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87-574: The "Five Black Categories" were: Note that "right-wingers" or "rightists" were included as a "black category" starting from the Anti-rightist Campaign in 1957. During the Cultural Revolution , the original five categories were expanded to nine categories, further including traitors, spies, capitalist roaders , and intellectuals (" Stinking Old Ninth "). Conversely, Mao categorized groups of people, such as members of

174-655: A centralized government. The process by which farmland is aggregated is called collectivization . In some countries (including the Soviet Union , the Eastern Bloc countries, China and Vietnam ), there have been both state-run and cooperative-run variants. For example, the Soviet Union had both kolkhozy (cooperative-run farms) and sovkhozy (state-run farms). Under the Aztec Empire , central Mexico

261-573: A degree of participation, also lured those whose primary interests were not the common good to the Ujamaa villages. This, in addition to the Order of 1973 dictating that all people had to live in villages ( Operation Vijiji ) eroded the sustainability of communal projects. In order for the communal farms to be successful, each member of the village would have to contribute to the best of their ability. Due to lack of sufficient foreign exchange, mechanization of

348-458: A gradual and integrated process of moving from one form of society to another, Romanian society in the Soviet orbit was being completely rearticulated, a process in which violence was inevitable." On the other hand, as Kligman and Verdery explain, "Collectivization brought undeniable benefits to some rural inhabitants, especially those who had owned little or no land. It freed them from laboring on

435-428: A lack of fertile land, and government mismanagement, often causing the nation to rely on foreign aid as its primary source of food. The Democratic Republic of Vietnam implemented collective farming although de jure private ownership existed. Starting in 1958 collective farming was pushed such that by 1960, 85% of farmers and 70% of farmlands were collectivized including those seized by force. Collectivization however

522-617: A period of 20 years while also sharing in the fruits of the CPA. Joining a CPA allowed individuals who were previously dispersed throughout the countryside to move to a centralized location with increased access to electricity, medical care, housing, and schools. Democratic practice tends to be limited to business decisions and is constrained by the centralized economic planning of the Cuban system. Another type of agricultural production cooperative in Cuba

609-671: A speech by Jiang Qing , who was his wife and Party's senior leader, "If good people beat bad people, it serves them right; if bad people beat good people, the good people achieve glory; if good people beat good people, it is a misunderstanding; without beatings, you do not get acquainted and then no longer need to beat them" ( Walder 149). Members of the Black Classes were systematically discriminated against, as one's classification could affect employment opportunities and career prospects and even marriage opportunities. This could also be passed onto their children. Over time this resulted in

696-670: A victimized underclass that was treated as if it were still composed of powerful and dominant people. Majority of the members of the Five Black Categories were rehabilitated during the Boluan Fanzheng period after the Cultural Revolution. Most " rightists " who had been persecuted since the Anti-rightist Campaign in 1957 were rehabilitated, except for around 100 "rightists" including Zhang Bojun , Luo Longji , Chu Anping and so on. In addition to

783-444: A village government and a cooperative. Arable land was divided into sections based on soil quality and distance from the village. Each household had the right to claim one or more strips from each section depending on the number of adults in the household. The purpose of this allocation was not so much social (to each according to his needs) as it was practical (that each person pay his taxes). Strips were periodically re-allocated on

870-491: Is UBPC – Unidad Básica de Producción Cooperativa (Basic Unit of Cooperative Production). The law authorizing the creation of UBPCs was passed on 20 September 1993. It has been used to transform many state farms into UBPCs, similar to the transformation of Russian sovkhozes (state farms) into kolkhozes (collective farms) since 1992. The law granted indefinite usufruct to the workers of the UBPC in line with its goal of linking

957-742: The Chinese Communist Party , poor farmers and low class workers, as Five Red Categories . This new Red/Black class distinction was used to create a status society. Starting from the " Red August " of 1966 in Beijing , members in the Five Black Categories were separated out for struggle sessions , humiliation, re-education , beating, and persecution. Many of them were killed by the Red Guards and others. Mao believed that victimizing these people, as well as other groups of citizens – such as teachers, educated intellectuals, and enemies of

