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92-541: The kings of the Fifteenth Dynasty are said to have been Canaanite . Pharaoh Kamose is known to have referred to Apophis , one of the kings of the dynasty, as "Chieftain of Retjenu (i.e. Caanan )". The kings of the Fifteenth Dynasty formed "the second Asiatic Kingdom in the Delta", covering an area which may have included Canaan itself, although the archaeological record is sparse. The dynasty probably lasted for

184-426: A Hyksos. "Hyksos" was rather a generic term which is encountered separately from royal titulature, and in regnal lists after the end of the Fifteenth Dynasty itself. In another instance, Khyan is thought to have used the title "Hyksos" early in his reign, and then abandoned it for traditional Egyptian titulature when he invaded the whole of Egypt. Only the first four kings of the Fifteenth Dynasty are known to have used

276-453: A blue feldspathoid silicate mineral of the sodalite family, with the formula (Na,Ca) 8 (AlSiO 4 ) 6 (S,SO 4 ,Cl) 1–2 . Most lapis lazuli also contains calcite (white), and pyrite (metallic yellow). Some samples of lapis lazuli contain augite , diopside , enstatite , mica , hauynite , hornblende , nosean , and sulfur-rich löllingite geyerite . Lapis lazuli usually occurs in crystalline marble as

368-704: A bowl inlaid with lapis, amulets, beads, and inlays representing eyebrows and beards, were found in the Royal Tombs of the Sumerian city-state of Ur from the 3rd millennium BC. Lapis was also used in ancient Persia, Mesopotamia by the Akkadians , Assyrians , and Babylonians for seals and jewelry. It is mentioned several times in the Mesopotamian poem, the Epic of Gilgamesh (17th–18th century BC), one of

460-654: A campaign to "Mentu", "Retjenu" and "Sekmem" ( Shechem ) is the Sebek-khu Stele , dated to the reign of Senusret III ( c.  1862 BC). A letter from Mut-bisir to Shamshi-Adad I ( c.  1809–1776 BC) of the Old Assyrian Empire (2025–1750 BC) has been translated: "It is in Rahisum that the brigands (habbatum) and the Canaanites (Kinahnum) are situated". It was found in 1973 in

552-723: A major source of lapis lazuli. Important amounts are also produced from mines west of Lake Baikal in Russia, and in the Andes mountains in Chile which is the source that the Inca used to carve artifacts and jewelry. Smaller quantities are mined in Pakistan, Italy, Mongolia, the United States, and Canada. The most important mineral component of lapis lazuli is lazurite (25% to 40%),

644-614: A period of about 108 years. The first king, also described as a Hyksos ( ḥḳꜣw-ḫꜣswt , a " shepherd " according to Africanus ), led his people into an occupation of the Nile Delta area and settled his capital at Avaris . These events put an end to the Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt . There is no evidence of conflict at that time however, and the settling of the Canaanite populations could have occurred rather peacefully in

736-418: A result of contact metamorphism . The intense blue color is due to the presence of the trisulfur radical anion ( S 3 ) in the crystal. The presence of disulfur ( S 2 ) and tetrasulfur ( S 4 ) radicals can shift the color towards yellow or red, respectively. These radical anions substitute for the chloride anions within the sodalite structure. The S 3 radical anion exhibits

828-519: A settled life, but with bad luck or due to the force of circumstances, contributed a rootless element to the population, prepared to hire themselves to whichever local mayor, king, or princeling would pay for their support. Although Habiru SA-GAZ (a Sumerian ideogram glossed as "brigand" in Akkadian ), and sometimes Habiri (an Akkadian word) had been reported in Mesopotamia from

920-613: A third prenomen during his reign: Nebkhepeshre. Apophis likely employed different prenomens over the course of several periods of his reign. This scenario is not without precedent or parallel, since several kings, including Mentuhotep II , the famous Ramesses II , and Seti II , are known to have used two different prenomens during their reigns. Canaan Canaan ( / ˈ k eɪ n ən / ; Phoenician : 𐤊𐤍𐤏𐤍 – KNʿN ; Hebrew : כְּנַעַן – Kənáʿan , in pausa כְּנָעַן ‎ – Kənāʿan ; Biblical Greek : Χαναάν – Khanaán ; Arabic : كَنْعَانُ – Kan'ān )

