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74-627: The small papyrus roll was discovered among the documents of an auxiliary cohort , the Cohors XX Palmyrenorum (Twentieth Cohort of Palmyrenes ), in the Temple of Azzanathkona . The calendar, written in Latin , is arranged in four columns, with some gaps. It offers important evidence for the religious life of the Roman military and the role of Imperial cult in promoting loyalty to

148-517: A circular pattern with half of the strands going clockwise and the other half going anticlockwise. The strands can interlock with either twill or panama (Basked) or seldom plain weave . Kyosev introduced the German notation in English, where the floating length (German: Flechtigkeit) and the number of yarns in a group (German: Fädigkeit) in more natural way for braiding process are used, instead of

222-425: A concept for a ropemaking machine, but it was never built. Remarkable feats of construction were accomplished using rope but without advanced technology: In 1586, Domenico Fontana erected the 327 ton obelisk on Rome's Saint Peter's Square with a concerted effort of 900 men, 75 horses, and countless pulleys and meters of rope. By the late 18th century several working machines had been built and patented. Some rope

296-645: A document written on sheets of such material, joined side by side and rolled up into a scroll , an early form of a book. Papyrus was first known to have been used in Egypt (at least as far back as the First Dynasty ), as the papyrus plant was once abundant across the Nile Delta . It was also used throughout the Mediterranean region. Apart from writing material, ancient Egyptians employed papyrus in

370-413: A far more frequent basis, up to and including before each use. Avoid stepping on climbing rope, as this might force tiny pieces of rock through the sheath, which can eventually deteriorate the core of the rope. Ropes may be flemished into coils on deck for safety, presentation, and tidiness. Many types of filaments in ropes are weakened by corrosive liquids, solvents, and high temperatures. Such damage

444-409: A hard surface with their edges slightly overlapping, and then another layer of strips is laid on top at right angles. The strips may have been soaked in water long enough for decomposition to begin, perhaps increasing adhesion, but this is not certain. The two layers possibly were glued together. While still moist, the two layers were hammered together, mashing the layers into a single sheet. The sheet

518-734: A higher tensile strength , they are more resistant to rotting than ropes created from natural fibres, and they can be made to float on water. But synthetic ropes also possess certain disadvantages, including slipperiness, and some can be damaged more easily by UV light . Common natural fibres for rope are Manila hemp , hemp , linen , cotton , coir , jute , straw , and sisal . Synthetic fibres in use for rope-making include polypropylene , nylon , polyesters (e.g. PET , LCP , Vectran ), polyethylene (e.g. Dyneema and Spectra ), Aramids (e.g. Twaron , Technora and Kevlar ) and acrylics (e.g. Dralon ). Some ropes are constructed of mixtures of several fibres or use co-polymer fibres. Wire rope

592-467: A larger and stronger form. Ropes have tensile strength and so can be used for dragging and lifting. Rope is thicker and stronger than similarly constructed cord, string , and twine . Rope may be constructed of any long, stringy, fibrous material (e.g., rattan , a natural material), but generally is constructed of certain natural or synthetic fibres. Synthetic fibre ropes are significantly stronger than their natural fibre counterparts, they have

666-470: A load over multiple parts of the same rope to increase safety and decrease wear. Winches and capstans are machines designed to pull ropes. The use of ropes for hunting, pulling, fastening, attaching, carrying, lifting, and climbing dates back to prehistoric times. It is likely that the earliest "ropes" were naturally occurring lengths of plant fibre, such as vines, followed soon by the first attempts at twisting and braiding these strands together to form

740-624: A loanword of unknown (perhaps Pre-Greek ) origin. Greek has a second word for it, βύβλος ( byblos ), said to derive from the name of the Phoenician city of Byblos . The Greek writer Theophrastus , who flourished during the 4th century BCE, uses papyros when referring to the plant used as a foodstuff and byblos for the same plant when used for nonfood products, such as cordage, basketry, or writing surfaces. The more specific term βίβλος biblos , which finds its way into English in such words as 'bibliography', 'bibliophile', and 'bible', refers to

