces of the Etruscan presence, including walls, bronze tools, and roof tiles were found during the study mission. One of the tiles

1008-412: Is that Fanum Voltumnae was a large area centred on the ancient Etruscan, and later Roman town of Velzna , situated on the shore of Lacus Volsiniensis (modern Lake Bolsena ). This conclusion is based on both archaeological and epigraphical discoveries, also supported by stratigraphic reconstructions and archival records. Another hypothesis suggests that the federal shrine of the Etruscans was located to

1071-656: The Chronographia , a summary of history in annalist form, and the Chronikoi Kanones , tables of years and events. St. Jerome translated the tables into Latin as the Chronicon , probably adding some information of his own from unknown sources. Livy's dates appear in Jerome's Chronicon. The main problem with the information given in the manuscripts is that, between them, they often give different dates for

1134-656: The British Museum was found in a tomb on the territory of San Lorenzo Nuovo. Within Lake Bolsena, the Bisentina island (commune of Capodimonte ) is also regarded as a sacred isle of the Etruscans, possible site for the Fanum, and gate to the underground world of Agharti . A sanctuary located on an island not situated at the sea would have been accessible to priests and kings of the 12 cities (with their closest entourages), their protection being granted during

1197-994: The Egyptians at Philae ; the Greeks at Delos ; the Germans at Helgoland in the North Sea and on the island of the goddess Nerthus , in the Baltic ; the Celts at Gavrinis , near to the Breton coast in France, at Iona in Scotland, etc. This hypothesis finds a type of confirmation in the poem the Theogony , by the Greek oral poet Hesiod (8th–7th century BC) : "They ruled over

1260-583: The Monte dei Paschi di Siena Bank , with ministerial permission) at a site near the hill town of Orvieto ( esplanade Arcone , former Campo della Fiera , smallholding Giardino della Regina ) announced that the site at the feet of the Umbrian town probably was the location of the Fanum Voltumnae. "It has all the characteristics of a very important shrine, and of that shrine in particular" she said. Listing some of those characteristics, she mentioned "the scale of

1323-478: The Roman army . However, he was educated in philosophy and rhetoric. It seems that Livy had the financial resources and means to live an independent life, though the origin of that wealth is unknown. He devoted a large part of his life to his writings, which he was able to do because of his financial freedom. Livy was known to give recitations to small audiences, but he was not heard of to engage in declamation , then

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1386-610: The Second Punic War . When he began this work he was already past his youth, probably 33; presumably, events in his life prior to that time had led to his intense activity as a historian. He continued working on it until he left Rome for Padua in his old age, probably in the reign of Tiberius after the death of Augustus. Seneca the Younger says he was an orator and philosopher and had written some historical treatises in those fields. History of Rome also served as

1449-462: The Umbrians ' annual celebration: We – Emperor Caesar Flavius Constantine Maximus Germanicus Sarmaticus Maximus Gothicus Victor Triumphator Augustus and [his sons] Flavius Constantine and Flavius Julius Constantius and Flavius Constans – encompass with our untiring attention and care everything, indeed, that benefits human society; but this is the greatest task for our forethought: that all

1512-623: The Viterbo Cathedral was built on the site of the Fanum, in the Roman settlement Castrum Herculis . Viterbo, inasmuch as it contains a church named Santa Maria in Volturna , may be considered as having some claims to the Fanum. Annio of Viterbo , in his 17 volumes of Antiquities (published in 1498) attributed the foundation of the Etruscan Fanum Voltumnae to the ancient population known as Falisci (allies of

1575-422: The 40s BC, a period of civil wars throughout the Roman world . The governor of Cisalpine Gaul at the time, Asinius Pollio , tried to sway Patavium into supporting Marcus Antonius (Mark Antony) , the leader of one of the warring factions during Caesar's Civil War (49-45 BC). The wealthy citizens of Patavium refused to contribute money and arms to Asinius Pollio, and went into hiding. Pollio then attempted to bribe

1638-487: The Etruscans, along with Capenates , at the time of the wars between Rome and Veii, 406–396 BC). The town Montefiascone was named after them ( Mons Faliscorum , that is, Mountain of the Falisci ). The British explorer George Dennis , though without any documentary evidence, supported Montefiascone as the sacred site where the states of the Etruscan league met periodically to discuss military and political affairs and choose

1701-464: The Etruscans, and to inventing documents to support his histories. Viterbo's heraldic badges are surrounded by the letters FAVL (read as FAUL), which appear like a ciphered globe. It is unclear what they refer to, but some claim that they are the initials of the guardian towns and some others that they are in reference to the initial syllables of Fanum Voltumnae. The latter was affirmed in the nineteenth century by Francesco Orioli, who also surmised that