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1044-509: The People's Republic of China , which lasted from 1957 to roughly 1959, was a political campaign to purge alleged " Rightists " within the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the country as a whole. The campaign was launched by Chairman Mao Zedong , but Deng Xiaoping and Peng Zhen also played an important role. The Anti-Rightist Campaign significantly damaged democracy in China and turned

1131-740: The new socialist government . The first phase involved a confiscation of properties of Germans , Hungarians , and collaborators with the Nazi regime in accordance with the so-called Beneš decrees . The second phase, promulgated by so-called Ďuriš's laws (after the Communist Minister of Agriculture), in fact meant a complete revision of the pre-war land reform and tried to reduce maximal private property to 150 hectares (370 acres) of agricultural land and 250 hectares (620 acres) of any land. The third and final phase forbade possession of land above 50 hectares (120 acres) for one family. This phase

1218-471: The "rightists", official statistics show that by 1984 around 4.4 million "landlords" and "rich farmers" had been rehabilitated, and a total of more than 20 million people who were labelled as members of the "four black categories" or their families had received rectification in their social status. Anti-Rightist Campaign The Anti-Rightist Campaign ( simplified Chinese : 反右运动 ; traditional Chinese : 反右運動 ; pinyin : Fǎnyòu Yùndòng ) in

1305-643: The CCP should take turns to rule with the democratic parties and open " Hyde Park " for public debate. The first wave of attacks began immediately as the Hundred Flowers Campaign drew to a close in June 1957. At the time, Mao began to view criticism during the Hundred Flowers as a threat to the rule of the party. In mid-May, Mao began writing Things Are Beginning to Change , an article that

1392-538: The Communist Party (cadres) – was a necessary component to initiate the changes in the Chinese culture that he desired. He believed that those who were victimized either deserved it or became better citizens as a result of it. In general, intellectuals were called the " Stinking Old Ninth ". Effectively, within a few years, the education and medical infrastructure of China was completely destroyed. According to

1479-507: The LPG were introduced in 1953. After 1959 all farmers were required to surrender independently owned land and join the LPGs. Similarly to the Soviet Union, ultimately most of the land was transferred into de jure or de facto state controlled entities with the former farmers becoming employees – now of the state instead of the erstwhile Junker class. The Polish name of a collective farm

1566-536: The Soviet collectivization. Like Professor Barry Naughton , she observes that China's collectivization proceeded smoothly in part because, unlike the Soviet experience, a network of state institutions already existed in the countryside. Similarly, Professor Edward Friedman describes China's collectivization process as a "miracle of miracles". During 1954–1955, farmers in many areas began pooling their land, capital resources, and labor into beginning-level agricultural producers' cooperatives ( chuji nongye hezuoshe ). In

1653-646: The Spanish conquered Mexico they replaced this with a system of estates granted by the Spanish crown to Spanish colonists , as well as the encomienda , a feudal-like right of overlordship colonists were given in particular villages, and the repartimiento or system of indigenous forced labor . Following the Mexican Revolution , a new constitution in 1917 abolished any remnant of feudal-like rights hacienda owners had over common lands and offered

1740-609: The State Planning Commission, was purged in 1958. Most of the accused were intellectuals. The penalties included informal criticism, hard labor , and in some cases, execution . For example, Jiabiangou , a notable labor camp in Gansu , held approximately 3,000 political prisoners from 1957 to 1961, of whom about 2,500 died, mostly of starvation. One main target was the independent legal system . Legal professionals were transferred to other jobs; judicial power

1827-517: The USSR is debatable. A Soviet article in March 1975 found that 27% of the total value of Soviet agricultural produce was produced by privately farmed plots despite the fact that they only consisted of less than 1% of arable land (approximately 20 million acres), making them roughly 40 times more efficient than collective farms. In 1935, the establishment of Personal Subsidiary Farms (LPH) on collective land