1012-548: A visible absorption band in the range 595–620 nm with high molar absorptivity, leading to its bright blue color. Lapis lazuli is found in limestone in the Kokcha River valley of Badakhshan province in north-eastern Afghanistan, where the Sar-i Sang mine deposits have been worked for more than 6,000 years. Afghanistan was the source of lapis for the ancient Persian, Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilizations, as well as

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1104-671: Is "opaque and sprinkled with specks of gold". Because the stone combines the blue of the heavens and golden glitter of the sun, it was emblematic of success in the old Jewish tradition. In the early Christian tradition lapis lazuli was regarded as the stone of Virgin Mary . In late classical times and as late as the Middle Ages, lapis lazuli was often called sapphire ( sapphirus in Latin, sappir in Hebrew), though it had little to do with

1196-712: Is a deep-blue metamorphic rock used as a semi-precious stone that has been prized since antiquity for its intense color. Originating from the Persian word for the gem, lāžward , lapis lazuli is a rock composed primarily of the minerals lazurite , pyrite and calcite . As early as the 7th millennium BC , lapis lazuli was mined in the Sar-i Sang mines, in Shortugai , and in other mines in Badakhshan province in modern northeast Afghanistan . Lapis lazuli artifacts, dated to 7570 BC, have been found at Bhirrana , which

1288-604: Is connected with the Greek word for "purple", apparently referring to the same product, but it is difficult to state with certainty whether the Greek word came from the name, or vice versa. The purple cloth of Tyre in Phoenicia was well known far and wide and was associated by the Romans with nobility and royalty. However, according to Robert Drews , Speiser's proposal has generally been abandoned. Retjenu (Anglicised 'Retenu')

1380-519: Is considered less credible because it was produced centuries later. Amorites at Hazor , Kadesh (Qadesh-on-the-Orontes), and elsewhere in Amurru (Syria) bordered Canaan in the north and northeast. (Ugarit may be included among these Amoritic entities.) The collapse of the Akkadian Empire in 2154 BC saw the arrival of peoples using Khirbet Kerak ware (pottery), coming originally from

1472-728: Is only possible that the palace in Area AA might have been destroyed though this is not certain. While the monumental structures at Hazor were indeed destroyed, this destruction was in the mid-13th century BC long before the end of the Late Bronze Age began. However, many sites were not burned to the ground around 1200 BC including: Asqaluna , Ashdod (ancient city) , Tell es-Safi , Tel Batash , Tel Burna , Tel Dor , Tel Gerisa , Tell Jemmeh , Khirbet Rabud, Tel Zeror , and Tell Abu Hawam among others. Despite many theories which claim that trade relations broke down after 1200 BC in

1564-586: Is the etymological source of both the English word azure (via Old French azur ) and Medieval Latin lazulum , which came to mean 'heaven' or 'sky'. To disambiguate, lapis lazulī ("stone of lazulum ") was used to refer to the stone itself, and is the term ultimately imported into Middle English . Lazulum is etymologically related to the color blue, and used as a root for the word for blue in several languages, including Spanish and Portuguese azul . Mines in northeast Afghanistan continue to be

1656-587: Is the following. After the Iron Age the periods are named after the various empires that ruled the region: Assyrian , Babylonian , Persian , Hellenistic (related to Greece ) and Roman . Canaanite culture developed in situ from multiple waves of migration merging with the earlier Circum-Arabian Nomadic Pastoral Complex , which in turn developed from a fusion of their ancestral Natufian and Harifian cultures with Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) farming cultures, practicing animal domestication , during

1748-683: Is the oldest site of Indus Valley civilisation . Lapis was highly valued by the Indus Valley Civilisation (3300–1900 BC). Lapis beads have been found at Neolithic burials in Mehrgarh , the Caucasus , and as far away as Mauritania . It was used in the funeral mask of Tutankhamun (1341–1323 BC). By the end of the Middle Ages , lapis lazuli began to be exported to Europe, where it was ground into powder and made into