1764-618: The Fanum Voltumnae. In the late 19th-century archaeologists uncovered parts of the walls and found large quantities of earthenware, and based on these findings in 1930s the archeologist Geralberto Buccolini set out the hypothesis that the Fanum was situated at the foot of Orvieto's tuff In particular, the Temple of Belvedere was discovered and identified as the Temple of Nortia . In September 2006, Simonetta Stopponi, professor of Italic Archaeology and Etruscology at Macerata University (Italy), after extensive digs (begun in 2000 and financed by

1827-533: The Fanum at Volsinii – or at least in the Volsiniese territory. It is said in the document that the annual Etruscan feast ( concilium principum Etruriae ) was celebrated near Volsinios , including games and combats of gladiators , and election of the federal sacerdos . The document dates 4th century AD, thus the geographical indication in it can only refer to Volsinii Novi , i.e. Bolsena , and not to Velzna (Latinized to Volsinii Veteres , currently Orvieto ),

1890-702: The Founding of the City'', covering the period from the earliest legends of Rome before the traditional founding in 753 BC through the reign of Augustus in Livy's own lifetime. He was on good terms with members of the Julio-Claudian dynasty and was a friend of Augustus , whose young grandnephew, the future emperor Claudius , he encouraged to take up the writing of history. Livy was born in Patavium in northern Italy , now modern Padua , probably in 59 BC. At

1953-628: The Roman Jupiter and the Greek Zeus ). The only representation of this god is one on a mirror, showing him attending the lesson in divination ( haruspicy ) given, in Tarquinia , to the culture hero Tarchon by prophet Tages . Greek historian Strabo supports that symbols of Etruscan federal power were transferred to Rome from Tarquinia. In the archaeological museum of Tarquinia is an Etruscan vessel (early seventh century BC) with

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2016-428: The aforesaid people of Tuscia, who exhibit stage plays and a gladiatorial show at Volsinii, a city of Tuscia; but that, because of the steepness of the mountains and the difficulties of the paths through the forests thither, you most earnestly request that permission shall be granted to your priest to abandon the necessity of going to Volsinii to celebrate the exhibition; and that we shall give a name from our cognomen to

2079-399: The ages, but that there the aforesaid celebration also must be staged by priests chosen from Tuscia. Thus, indeed, it will not appear that our actions especially derogate anything from old customs; and you, who are suppliants to us for the aforesaid causes, will rejoice that you have gained those things for which you have earnestly asked. This is the first document that allows one to situate

2142-458: The area of Orvieto. "The head is very nice and well kept," said Stopponi, "An important discovery as well as that of the temple" that measures 12 by 18 metres (39 ft × 59 ft). A main temple and a sacred way have also been excavated. Some modern scholars have hypothesized that the location of Fanum Voltumnae was at Bagnoregio (probably on the hill of Civita di Bagnoregio ), past possession of Orvieto and Etruscan walled town. Before

2205-427: The cities whose splendid appearance and beauty distinguish them in the eyes of all provinces and of all regions not only shall keep their former dignity, but also shall be promoted to a still greater esteem by the grant of our Beneficence. Since, indeed, you aver that you have been annexed to Tuscia in such a way that by the established practice of ancient custom priests are created every other year in turn by you and by

2268-451: The city-state of Rome. Livy was alone in mentioning the god Voltumna , whereas Marcus Terentius Varro indicated a god-prince of Etruria. The Latin elegiac poet Propertius writes of an Etruscan god taken to Rome from Velzna (the town of Orvieto ). That the Fanum was somewhere in central Italy in the area between Orvieto and Viterbo is probable enough, but as Livy gave no clue to its locality, and as no inscriptions have thrown light on

2331-405: The claim that this is the Fanum Voltumnae is the fact that the area was used continuously for religious purposes right from the 6th century BC up to the 15th century. Roman temples were built on it in later centuries and the last church was erected there in the 12th century. In November 2014, archaeologist Simonetta Stopponi announced finding a polychrome terracotta male head of an Etruscan god in

2394-563: The community, which now has the name Hispellum and which you state is contiguous to and lying along the Flaminian Way and in which a temple of the Flavian Family is being built, of truly magnificent workmanship worthy of the greatness of its name; and that there that priest, whom Umbria selects annually, shall exhibit a festival of both stage plays and gladiatorial shows; and that this custom shall remain as regards Tuscia: that

2457-522: The construction, its intricate structure and layout, the presence of wells and fountains and the central temple building". Structures of various periods have been identified, distributed over a very large area (a retaining wall in polygonal masonry, a paved street, etc.), and many fragments of architectural terracottas have been recovered (among which are some similar to those in Berlin), datable from Late Archaic period to Hellenistic times . Also supporting