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1914-503: The USSR's communist blueprint. These attempts often fell short. By strictly adhering to this Soviet blueprint, the implementation of communism in Romania inevitably created dilemmas and contributions that led to violence. Kligman and Verdery state "The violence collectivization, emerges then, less, as an abhoration than as a product of sociocultural shaping and of deep problems with how the soviet blueprint came to be implemented... instead of

2001-528: The Vietnamese communists banned other political parties, arrested suspects believed to have collaborated with the United States and embarked on a mass campaign of collectivization of farms and factories. Private land ownership was "transformed" to subsume under State and collective ownership. Reconstruction of the war-ravaged country was slow and serious humanitarian and economic problems confronted

2088-633: The adoption of collective farming was also driven by communist government policies. Leon Trotsky and the Opposition bloc had originally advocated a programme of industrialization which also proposed agricultural cooperatives and the formation of collective farms on a voluntary basis. According to Sheila Fitzpatrick , the scholarly consensus was that Stalin appropriated the position of the Left Opposition on such matters as industrialisation and collectivisation . Other scholars have argued

2175-515: The basis of a census, to ensure equitable share of the land. This was enforced by the state, which had an interest in the ability of households to pay their taxes. The Soviet Union introduced collective farming in its constituent republics between 1927 and 1933. The Baltic states and most of the Eastern Bloc (except Poland ) adopted collective farming after World War II , with the accession of communist regimes to power. In Asia ( People's Republic of China , North Korea , Laos , and Vietnam )

2262-627: The campaign resulted in the political persecution of at least 550,000 people. Some researchers believe that the actual number of persecuted is between 1 and 2 million or even higher. Deng Xiaoping admitted that there were mistakes during the Anti-Rightist Campaign, and most victims have received rehabilitation since 1959. The Anti-Rightist Campaign was a reaction against the Hundred Flowers Campaign which had promoted pluralism of expression and criticism of

2349-657: The chairman felt obliged to write to him. Mao urged Deng Xiaoping to slow down the campaign's body count, saying: If we kill too many, we will forfeit public sympathy and a shortage of labor power will arise. In a 2018 study by Zhaojin Zeng and Joshua Eisenman, analysing 144 counties within Anhui , Henan , and Jiangsu , it was found that the economic harm caused by the Anti-Rightist campaign continued for decades, even into 2000, compounded by existing issues with human capital at

2436-435: The collective farming method. From this time, nearly all Chinese crops began to blossom, not just grain. The reform included the removal of land from rich land owners for use of agricultural land for peasants, but not ownership. This policy increased production and helped reverse the effects of The Great Leap Forward. The two main reasons why China succeeded was because 1) the government chose to make gradual changes, which kept

2523-579: The communist regime. In an historic shift in 1986, the Communist Party of Vietnam implemented free-market reforms known as Đổi Mới ( Renovation ). With the authority of the state remaining unchallenged, private enterprise, deregulation and foreign investment were encouraged. Land ownership nonetheless is the sole prerogative of the state. The economy of Vietnam has achieved rapid growth in agricultural and industrial production, construction and housing, exports and foreign investment. However,

2610-533: The complex system of beginning-level agricultural producers' cooperatives, farmers received a share of the harvest based on a combination of how much labor and how much land they contributed to the cooperative. By June 1956, over 60% of rural households had been collectivized into higher-level agricultural producers' cooperatives ( gaoji nongye hezuoshe ), a structure that was similar to Soviet collective farmering via kolkhozy . In these cooperatives, tens of households pooled land and draft animals. Adult members of

2697-511: The convictions were revoked during the Boluan Fanzheng period. At that time, under leader Deng Xiaoping , the government announced that it needed capitalists' experience to get the country moving economically, and subsequently the guilty verdicts of thousands of counterrevolutionary cases were overturned — affecting many of those accused of rightism and who had been persecuted for that crime the previous twenty two years. This came despite