814-681: A matter of decades; a 200-year-old papyrus was considered extraordinary. Imported papyrus once commonplace in Greece and Italy has since deteriorated beyond repair, but papyri are still being found in Egypt; extraordinary examples include the Elephantine papyri and the famous finds at Oxyrhynchus and Nag Hammadi . The Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum , containing the library of Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus , Julius Caesar 's father-in-law,

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888-407: A nominal diameter based on the circumference divided by three (as a rough approximation of pi ). In the metric system of measurement, the nominal diameter is given in millimetres. The current preferred international standard for rope sizes is to give the mass per unit length, in kilograms per metre. However, even sources otherwise using metric units may still give a "rope number" for large ropes, which

962-501: A non-rotating alternative to laid three-strand ropes. Due to its excellent energy-absorption characteristics, it is often used by arborists . It is also a popular rope for anchoring and can be used as mooring warps. This type of construction was pioneered by Yale Cordage. Endless winding rope is made by winding single strands of high-performance yarns around two end terminations until the desired break strength or stiffness has been reached. This type of rope (often specified as cable to make

1036-538: A particular advantage; they do not impart an additional twisting force when they are stressed. The lack of added twisting forces is an advantage when a load is freely suspended, as when a rope is used for rappelling or to suspend an arborist . Other specialized cores reduce the shock from arresting a fall when used as a part of a personal or group safety system. Braided ropes are generally made from nylon , polyester , polypropylene or high performance fibres such as high modulus polyethylene (HMPE) and aramid . Nylon

1110-432: A solid braid, (square braid, gasket, or form braid there are at least three or more groups of yarns, interlacing in complex (interlocking) structure. This construction is popular for gaskets and general purpose utility rope but rare in specialized high performance line. Kernmantle rope has a core (kern) of long twisted fibres in the center, with a braided outer sheath or mantle of woven fibres. The kern provides most of

1184-400: Is 5 years. Serious inspection should be given to line after that point. However, the use to which a rope is put affects frequency of inspection. Rope used in mission-critical applications, such as mooring lines or running rigging , should be regularly inspected on a much shorter timescale than this, and rope used in life-critical applications such as mountain climbing should be inspected on

1258-489: Is a material, and a tool. When it is assigned a specific function it is often referred to as a "line", especially in nautical usage. A line may get a further distinction, for example sail control lines are known as "sheets" (e.g. A jib sheet ). A halyard is a line used to raise and lower a sail, typically with a shackle on its sail end. Other maritime examples of "lines" include anchor line, mooring line , fishing line , marline . Common items include clothesline and

1332-427: Is called cable-laid . Cable-laid rope is sometimes clamped to maintain a tight counter-twist rendering the resulting cable virtually waterproof. Without this feature, deep water sailing (before the advent of steel chains and other lines) was largely impossible, as any appreciable length of rope for anchoring or ship to ship transfers, would become too waterlogged – and therefore too heavy – to lift, even with

1406-422: Is chosen for its strength and elastic stretch properties. However, nylon absorbs water and is 10–15% weaker when wet. Polyester is about 90% as strong as nylon but stretches less under load and is not affected by water. It has somewhat better UV resistance, and is more abrasion resistant. Polypropylene is preferred for low cost and light weight (it floats on water) but it has limited resistance to ultraviolet light,

1480-425: Is historically the prevalent form of rope, at least in modern Western history. Common twisted rope generally consists of three strands and is normally right-laid, or given a final right-handed twist. The ISO 2 standard uses the uppercase letters S and Z to indicate the two possible directions of twist, as suggested by the direction of slant of the central portions of these two letters. The handedness of

1554-641: Is intended to be used by itself. These range in thickness from roughly 9 to 11 mm (0.35 to 0.43 in). Smaller diameter ropes are lighter, but wear out faster. Double ropes are thinner than single, usually 9 mm (0.35 in) and under, and are intended for use in pairs. These offer a greater margin of safety against cutting, since it is unlikely that both ropes will be cut, but complicate both belaying and leading. Double ropes may be clipped into alternating pieces of protection, allowing each to stay straighter and reduce both individual and total rope drag. Twin ropes are thin ropes which must be clipped into