2520-591: The discoveries in the Orvieto area, the archaeological site of Guado Cinto , a necropolis including the Tomb of the Queen near Tuscania , was one of the most credited locations of Fanum Voltumnae. This hypothesis, presented in the 1950s by Mario Signorelli (1905–1990), an Italian music teacher, identified the sacred wood of the Etruscans in the peripheral areas of Viterbo named Riello and Macchia grande . This area

2583-477: The driving force behind the "northern theory" regarding the Etruscans' origins. This is because in the book Livy states, "The Greeks also call them the 'Tyrrhene' and the 'Adriatic ... The Alpine tribes are undoubtedly of the same kind, especially the Raetii, who had through the nature of their country become so uncivilized that they retained no trace of their original condition except their language, and even this

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2646-471: The famous Tyrenians, very far off in a recess of the holy islands". In Geografia sacra , Giovanni Feo presents his studies conducted over the Fiora River valley, in the comune of Pitigliano . A set of megalithic relics with astronomic functions was found out here, along with engraved rocky structures for cultural use. Such discoveries testify of the existence of a sacred area, originally developed by

2709-432: The meetings that took place at the Fanum between Etruscan leaders. Livy refers in particular to a meeting in which two groups applied to assist the city of Veii in a war it was waging. The council's answer was no, because Veii had declared war without first notifying it. Livy also says that Roman merchants who travelled to a huge fair attached to the meeting acted as spies, reporting back on Etruscan affairs to authorities in

2772-508: The memory of the deeds of the world’s preeminent nation." Because Livy was mostly writing about events that had occurred hundreds of years earlier, the historical value of his work was questionable, although many Romans came to believe his account to be true. Livy was married and had at least one daughter and one son. He also produced other works, including an essay in the form of a letter to his son, and numerous dialogues, most likely modelled on similar works by Cicero . One of his sons wrote

2835-480: The northern coast of Lake Bolsena , in a place known as Civita di Grotte di Castro , a plain area close to the church of San Giovanni in Val di Lago (currently in the commune of San Lorenzo Nuovo ). This hypothesis (also supported by Luigi Catena) comes out of another study based on the so-called Rescritto di Spello ( Rescript of Hispellum) issued by emperor Constantine I in a date between 333 and 337 AD to authorize

2898-422: The priest created at Volsinii shall celebrate, as has been his wont, the observation of the aforesaid exhibitions at that place: our assent is gladly granted to your prayer and desire. For from our own name we vouchsafe to the community of Hispellum an eternal designation, an appellation to be venerated, so that hereafter the aforesaid city shall be called Flavia Constans ; and in its center we wish, as you desire,

2961-569: The reign of Augustus, who came to power after a civil war with generals and consuls claiming to be defending the Roman Republic , such as Pompey . Patavium had been pro-Pompey. To clarify his status, the victor of the civil war, Octavian Caesar , had wanted to take the title Romulus (the first king of Rome) but in the end accepted the senate proposal of Augustus . Rather than abolishing the republic, he adapted it and its institutions to imperial rule. The historian Tacitus , writing about

3024-537: The religious and political meetings by a handful of armed men. An Italian television program Voyager (1 October 2003) supported this hypothesis, suggesting for the Etruscans a parallelism to the Incas populations, who had also chosen one of Lake Titicaca 's islands as their omphalos . Indeed, not only the Incas but, for the same reasons, various peoples have decided to erect their most eminent sanctuary on sacred islands:

3087-526: The result of bad feelings he harboured toward the city of Patavium from his experiences there during the civil wars. Livy probably went to Rome in the 30s BC, and it is likely that he spent a large amount of time in the city after this, although it may not have been his primary home. During his time in Rome, he was never a senator nor held a government position. His writings contain elementary mistakes on military matters, indicating that he probably never served in

3150-437: The sacred temple dedicated to Voltumna. The Voltone is surrounded by numerous archaeological sites, such as Sovana , Castro , Vulci , and Tarquinia , which testify of the culture of the Etruscans. According to Alberto Palmucci, the Fanum Voltumnae could be the renowned temple of Ara della Regina , the biggest temple of Etruria , consecrated to Tinia , god of the sky and the highest god in Etruscan mythology (equivalent to

3213-590: The same events or different events, do not include the same material entirely, and reformat what they do include. A date may be in Ab Urbe Condita or in Olympiads or in some other form, such as age. These variations may have occurred through scribal error or scribal license. Some material has been inserted under the aegis of Eusebius . The topic of manuscript variants is a large and specialized one, on which authors of works on Livy seldom care to linger. As

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3276-613: The slaves of those wealthy citizens to expose the whereabouts of their masters; his bribery did not work, and the citizens instead pledged their allegiance to the Senate . It is therefore likely that the Roman civil wars prevented Livy from pursuing a higher education in Rome or going on a tour of Greece , which was common for adolescent males of the nobility at the time. Many years later, Asinius Pollio derisively commented on Livy's "patavinity", saying that Livy's Latin showed certain "provincialisms" frowned on at Rome. Pollio's dig may have been