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2784-420: The cooperative were credited with work points based on how much labor they had provided at which tasks. At the end of the year, the collective deducted taxes and fixed-price sales to the state, and the cooperative retained seed for the next year as well as some investment and welfare funds. The collective then distributed to the households the remainder of the harvest and some of the money received from sales to

2871-428: The cooperatives had problems competing with technologically advanced foreign competition and were unable to obtain investment to improve their situation. Quite a large percentage of them collapsed. The others that remained were typically insufficiently funded, lacking competent management, without new machinery and living from day to day. Employment in the agricultural sector dropped significantly (from approximately 25% of

2958-426: The country into a de facto one-party state . The definition of rightists was not always consistent, often including critics to the left of the government, but officially referred to those intellectuals who appeared to favor capitalism , or were against one-party rule as well as forcible, state-run collectivization . According to China's official statistics published during the " Boluan Fanzheng " period,

3045-401: The creation of Ujamaa Villages . Since the majority of the rural population was spread out, and agriculture was traditionally undertaken individually, the rural population had to be forced to move together, to farm communally. Following forced migration, incentive to participate in communal farming activities was encouraged by government recognition. These incentives, in addition to encouraging

3132-553: The development of ejidos : communal farms formed on land purchased from the large estates by the Mexican government . The Huron had an essentially communal system of land ownership. The French Catholic missionary Gabriel Sagard described the fundamentals. The Huron had "as much land as they need[ed]." As a result, the Huron could give families their own land and still have a large amount of excess land owned communally. Any Huron

3219-745: The dominant form of rural collectivization in China. During The Great Leap Forward , the Mao Zedong -led Communist Party rapidly convert the Chinese economy to a socialist society through rapid industrialization and large scale collectivization. Later, the country was hit by massive floods and droughts. This, combined with the usage of severely flawed policies of Lysenkoism and the Four Pests Campaign , caused " The Great Chinese Famine of 1959," where nearly 30 million people died of hunger. The party officially blamed floods and droughts for

3306-473: The early 1950s, only one-quarter of peasants had agreed to join cooperatives. In the spring of 1955 the drive for collectivization was renewed, again using physical force to encourage membership, but this second wave also ended in dismal failure. After the events of the 1956 Hungarian Revolution , the ruling Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party opted for a more gradual collectivization drive. The main wave of collectivization occurred between 1959 and 1961, and at

3393-644: The early 1960s because of the Soviet leadership's focus on a policy of Russification of Moldavians into the Russian way of life . Much of the collectivization in Moldova had undergone in Transnistria , in Chişinău , the present-day capital city of Moldova. Most of the directors who regulated and conducted the process of collectivization were placed by officials from Moscow. The efficiency of collective farms in

3480-445: The economic programme of Trotsky differed from the forced policy of collectivisation implemented by Stalin after 1928 due to the levels of brutality associated with its enforcement. As part of the first five-year plan , forced collectivization was introduced in the Soviet Union by general secretary Joseph Stalin in the late 1920s as a way, according to the policies of socialist leaders, to boost agricultural production through

3567-687: The end of this period more than 95% of agricultural land in Hungary had become the property of collective farms. In February 1961, the Central Committee declared that collectivization had been completed. In Czechoslovakia , centralized land reforms after World War I allowed for the distribution of most of the land to peasants and the poor, and created large groups of relatively well-to-do farmers (though village poor still existed). These groups showed no support for communist ideals. In 1945, immediately after World War II, new land reform started with

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3654-634: The ensuing riots in Poland and Hungary , had a large impact on China, where similar social unrest began to take place. During the Hundred Flowers Movement, some ideas that were not tolerated by the Party were gradually raised. Some people claimed that "now the students are on the streets and the citizens are following them", "the situation is very serious", "Chairman Mao and the others can't go on, it's time for them to step down"; and that