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1628-406: Is made by braiding twisted strands, and is also called square braid . It is not as round as twisted rope and coarser to the touch. It is less prone to kinking than twisted rope and, depending on the material, very flexible and therefore easy to handle and knot. This construction exposes all fibres as well, with the same drawbacks as described above. Brait rope is a combination of braided and plaited,

1702-437: Is made of steel or other metal alloys. Ropes have been constructed of other fibrous materials such as silk , wool , and hair, but such ropes are not generally available. Rayon is a regenerated fibre used to make decorative rope. The twist of the strands in a twisted or braided rope serves not only to keep a rope together, but enables the rope to more evenly distribute tension among the individual strands. Without any twist in

1776-507: Is not easily detected visually. Twisted ropes have a preferred direction for coiling. Normal right-laid rope should be coiled clockwise, to prevent kinking. Coiling this way imparts a twist to the rope. Rope of this type must be bound at its ends by some means to prevent untwisting. While rope may be made from three or more strands, modern braided rope consists of a braided (tubular) jacket over strands of fibre (these may also be braided). Some forms of braided rope with untwisted cores have

1850-442: Is of highly rot-resistant cellulose , but storage in humid conditions can result in molds attacking and destroying the material. Library papyrus rolls were stored in wooden boxes and chests made in the form of statues. Papyrus scrolls were organized according to subject or author and identified with clay labels that specified their contents without having to unroll the scroll. In European conditions, papyrus seems to have lasted only

1924-434: Is opposite to that of the strand, and that in turn is opposite to that of the rope. It is this counter-twist, introduced with each successive operation, which holds the final rope together as a stable, unified object. Traditionally, a three strand laid rope is called a plain- or hawser -laid , a four strand rope is called shroud-laid , and a larger rope formed by counter-twisting three or more multi-strand ropes together

1998-414: Is particularly treacherous because it is often invisible to the eye. Shock loading should be avoided with general use ropes, as it can damage them. All ropes should be used within a safe working load, which is much less than their breaking strength. A rope under tension – particularly if it has a great deal of elasticity – can be dangerous if parted. Care should be taken around lines under load. "Rope"

2072-495: Is still made from natural fibres , such as coir and sisal , despite the dominance of synthetic fibres such as nylon and polypropylene , which have become increasingly popular since the 1950s. Nylon was discovered in the late 1930s and was first introduced into fiber ropes during World War II. Indeed, the first synthetic fiber ropes were small braided parachute cords and three-strand tow ropes for gliders, made of nylon during World War II. Laid rope, also called twisted rope,

2146-408: Is suitable for climbing. Climbing ropes cut easily when under load. Keeping them away from sharp rock edges is imperative. Previous falls arrested by a rope, damage to its sheath, and contamination by dirt or solvents all weaken a rope and can render it unsuitable for further sport use. Rock climbing ropes are designated as suitable for single, double or twin use. A single rope is the most common, and

2220-457: Is susceptible to friction and has a poor heat resistance. Braided ropes (and objects like garden hoses , fibre optic or coaxial cables, etc.) that have no lay (or inherent twist) uncoil better if each alternate loop is twisted in the opposite direction, such as in figure-eight coils, where the twist reverses regularly and essentially cancels out. Single braid consists of an even number of strands, eight or twelve being typical, braided into

2294-470: Is the circumference in inches. Rope has been used since prehistoric times. It is of paramount importance in fields as diverse as construction , seafaring , exploration, sports, theatre, and communications. Many types of knots have been developed to fasten with rope, join ropes, and utilize rope to generate mechanical advantage . Pulleys can redirect the pulling force of a rope in another direction, multiply its lifting or pulling power, and distribute

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2368-483: Is the short splice, which doubles the cross-sectional area of the rope at the area of the splice, which would cause problems in running the line through pulleys. Any splices narrow enough to maintain smooth running would be less able to support the required weight. Rope intended for naval use would have a coloured yarn, known as the "rogue's yarn", included in the layup. This enabled the source to be identified and to detect pilfering. Leonardo da Vinci drew sketches of