1840-873: The 6200 BC climatic crisis which led to the Neolithic Revolution/First Agricultural Revolution in the Levant . The majority of Canaan is covered by the Eastern Mediterranean conifer–sclerophyllous–broadleaf forests ecoregion. The first wave of migration, called Ghassulian culture, entered Canaan circa 4500 BC. This is the start of the Chalcolithic in Canaan. From their unknown homeland, they brought an already complete craft tradition of metalwork. They were expert coppersmiths; in fact, their work

1932-766: The Amarna letters (14th century BC) and several other ancient Egyptian texts. In Greek, it first occurs in the writings of Hecataeus (c. 550–476 BC) as " Khna " ( Χνᾶ ). It is attested in Phoenician on coins from Berytus dated to the 2nd century BC. The etymology is uncertain. An early explanation derives the term from the Semitic root knʿ , "to be low, humble, subjugated". Some scholars have suggested that this implies an original meaning of "lowlands", in contrast with Aram , which would then mean "highlands", whereas others have suggested it meant "the subjugated" as

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2024-506: The Bible as a geography associated with the " Promised Land ". The demonym "Canaanites" serves as an ethnic catch-all term covering various indigenous populations—both settled and nomadic-pastoral groups—throughout the regions of the southern Levant . It is by far the most frequently used ethnic term in the Bible. Biblical scholar Mark Smith , citing archaeological findings, suggests "that

2116-649: The Egyptian Empire and Hittite Empire. Later still, the Neo-Assyrian Empire assimilated the region. According to the Bible, the migrant ancient Semitic-speaking peoples who appear to have settled in the region included (among others) the Amorites , who had earlier controlled Babylonia. The Hebrew Bible mentions the Amorites in the Table of Peoples ( Book of Genesis 10:16–18a). Evidently,

2208-671: The First Babylonian Empire , which lasted only as long as his lifetime. Upon his death the Amorites were driven from Assyria but remained masters of Babylonia until 1595 BC, when they were ejected by the Hittites. The semi-fictional Story of Sinuhe describes an Egyptian officer, Sinuhe, conducting military activities in the area of "Upper Retjenu " and " Fenekhu " during the reign of Senusret I ( c.  1950 BC). The earliest bona fide Egyptian report of

2300-517: The Hyksos , they became the dominant power. In Egyptian inscriptions, Amar and Amurru ( Amorites ) are applied strictly to the more northerly mountain region east of Phoenicia, extending to the Orontes . Archaeological excavations of a number of sites, later identified as Canaanite, show that prosperity of the region reached its apogee during this Middle Bronze Age period, under the leadership of

2392-538: The Israelite culture largely overlapped with and derived from Canaanite culture ... In short, Israelite culture was largely Canaanite in nature." The name "Canaanites" is attested, many centuries later, as the endonym of the people later known to the Ancient Greeks from c.  500 BC as Phoenicians , and after the emigration of Phoenicians and Canaanite-speakers to Carthage (founded in

2484-754: The Renaissance , lapis was ground and processed to make the pigment ultramarine for use in frescoes and oil painting . Its usage as a pigment in oil paint largely ended during the early 19th century, when a chemically identical synthetic variety became available. Lapis lazuli is commercially synthesized or simulated by the Gillson process, which is used to make artificial ultramarine and hydrous zinc phosphates . Spinel or sodalite , or dyed jasper or howlite , can be substituted for lapis. Lapis lazuli has been mined in Afghanistan and exported to

2576-626: The Twenty-fifth Dynasty the Egyptians made a failed attempt to regain a foothold in the region but were vanquished by the Neo-Assyrian Empire, leading to an Assyrian conquest of Egypt . Lapis lazuli Lapis lazuli ( UK : / ˌ l æ p ɪ s ˈ l æ z ( j ) ʊ l i , ˈ l æ ʒ ʊ -, - ˌ l i / ; US : / ˈ l æ z ( j ) ə l i , ˈ l æ ʒ ə -, - ˌ l i / ), or lapis for short,