3741-401: The expense involved, and the soil became heavily polluted with chemicals. Also, the intensive use of heavy machinery damaged topsoil. Furthermore, the cooperatives were infamous for over-employment. In the late 1970s, the economy of Czechoslovakia entered into stagnation , and the state-owned companies were unable to deal with advent of modern technologies. A few agricultural companies (where

3828-529: The fact that Deng Xiaoping and Peng Zhen were among the most enthusiastic prosecutors of the movement during the "First Wave" of 1957. In 2009, leading up the 60th anniversary of the PRC's founding, a number of media outlets in China listed the most significant events of 1957 but downplayed or omitted reference to the Anti-Rightist Movement. Websites were reportedly notified by authorities that

3915-455: The famine; however, it was clear to the party members at the party meetings that famine was caused mostly by their own policies. Recent studies also demonstrate that it was career incentives within the politburo system as well as political radicalism that led to the great famine. Collectivization of land via the commune system facilitated China's rapid industrialization through the state's control of food production and procurement. This allowed

4002-450: The fields of others, and it increased their control over wages, lending to their daily existence a stability previously unknown to them." Collective farms in the People's Republic of Bulgaria , introduced in 1945, were called Labour Cooperative Agricultural Farm ( Bulgarian : Трудово кооперативно земеделско стопанство , romanized :  Trudovo kooperativno zemedelsko stopanstvo ). In Hungary , agricultural collectivization

4089-566: The government, even though initiation of both campaigns was controlled by Mao Zedong and were integrally connected. Going perhaps as far back as the Long March there had been resentment against "rightists" inside the CCP, for example, Zhang Bojun . While the Hundred Flowers Movement was going on, in 1956, Khrushchev published the On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences , which along with

4176-561: The households every few years, and a clan could request a redistribution of tracts when the Clan Mothers ' Council gathered. Those clans that abused their allocated land or otherwise did not take care of it would be warned and eventually punished by the Clan Mothers' Council by having the land redistributed to another clan. Land property was really only the concern of the women, since it was the women's job to cultivate food and not

4263-487: The initial years that followed the Cuban Revolution , government authorities experimented with agricultural and farming production cooperatives. Between 1977 and 1983, farmers began to collectivize into CPAs – Cooperativa de Producción Agropecuaria (Agricultural Production Cooperatives). Farmers were encouraged to sell their land to the state for the establishment of a cooperative farm, receiving payments for

4350-545: The labour was impossible, therefore it was essential that every villager contributed to manual labour. In the European Union , collective farming is fairly common and agricultural cooperatives hold a 40% market share among the 27 member states . In the Netherlands , cooperative agriculture holds a market share of approximately 70%, second only to Finland . In France , cooperative agriculture represents 40% of

4437-509: The late 1990s, the collective farming system collapsed under a strain of droughts . Estimates of deaths due to starvation ranged into the millions, although the government did not allow outside observers to survey the extent of the famine. Aggravating the severity of the famine, the government was accused of diverting international relief supplies to its armed forces. Agriculture in North Korea has suffered tremendously from natural disasters,

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4524-576: The low wage working class began to be known worldwide, increasing the Chinese FDI. A 2017 study found that Chinese peasants slaughtered massive numbers of draft animals as a response to collectivization, as this would allow them to keep the meat and hide, and not transfer the draft animals to the collectives. The study estimates that "the animal loss during the movement was 12 to 15 percent, or 7.4-9.5 million dead. Grain output dropped by 7 percent due to lower animal inputs and lower productivity." In

4611-474: The meanings)) or Selskoye obshestvo (Russian: сельское общество ("Rural community", official term in the 19th and 20th century) were peasant communities, as opposed to individual farmsteads, or khutors , in Imperial Russia . The term derives from the word о́бщий, obshchiy (common). The vast majority of Russian peasants held their land in communal ownership within a mir community, which acted as