2442-441: Is used to manufacture items that are sold or used locally. Examples include baskets, hats, fish traps, trays or winnowing mats, and floor mats. Papyrus is also used to make roofs, ceilings, rope, and fences. Although alternatives, such as eucalyptus , are increasingly available, papyrus is still used as fuel. Rope A rope is a group of yarns , plies , fibres , or strands that are twisted or braided together into

2516-414: Is usually coiled. To prevent fraying or unravelling, the ends of a rope are bound with twine ( whipping ), tape, or heat shrink tubing. The ends of plastic fibre ropes are often melted and fused solid; however, the rope and knotting expert Geoffrey Budworth warns against this practice thus: Sealing rope ends this way is lazy and dangerous. A tugboat operator once sliced the palm of his hand open down to

2590-628: The Cambridge Antiquarian Society , one of the Papyri Graecae Magicae V, translated into English with commentary in 1853. Papyrus was made in several qualities and prices. Pliny the Elder and Isidore of Seville described six variations of papyrus that were sold in the Roman market of the day. These were graded by quality based on how fine, firm, white, and smooth the writing surface was. Grades ranged from

2664-630: The Egyptians to move the heavy stones required to build their monuments. Starting from approximately 2800 BC, rope made of hemp fibres was in use in China. Rope and the craft of rope making spread throughout Asia, India, and Europe over the next several thousand years. From the Middle Ages until the 18th century, in Europe ropes were constructed in ropewalks , very long buildings where strands

2738-475: The Hohle Fels cave in south-western Germany has been identified as a means for making rope. It is a 20 cm (8 in) strip of mammoth ivory with four holes drilled through it. Each hole is lined with precisely cut spiral incisions. The grooves on three of the holes spiral in a clockwise direction from each side of the strip. The grooves on one hole spiral clockwise on one side, but counter-clockwise from

2812-587: The Islamic world , which originally learned of it from the Chinese. By the 12th century, parchment and paper were in use in the Byzantine Empire , but papyrus was still an option. Until the middle of the 19th century, only some isolated documents written on papyrus were known, and museums simply showed them as curiosities. They did not contain literary works. The first modern discovery of papyri rolls

2886-548: The Merovingian chancery was with a document from 692 A.D., though it was known in Gaul until the middle of the following century. The latest certain dates for the use of papyrus in Europe are 1057 for a papal decree (typically conservative, all papal bulls were on papyrus until 1022), under Pope Victor II , and 1087 for an Arabic document. Its use in Egypt continued until it was replaced by less expensive paper introduced by

2960-592: The Roman emperor , and for the coexistence of Roman state religion and local religious traditions. Festivals named include Quinquatria (a purification of arms), the birthday of Rome , Neptunalia and two Rosaliae at which the military standards were adorned with roses. The calendar prescribes sacrifices for deities of traditional Roman religion such as the Capitoline triad of Jupiter , Juno , and Minerva , as well as Mars and Vesta . About twenty members of

3034-566: The 18th century, a library of ancient papyri was found in Herculaneum , ripples of expectation spread among the learned men of the time. However, since these papyri were badly charred, their unscrolling and deciphering are still going on today. Papyrus was made from the stem of the papyrus plant, Cyperus papyrus . The outer rind was first removed, and the sticky fibrous inner pith is cut lengthwise into thin strips about 40 cm (16 in) long. The strips were then placed side by side on

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3108-454: The Empire to further military cohesion as well as Roman identity among troops from other cultures. The cache of documents was discovered by a team of archaeologists from Yale University working at Dura-Europos in 1931–32. It was first published by R. O. Fink , A. S. Hooey, and Walter Fifield Snyder (1940), "The Feriale Duranum ," Yale Classical Studies 7: 1–222. In 2011, a facsimile of