2668-708: The Zagros Mountains (in modern Iran ) east of the Tigris . In addition, DNA analysis revealed that between 2500–1000 BC, populations from the Chalcolithic Zagros and Bronze Age Caucasus migrated to the Southern Levant. The first cities in the southern Levant arose during this period. The major sites were 'En Esur and Meggido . These "proto-Canaanites" were in regular contact with the other peoples to their south such as Egypt , and to

2760-456: The 15th Dynasty are as follows: The 15th Dynasty of Egypt was the first Hyksos dynasty, ruling from Avaris , without control of the entire land. The Hyksos preferred to stay in northern Egypt since they infiltrated from the north-east. The names and order of kings are uncertain. The Turin King list indicates that there were six Hyksos kings, with an obscure Khamudi listed as the final king of

2852-586: The 15th Dynasty. Some scholars argue there were two Apophis kings named Apepi, but this is primarily because there are two known prenomens for this king: Awoserre and Aqenenre. However, the Danish Egyptologist Kim Ryholt maintains in his study of the Second Intermediate Period that these prenomens all refer to one man: Apepi I, who ruled Egypt for 40+X years. This is also supported by this king's employment of

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2944-737: The 9th century BC), was also used as a self-designation by the Punics (as "Chanani" ) of North Africa during Late Antiquity . The English term "Canaan" (pronounced / ˈ k eɪ n ən / since c.  1500 , due to the Great Vowel Shift ) comes from the Hebrew כנען ( Kənaʿan ), via the Koine Greek Χανααν Khanaan and the Latin Canaan . It appears as Kinâḫna ( Akkadian : 𒆳𒆠𒈾𒄴𒈾 , ki-na-aḫ-na ) in

3036-516: The Amarna letters of Pharaoh Akhenaten c.  1350 BC. In these letters, some of which were sent by governors and princes of Canaan to their Egyptian overlord Akhenaten (Amenhotep IV) in the 14th century BC, are found, beside Amar and Amurru ( Amorites ), the two forms Kinahhi and Kinahni , corresponding to Kena and Kena'an respectively, and including Syria in its widest extent , as Eduard Meyer has shown. The letters are written in

3128-559: The Amorites played a significant role in the early history of Canaan. In Book of Genesis 14:7 f ., Book of Joshua 10:5 f ., Book of Deuteronomy 1:19 f ., 27, 44, we find them located in the southern mountain country, while verses such as Book of Numbers 21:13, Book of Joshua 9:10, 24:8, 12, etc., tell of two great Amorite kings residing at Heshbon and Ashteroth , east of the Jordan. Other passages, including Book of Genesis 15:16, 48:22, Book of Joshua 24:15, Book of Judges 1:34, regard

3220-654: The Assyrians during this period. Under Thutmose III (1479–1426 BC) and Amenhotep II (1427–1400 BC), the regular presence of the strong hand of the Egyptian ruler and his armies kept the Amorites and Canaanites sufficiently loyal. Nevertheless, Thutmose III reported a new and troubling element in the population. Habiru or (in Egyptian) 'Apiru, are reported for the first time. These seem to have been mercenaries, brigands, or outlaws, who may have at one time led

3312-538: The Canaanite origins of the dynasty. According to the Kamose stelae, the Hyksos imported "charriots and horses, ships, timber, gold, lapis lazuli , silver, turquoise , bronze, axes without number, oil, incense, fat and honey". The Fifteenth Dynasty also exported large quantities of material looted from southern Egypt, especially Egyptian sculptures, to the areas of Canaan and Syria . These transfers of Egyptian artifacts to

3404-490: The Egyptian crown to the Hittite Empire under Suppiluliuma I (reigned c. 1344–1322 BC). Egyptian power in Canaan thus suffered a major setback when the Hittites (or Hat.ti) advanced into Syria in the reign of Amenhotep III, and when they became even more threatening in that of his successor, displacing the Amorites and prompting a resumption of Semitic migration. Abdi-Ashirta and his son Aziru, at first afraid of