4698-407: The men's. The Clan Mothers' Council also reserved certain areas of land to be worked by the women of all the different clans. Food from such lands, called kěndiǔ"gwǎ'ge' hodi'yěn'tho , would be used at festivals and large council gatherings. The obshchina (Russian: общи́на , IPA: [ɐpˈɕːinə] , literally: " commune ") or mir (Russian: мир , literally: "society" (one of

4785-431: The monopoly of the Chinese Communist Party and 2) because the reform process began from the bottom and later expanded to the top. Throughout the reform process, the Communist Party reacted positively to the bottom-up reform initiatives that emerged from the rural population. Deng Xiaoping described the reform process as "fording the river by feeling for the stones". This statement refers to the Chinese people who called for

4872-460: The needs of the populace. This system was largely abolished in the 1950s. See: Law of 23 August 1945 with amendments until 1 December 1948. At the end of the Land Reform movement , individual families in China owned the land they farmed, paid taxes as households, and sold grain at prices set by the state. Rural collectivization began soon after the CCP announced its 1953 "general line for

4959-441: The organization of land and labor into large-scale collective farms ( kolkhozy ). At the same time, Joseph Stalin argued that collectivization would free poor peasants from economic servitude under the kulaks (farmland owners). The Soviet Communist Party resorted to the execution and mass deportation of defiant kulaks to Siberia in order to implement the plan (see: Dekulakization ). The centuries-old system of farming

5046-478: The party secretaries were local to the area. Negative correlations between the famine of the Great Leap Forward and China's economic performance in 1982 were also found, and distinguished from the Anti-Rightist Campaign, confirming a 2017 study by Elizabeth Gooch; additionally, it was found that the effects were more significant compared to the Cultural Revolution . After Mao's death in 1976, many of

5133-427: The placement of corn storage vessels in the longhouses , which contained multiple families in one kinship group, suggests the occupants of a given longhouse held all production in common. The Iroquois had a similar communal system of land distribution. The tribe owned all lands but gave out tracts to the different clans for further distribution among households for cultivation. The land would be redistributed among

5220-543: The population to approximately 1%). Collective farms in the German Democratic Republic were typically called Landwirtschaftliche Produktionsgenossenschaft (LPG), and corresponded closely to the Soviet kolkhoz. East Germany also had a few state-owned farms which were equivalent to the Soviet sovkhoz , which were called the Volkseigenes Gut (VEG). The structure of farms in what

5307-670: The power of the Communist Party of Vietnam over all organs of government remains firm, preventing full land ownership. Conflicts between the state and private farmers over land rights have grown with the potential to spark social and political instability. Despite the reforms however, over 50% of all farms in Vietnam remain collective cooperatives (over 15,000 farming cooperatives in Vietnam), and almost all farmers being members of some kind of cooperative. The state also heavily encourages collective cooperative farming over private farming. In

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5394-400: The reforms they wanted by "placing the stones at his feet" and he would then just approve the reforms the people wanted. The peasants started their own "household responsibility system" apart from the government. After Chinese trade was privately deemed successful, all Deng had to do was approve its legalization. This increased competition between farmers domestically and internationally, meaning

5481-427: The remaining private farmers; only a handful of them remained after the 1960s. The lifestyle of villagers had eventually reached the level of cities, and village poverty was eliminated. Czechoslovakia was again able to produce enough food for its citizens. The price of this success was a huge waste of resources because the cooperatives had no incentive to improve efficiency. Every piece of land was cultivated regardless of

5568-476: The rules were less strict than in state companies) used this situation to start providing high-tech products. For example, the only way to buy a PC-compatible computer in the late 1980s was to get it (for an extremely high price) from one agricultural company acting as a reseller. After the fall of communism in Czechoslovakia in 1989 subsidies to agriculture were halted with devastating effect. Most of

5655-462: The small peasant landholder stage that had followed land reform elsewhere in China. Central Tibet was under the joint administration of the People's Liberation Army and the Dalai Lama's theocracy until 1959, and consequently did not experience land reform or collectivization until 1960 in agricultural areas and 1966 in pastoral areas. After the death of Mao Zedong , Deng Xiaoping reformed