3182-419: The aid of a capstan or windlass. One property of laid rope is partial untwisting when used. This can cause spinning of suspended loads, or stretching , kinking , or hockling of the rope itself. An additional drawback of twisted construction is that every fibre is exposed to abrasion numerous times along the length of the rope. This means that the rope can degrade to numerous inch-long fibre fragments, which

3256-440: The caves at Lascaux , dating to approximately 15,000 BC . The ancient Egyptians were probably the first civilization to develop special tools to make rope. Egyptian rope dates back to 4000 to 3500 BC and was generally made of water reed fibres. Other rope in antiquity was made from the fibres of date palms , flax , grass , papyrus , leather , or animal hair. The use of such ropes pulled by thousands of workers allowed

3330-462: The climber. Such ropes are of kernmantle construction, as described below . Conversely, "static" ropes have minimal stretch and are not designed to arrest free falls. They are used in caving, rappelling, rescue applications, and industries such as window washing. The UIAA , in concert with the CEN , sets climbing-rope standards and oversees testing. Any rope bearing a GUIANA or CE certification tag

3404-513: The codex form, and in the Greco-Roman world, it became common to cut sheets from papyrus rolls to form codices. Codices were an improvement on the papyrus scroll, as the papyrus was not pliable enough to fold without cracking, and a long roll, or scroll, was required to create large-volume texts. Papyrus had the advantage of being relatively cheap and easy to produce, but it was fragile and susceptible to both moisture and excessive dryness. Unless

3478-541: The construction of other artifacts , such as reed boats , mats , rope , sandals , and baskets . Papyrus was first manufactured in Egypt as far back as the third millennium BCE. The earliest archaeological evidence of papyrus was excavated in 2012 and 2013 at Wadi al-Jarf , an ancient Egyptian harbor located on the Red Sea coast. These documents, the Diary of Merer , date from c.  2560 –2550 BCE (end of

3552-419: The difference between a braided or twined construction) has the advantage of having no construction stretch as is the case with above constructions. Endless winding is pioneered by SmartRigging and FibreMax. The sport of rock climbing uses what is termed "dynamic" rope , an elastic rope which stretches under load to absorb the energy generated in arresting a fall without creating forces high enough to injure

3626-554: The first proper ropes in the modern sense of the word. The earliest evidence of suspected rope is a very small fragment of three-ply cord from a Neanderthal site dated 50,000 years ago. This item was so small, it was only discovered and described with the help of a high power microscope. It is slightly thicker than the average thumb-nail, and would not stretch from edge-to-edge across a little finger-nail. There are other ways fibres can twist in nature, without deliberate construction. A tool dated between 35,000 and 40,000 years found in

3700-499: The full length of the rope were spread out and then laid up or twisted together to form the rope. The cable length was thus set by the length of the available rope walk. This is related to the unit of length termed cable length . This allowed for long ropes of up to 300 yards (270 m) long or longer to be made. These long ropes were necessary in shipping as short ropes would require splicing to make them long enough to use for sheets and halyards . The strongest form of splicing

3774-407: The imperial family are honored as divi , divinized mortals, including six women and Germanicus , who was never an emperor. Twenty-seven of the forty-three entries that remain legible pertain to Imperial cult. No Eastern mystery religions , which were widely celebrated in the Empire during this period, nor local cults are recorded as an official observance of the army, but the feriale was found in

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3848-637: The incisions cannot impart any twist to the fibres pulled through the holes. Other 15,000-year-old objects with holes with spiral incisions, made from reindeer antler, found across Europe are thought to have been used to manipulate ropes, or perhaps some other purpose. They were originally named " batons ", and thought possibly to have been carried as badges of rank. Impressions of cordage found on fired clay provide evidence of string and rope-making technology in Europe dating back 28,000 years. Fossilized fragments of "probably two-ply laid rope of about 7 mm [0.28 in] diameter" were found in one of

3922-484: The inner bark of the papyrus plant. Papyrus is also the etymon of 'paper', a similar substance. In the Egyptian language , papyrus was called wadj ( w3ḏ ), tjufy ( ṯwfy ) , or djet ( ḏt ). The word for the material papyrus is also used to designate documents written on sheets of it, often rolled up into scrolls. The plural for such documents is papyri. Historical papyri are given identifying names – generally