3496-732: The Ghassulians belonged to the West Asian haplogroup T-M184 . The end of the Chalcolithic period saw the rise of the urban settlement of 'En Esur on the southern Mediterranean coast. By the Early Bronze Age other sites had developed, such as Ebla (where an East Semitic language , Eblaite , was spoken), which by c.  2300 BC was incorporated into the Mesopotamia -based Akkadian Empire of Sargon

3588-638: The God of Israel, and there was under his feet as it were a paved work of a sapphire stone..." (KJV). The words used in the Latin Vulgate Bible in this citation are "quasi opus lapidis sapphirini", the terms for lapis lazuli. Modern translations of the Bible, such as the New Living Translation Second Edition, refer to lapis lazuli in most instances instead of sapphire. Johannes Vermeer used lapis lazuli paint, in

3680-624: The Great and Naram-Sin of Akkad (biblical Accad). Sumerian references to the Mar.tu ("tent dwellers", later Amurru , i.e. Amorite ) country west of the Euphrates River date from even earlier than Sargon, at least to the reign of the Sumerian king, Enshakushanna of Uruk , and one tablet credits the early Sumerian king Lugal-Anne-Mundu withholding sway in the region, although this tablet

3772-442: The Habiri. Apparently this restless warrior found his death at the siege of Gina . All these princes, however, maligned each other in their letters to the Pharaoh, and protested their own innocence of traitorous intentions. Namyawaza, for instance, whom Etakkama (see above) accused of disloyalty, wrote thus to the Pharaoh, Behold, I and my warriors and my chariots, together with my brethren and my SA-GAZ , and my Suti ?9 are at

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3864-403: The Hittites at Kadesh in 1275 BC, but soon thereafter, the Hittites successfully took over the northern Levant (Syria and Amurru). Ramses II, obsessed with his own building projects while neglecting Asiatic contacts, allowed control over the region to continue dwindling. During the reign of his successor Merneptah , the Merneptah Stele was issued which claimed to have destroyed various sites in

3956-446: The Hittites, afterwards made a treaty with their king, and joining with the Hittites, attacked and conquered the districts remaining loyal to Egypt. In vain did Rib-Hadda send touching appeals for aid to the distant Pharaoh, who was far too engaged in his religious innovations to attend to such messages. The Amarna letters tell of the Habiri in northern Syria. Etakkama wrote thus to the Pharaoh: Behold, Namyawaza has surrendered all

4048-486: The Hurrian city of Nuzi in the early 20th century appear to use the term "Kinaḫnu" as a synonym for red or purple dye , laboriously produced by the Kassite rulers of Babylon from murex molluscs as early as 1600 BC, and on the Mediterranean coast by the Phoenicians from a byproduct of glassmaking. Purple cloth became a renowned Canaanite export commodity which is mentioned in Exodus . The dyes may have been named after their place of origin. The name 'Phoenicia'

4140-411: The Late Bronze Age state of Ugarit (at Ras Shamra in Syria ) is considered quintessentially Canaanite, even though its Ugaritic language does not belong to the Canaanite language group proper. A disputed reference to a "Lord of ga-na-na " in the Semitic Ebla tablets (dated 2350 BC) from the archive of Tell Mardikh has been interpreted by some scholars to mention the deity Dagon by

4232-399: The Mediterranean world and South Asia since the Neolithic age, along the ancient trade route between Afghanistan and the Indus Valley dating to the 7th millennium BC. Quantities of these beads have also been found at 4th millennium BC settlements in Northern Mesopotamia , and at the Bronze Age site of Shahr-e Sukhteh in southeast Iran (3rd millennium BC). A dagger with a lapis handle,

4324-529: The Near East may especially be attributed to king Apophis . Trade relations with Cyprus were also very important. The relation of the Fifteenth Dynasty to Egyptian religious traditions was ambiguous, and they are said by commentators from the Eighteenth Dynasty that "they ruled without ackowledging Re ". The dynasty is recorded as having destroyed Egyptian monuments and removed Egyptian statuary for booty, as well as plundering royal tombs, Ahmose complaining that "pyramids have been torn down". Known rulers of