5742-413: The state to accelerate the process of capital accumulation , ultimately laying the successful foundation of physical and human capital for the economic growth of China's reform and opening up . During the early and middle 1950s, collectivization was an important factor in the major change in Chinese agriculture during that period, the dramatic increase in irrigated land. For example, collectivization

5829-523: The state. The distribution was based partly on work points accrued by the adult members of a household, and partly at a standard rate by age and sex. These cooperatives also lent small amounts of land back to households individually on which the households could grow crops to consume directly or sell at market. Apart from the large-scale communization during the Great Leap Forward, higher-level agricultural producers' collective were generally

5916-401: The time. The higher the percentage of the population were declared Rightists, the worse the economic outcomes would be in each county. Literacy rates were affected well into 1982, and academic performance at the high school level, as well as in compulsory education, continued to be affected into 2000. Counties that were previously Laoqu were found to have purged fewer Rightists than others because

6003-448: The topic of the movement was extremely sensitive. Collectivization Collective farming and communal farming are various types of "agricultural production in which multiple farmers run their holdings as a joint enterprise". There are two broad types of communal farms: agricultural cooperatives , in which member-owners jointly engage in farming activities as a collective ; and state farms, which are owned and directly run by

6090-455: The transition to socialism". Over the next six years, collectivization took several incrementally progressing forms: mutual aid groups, primitive cooperatives, and people's communes. As London School of Economics and Political Science Professor Lin Chun notes, researchers agree that communization proceeded on a largely voluntary basis that avoided both the violence and sabotage that occurred during

6177-503: The workers to the land. It established material incentives for increased production by tying workers' earnings to the overall production of the UBPC, and increased managerial autonomy and workers' participation in the management of the workplace. The move to a collective farming method in Tanzania was based on the Soviet model for rural development. In 1967, President Julius Nyerere issued "Socialism and Rural Development" which proposed

6264-456: The working class and the Communist Party in an attempt to overthrow the state power led by the working class." On the same day, People's Daily published an editorial What is this for? , expressing the same view as the inner-party document. These marked the beginning of the Anti-Rightist Campaign. By the end of the year, 300,000 people had been labeled as rightists, including the writer Ding Ling . Future premier Zhu Rongji , then working in

6351-822: Was rolnicza spółdzielnia produkcyjna , 'agricultural production cooperative'. Collectivisation in Poland was stopped in 1956; later, nationalisation was supported. Collective farming was introduced as a League of Communists of Yugoslavia government policy throughout the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia after World War II , by taking away land from wealthy pre-war owners and limiting possessions in private ownership first to 25, and later to 10 hectares. The large, state-owned farms were known as "Agricultural cooperatives" ( zemljoradničke zadruge in Serbo-Croatian ) and farmers working on them had to meet production quotas in order to satisfy

6438-477: Was a factor that contributed to the introduction of double cropping in the south, a labor-intensive process which greatly increased agricultural yields. Both land reform movement and collectivization largely left in place the social systems in the ethnic minority group areas of Chinese Central Asia and Zomia . These areas generally underwent collectivization in the form of agricultural producers' cooperatives during winter of 1957 through 1958, having skipped

6525-426: Was allowed- in the range of .25-1 hectare. Private cattle ownership existed after 1935, but was severely restricted by decree in 1956. In Romania , land collectivization began in 1948 and continued for over more than a decade until its virtual eradication in 1962. In Romania, force sometimes had to be used to enforce collective agricultural practices. Collective farming in Romania was an attempt to implement

6612-475: Was attempted a number of times between 1948 and 1956 (with disastrous results), until it was finally successful in the early 1960s under János Kádár . The first serious attempt at collectivization based on Stalinist agricultural policy was undertaken in July 1948. Both economic and direct police pressure were used to coerce peasants to join cooperatives , but large numbers opted instead to leave their villages. By