3996-440: The long strip scrolls required, several such sheets were united and placed so all the horizontal fibres parallel with the roll's length were on one side and all the vertical fibres on the other. Normally, texts were first written on the recto , the lines following the fibres, parallel to the long edges of the scroll. Secondarily, papyrus was often reused, writing across the fibres on the verso . One source used for determining

4070-416: The method by which papyrus was created in antiquity is through the examination of tombs in the ancient Egyptian city of Thebes , which housed a necropolis containing many murals displaying the process of papyrus-making. The Roman commander Pliny the Elder also describes the methods of preparing papyrus in his Naturalis Historia . In a dry climate , like that of Egypt, papyrus is stable, formed as it

4144-886: The name of the discoverer, first owner, or institution where they are kept – and numbered, such as " Papyrus Harris I ". Often an abbreviated form is used, such as "pHarris I". These documents provide important information on ancient writings; they give us the only extant copy of Menander , the Egyptian Book of the Dead , Egyptian treatises on medicine (the Ebers Papyrus ) and on surgery (the Edwin Smith papyrus ), Egyptian mathematical treatises (the Rhind papyrus ), and Egyptian folk tales (the Westcar Papyrus ). When, in

4218-425: The other side. Plant fibres have been found on it that could have come from when they fed through the holes and the tool twisted, creating a single ply yarn. Fiber-making experiments with a replica found that the perforations served as effective guides for raw fibers, making it easier to make a strong, elastic rope than simply twisting fibers by hand spiral incisions would have tended to keep the fibres in place. But

4292-615: The papyrus was of perfect quality, the writing surface was irregular, and the range of media that could be used was also limited. Papyrus was gradually overtaken in Europe by a rival writing surface that rose in prominence known as parchment , which was made from animal skins . By the beginning of the fourth century A.D., the most important books began to be manufactured in parchment, and works worth preserving were transferred from papyrus to parchment. Parchment had significant advantages over papyrus, including higher durability in moist climates and being more conducive to writing on both sides of

4366-519: The partial document was part of the Dura-Europos exhibition at Boston College, and it contained the following translation: Papyrus Papyrus ( / p ə ˈ p aɪ r ə s / pə- PY -rəs ) is a material similar to thick paper that was used in ancient times as a writing surface . It was made from the pith of the papyrus plant, Cyperus papyrus , a wetland sedge . Papyrus (plural: papyri or papyruses ) can also refer to

4440-418: The pattern names in weaving. The central void may be large or small; in the former case the term hollow braid is sometimes preferred. Double braid, also called braid on braid, consists of an inner braid filling the central void in an outer braid, that may be of the same or different material. Often the inner braid fibre is chosen for strength while the outer braid fibre is chosen for abrasion resistance. In

4514-514: The reign of Khufu ). The papyrus rolls describe the last years of building the Great Pyramid of Giza . For multiple millennia, papyrus was commonly rolled into scrolls as a form of storage. However, at some point late in its history, papyrus began being collected together in the form of codices akin to the modern book. This may have been mimicking the book-form of codices created with parchment . Early Christian writers soon adopted

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4588-423: The rope, the shortest strand(s) would always be supporting a much higher proportion of the total load. Because rope has a long history, many systems have been used to specify the size of a rope. In systems that use the inch ( Imperial and US customary measurement systems ), large ropes over 1 inch (25.4 mm) diameter – such as those used on ships – are measured by their circumference in inches; smaller ropes have

4662-433: The same piece of protection, in effect being treated as a single strand. This adds security in situations where a rope may get cut. However new lighter-weight ropes with greater safety have virtually replaced this type of rope. The butterfly and alpine coils are methods of coiling a rope for carrying. Rope made from hemp , cotton or nylon is generally stored in a cool dry place for proper storage. To prevent kinking it