3339-659: The subject, at the current time it can be but pure conjecture to assign to it this or that particular site. The most credited hypothesis places the shrine in Orvieto. The Urbs Vetus of the Middle Ages is identified with the Etruscan Velzna by scholars, the Latin Volsinii , conquered by the Romans in 264 BC. Livy , Pliny , Florus , Horace , Metrodorus of Scepsis , all belonging to the 2nd century BC, clearly speak of ancient Volsinii, but never in relation to

3402-424: The temple of our Flavian Family to be completed of magnificent workmanship, but with this regulation added: that no temple dedicated in our name shall be defiled by the deceptions of any contagious and unreasonable religious belief; and so we also permit you to stage exhibitions in the aforesaid community, although in such manner that, as has been said, the celebration of Volsinii also shall not fall into disuse through

3465-552: The time of his birth, his home city of Patavium was the second wealthiest on the Italian peninsula, and the largest in the province of Cisalpine Gaul (northern Italy). Cisalpine Gaul was merged in Italy proper during his lifetime and its inhabitants were given Roman citizenship by Julius Caesar . In his works, Livy often expressed his deep affection and pride for Patavium, and the city was well known for its conservative values in morality and politics. Livy's teenage years were during

3528-485: The town the Romans had conquered and destroyed more than five centuries earlier. New light is being brought into this area by British and Danish studies. The sacred rescript , found in 1733, was claimed false by the Italian historian Ludovico Antonio Muratori in his Novus Thesaurus Veterum Inscriptionum (pp. 1791–1795). New discoveries from ongoing excavations have been made in location "Alfina" and "Monte Landro" by

3591-649: Was a summary of world history in ancient Greek , termed the Chronikon , dating from the early 4th century AD. This work was lost except for fragments (mainly excerpts), but not before it had been translated in whole and in part by various authors such as St. Jerome . The entire work survives in two separate manuscripts, Armenian and Greek (Christesen and Martirosova-Torlone 2006). St. Jerome wrote in Latin. Fragments in Syriac exist. Eusebius ' work consists of two books:

3654-543: Was central to the sacred wood, protected by four guardian towns which prevented it from being disclosed to the profane. The four towns were: Ferente (i.e. Ferentium ), Axia (i.e. Castel d'Asso ), Vrcle (Orcla, the centre of today's Norchia ), Luserna (i.e. Musarna ). The works of Signorelli followed the writings of the fifteenth-century forger and friar of the Dominican order Annio da Viterbo (1432–1502), who devoted his life to collecting legends and traditions ascribed to

3717-499: Was found to be incised with all the characters of the Etruscan alphabet . This site has been also indicated as one of the possible locations of the Fanum. This hypothesis is supported by Angelo Timperi, inspector and archeologist of Soprintendenza per i Beni Archeologici dell'Etruria Meridionale , with roles and responsibilities for the eastern side of Lake Bolsena and the archaeological area of Poggio Moscini in Bolsena . His idea

3780-522: Was in ancient times a suburb of the hill town in the same comune now known as Civita di Bagnoregio . In ancient times this was called Novempagi and Balneum Regium , whence the medieval name of Bagnorea . During the barbarian invasions of Italy, between the sixth and ninth centuries, the city was taken several times by the Ostrogoths and the Lombards . Charlemagne is said to have included it in

3843-533: Was not free from corruption". Thus, many scholars, like Karl Otfried Müller, utilized this statement as evidence that the Etruscans or the Tyrrhenians migrated from the north and were descendants of an Alpine tribe known as the Raeti. Livy's History of Rome was in high demand from the time it was published and remained so during the early years of the empire. Pliny the Younger reported that Livy's celebrity

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3906-503: Was so widespread, a man from Cádiz travelled to Rome and back for the sole purpose of meeting him. Livy's work was a source for the later works of Aurelius Victor , Cassiodorus , Eutropius , Festus , Florus , Granius Licinianus and Orosius . Julius Obsequens used Livy, or a source with access to Livy, to compose his De Prodigiis , an account of supernatural events in Rome from the consulship of Scipio and Laelius to that of Paulus Fabius and Quintus Aelius. Livy wrote during

3969-511: Was tedious to copy, expensive, and required a lot of storage space. It must have been during this period, if not before, that manuscripts began to be lost without replacement. The Renaissance was a time of intense revival; the population discovered that Livy's work was being lost and large amounts of money changed hands in the rush to collect Livian manuscripts. The poet Beccadelli sold a country home for funding to purchase one manuscript copied by Poggio . Petrarch and Pope Nicholas V launched

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