6699-598: Was called East Elbia until German partition was dominated by latifundia , and thus the land reform which was justified on denazification grounds and with the aim of destroying the Prussian Junker class – which had been hated by the left during the Weimar Republic and which was blamed for Prussian militarism and the authoritarian tendencies of the German Empire and later Nazi Germany –

6786-486: Was carried out in April 1948, two months after the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia took power by force . Farms started to be collectivized, mostly under the threat of sanctions. The most obstinate farmers were persecuted and imprisoned. The most common form of collectivization was agricultural cooperative ( Czech : Jednotné zemědělské družstvo , JZD; Slovak : Jednotné roľnícke družstvo , JRD). The collectivization

6873-537: Was common, and food became scarce. Seeing the massive outflow of people from agriculture into cities, the government started to massively subsidize the cooperatives in order to make the standard of living of farmers equal to that of city inhabitants; this was the long-term official policy of the government. Funds, machinery, and fertilizers were provided; young people from villages were forced to study agriculture; and students were regularly sent (involuntarily) to help in cooperatives. Subsidies and constant pressure destroyed

6960-556: Was destroyed in Ukraine. In 1932–1933, an estimated 11 million people, 3–7 million in Ukraine alone, died from famine after Stalin forced the peasants into collectives (see: Holodomor ). It was not until 1940 that agricultural production finally surpassed its pre-collectivization levels. Collectivization throughout the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic was not aggressively pursued until

7047-421: Was divided into small territories called calpulli , which were units of local administration concerned with farming as well as education and religion. A calpulli consisted of a number of large extended families with a presumed common ancestor , themselves each composed of a number of nuclear families. Each calpulli owned the land and granted the individual families the right to farm parts of it each day. When

7134-495: Was exercised instead by political cadres and the police. The second part of the campaign followed the Lushan Conference of July 2 – August 16, 1959, a meeting of top party leaders. The meeting condemned the PRC's defense minister , General Peng Dehuai , a critic of the Great Leap Forward . Administering several provinces in the southwest, Deng proved so zealous in killing alleged counter-revolutionaries that even

7221-411: Was free to clear the land and farm on the basis of usufruct . He maintained possession of the land as long as he continued to actively cultivate and tend the fields. Once he abandoned the land, it reverted to communal ownership, and anyone could take it up for themselves. While the Huron did seem to have lands designated for the individual, the significance of this possession may be of little relevance;

7308-526: Was implemented in three stages (1949–1952, 1953–1956, 1956–1969) and officially ended with the 1960 implementation of the constitution establishing the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic , which made private ownership illegal. Many early cooperatives collapsed and were recreated. Their productivity was low since they provided tiny salaries and no pensions, and they failed to create a sense of collective ownership; small-scale pilfering

7395-668: Was initially popular with many small farmers and landless peasants. East German President Wilhelm Pieck coined the slogan Junkerland in Bauernhand! ("Junker land into farmer's hand!") to promote land reform, which was initially pledged to be more moderate than full-scale collectivization. Although the ruling Socialist Unity Party and the Soviet Military Administration in Germany promised to allow large landowners to keep their land, they were expelled as

7482-570: Was not completed until June 11. In the article he said, "why is such a torrent of reactionary, vicious statements being allowed to appear in the press? to let the people have some idea of these poisonous weeds and noxious fumes so as to have them uprooted or dispelled." On June 8, 1957, Mao drafted an inner-party document, Muster Our Forces to Repulse the Rightists' Wild Attacks , saying that "some bad capitalists, bad intellectuals, and reactionary elements in society are mounting wild attacks against

7569-619: Was seen by the communist leadership as a half-measure when compared to full state ownership. Following the Fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975, South Vietnam briefly came under the authority of a Provisional Revolutionary Government , a puppet state under military occupation by North Vietnam , before being officially reunified with the North under Communist rule as the Socialist Republic of Vietnam on 2 July 1976. Upon taking control,

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