4736-419: The sinews after the hardened (and obviously sharp ) end of a rope that had been heat-sealed pulled through his grasp. There is no substitute for a properly made whipping. If a load-bearing rope gets a sharp or sudden jolt or the rope shows signs of deteriorating, it is recommended that the rope be replaced immediately and should be discarded or only used for non-load-bearing tasks. The average rope life-span

4810-419: The strength (about 70%), while the mantle protects the kern and determines the handling properties of the rope (how easy it is to hold, to tie knots in, and so on). In dynamic climbing line , core fibres are usually twisted to make the rope more elastic. Static kernmantle ropes are made with untwisted core fibres and tighter braid, which causes them to be stiffer in addition to limiting the stretch. Plaited rope

4884-408: The superfine Augustan, which was produced in sheets of 13 digits (10 inches) wide, to the least expensive and most coarse, measuring six digits (four inches) wide. Materials deemed unusable for writing or less than six digits were considered commercial quality and were pasted edge to edge to be used only for wrapping. The English word "papyrus" derives, via Latin , from Greek πάπυρος ( papyros ),

4958-488: The surface. The main advantage of papyrus had been its cheaper raw material — the papyrus plant is easy to cultivate in a suitable climate and produces more writing material than animal hides (the most expensive books, made from foetal vellum would take up to dozens of bovine fetuses to produce). However, as trade networks declined, the availability of papyrus outside the range of the papyrus plant became limited and it thus lost its cost advantage. Papyrus' last appearance in

5032-481: The temple with a dipinto depicting a Roman officer offering incense to the local deity Iarḥibol , and Romans, including a standard-bearer with the cohort's vexillum , standing before the altar of the Syrian gods Iarḥibol, Aglibol and Arṣu . It has also been argued that the three gods represent the emperors Pupienus , Balbinus , and Gordian III . A copy of the calendar may have been issued to each unit throughout

5106-556: The tourist trade was developed in 1962 by the Egyptian engineer Hassan Ragab using plants that had been reintroduced into Egypt in 1872 from France. Both Sicily and Egypt have centres of limited papyrus production. Papyrus is still used by communities living in the vicinity of swamps, to the extent that rural householders derive up to 75% of their income from swamp goods. Particularly in East and Central Africa, people harvest papyrus, which

5180-403: The twist is the direction of the twists as they progress away from an observer. Thus Z-twist rope is said to be right-handed , and S-twist to be left-handed. Twisted ropes are built up in three steps. First, fibres are gathered and spun into yarns . A number of these yarns are then formed into strands by twisting . The strands are then twisted together to lay the rope. The twist of the yarn

5254-579: The wild. During the 1920s, when Egyptologist Battiscombe Gunn lived in Maadi , outside Cairo, he experimented with the manufacture of papyrus, growing the plant in his garden. He beat the sliced papyrus stalks between two layers of linen and produced successful examples of papyrus, one of which was exhibited in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. The modern technique of papyrus production used in Egypt for

5328-570: Was made at Herculaneum in 1752. Until then, the only papyri known had been a few surviving from medieval times. Scholarly investigations began with the Dutch historian Caspar Jacob Christiaan Reuvens (1793–1835). He wrote about the content of the Leyden papyrus , published in 1830. The first publication has been credited to the British scholar Charles Wycliffe Goodwin (1817–1878), who published for

5402-472: Was preserved by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius but has only been partially excavated. Sporadic attempts to revive the manufacture of papyrus have been made since the mid-18th century. Scottish explorer James Bruce experimented in the late 18th century with papyrus plants from Sudan , for papyrus had become extinct in Egypt. Also in the 18th century, Sicilian Saverio Landolina manufactured papyrus at Syracuse , where papyrus plants had continued to grow in

5476-472: Was then dried under pressure. After drying, the sheet was polished with a rounded object, possibly a stone, seashell , or round hardwood. Sheets, or Mollema, could be cut to fit the obligatory size or glued together to create a longer roll. The point where the Mollema are joined with glue is called the kollesis. A wooden stick would be attached to the last sheet in a roll, making it easier to handle. To form

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