4416-414: The cities of the king, my lord to the SA-GAZ in the land of Kadesh and in Ubi . But I will go, and if thy gods and thy sun go before me, I will bring back the cities to the king, my lord, from the Habiri, to show myself subject to him; and I will expel the SA-GAZ . Similarly, Zimrida , king of Sidon (named 'Siduna'), declared, "All my cities which the king has given into my hand, have come into

4508-411: The city of Hazor , at least nominally tributary to Egypt for much of the period. In the north, the cities of Yamkhad and Qatna were hegemons of important confederacies , and it would appear that biblical Hazor was the chief city of another important coalition in the south. In the early Late Bronze Age, Canaanite confederacies centered on Megiddo and Kadesh , before being fully brought into

4600-404: The disposal of the (royal) troops to go whithersoever the king, my lord, commands." Around the beginning of the New Kingdom period, Egypt exerted rule over much of the Levant. Rule remained strong during the Eighteenth Dynasty , but Egypt's rule became precarious during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Dynasties . Ramses II was able to maintain control over it in the stalemated battle against

4692-405: The early Israelites of the period of the " judges ", who sought to appropriate the fertile region for themselves. However, the term was rarely used to describe the Shasu. Whether the term may also include other related ancient Semitic-speaking peoples such as the Moabites , Ammonites and Edomites is uncertain. There is little evidence that any major city or settlement in the southern Levant

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4784-426: The end of the Late Bronze Age. He has also demonstrated that trade with Egypt continued after 1200 BC. Archaeometallurgical studies performed by various teams have also shown that trade in tin , a non-local metal necessary to make bronze , did not stop or decrease after 1200 BC, even though the closest source of the metal were modern Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, or perhaps even Cornwall, England. Lead from Sardinia

4876-406: The fall of the Thirteenth Dynasty at Memphis. As Egyptian political power disintegrated at Memphis, new dynasties arose in the south, the Abydos Dynasty and the Sixteenth Dynasty at Thebes . The Fifteenth Dynasty at one point, after a period of about 20 years since its foundation, extended its rule as far south as Thebes , entering into conflict with Pharaoh Neferhotep III . The whole of Egypt

4968-417: The fortress of Taru (Shtir?) to " Ka-n-'-na ". After the near collapse of the Battle of Kadesh , Rameses II had to campaign vigorously in Canaan to maintain Egyptian power. Egyptian forces penetrated into Moab and Ammon , where a permanent fortress garrison (called simply "Rameses") was established. Some believe the " Habiru " signified generally all the nomadic tribes known as "Hebrews", and particularly

5060-417: The hand of the Habiri." The king of Jerusalem , Abdi-Heba , reported to the Pharaoh: If (Egyptian) troops come this year, lands and princes will remain to the king, my lord; but if troops come not, these lands and princes will not remain to the king, my lord. Abdi-heba's principal trouble arose from persons called Iilkili and the sons of Labaya , who are said to have entered into a treasonable league with

5152-557: The help of a neighbouring king. The boldest of the disaffected nobles was Aziru , son of Abdi-Ashirta , who endeavoured to extend his power into the plain of Damascus . Akizzi , governor of Katna ( Qatna ?) (near Hamath ), reported this to Amenhotep III, who seems to have sought to frustrate Aziru's attempts. In the reign of the next pharaoh, Akhenaten (reigned c. 1352 to c. 1335 BC) both father and son caused infinite trouble to loyal servants of Egypt like Rib-Hadda , governor of Gubla (Gebal), by transferring their loyalty from

5244-433: The land of Canaan" is found on the Statue of Idrimi (16th century BC) from Alalakh in modern Syria. After a popular uprising against his rule, Idrimi was forced into exile with his mother's relatives to seek refuge in "the land of Canaan", where he prepared for an eventual attack to recover his city. The other references in the Alalakh texts are: Around 1650 BC, Canaanites invaded the eastern Nile delta , where, known as

5336-593: The late 13th century BC and ending close to the end of the 12th century BC. The reason for the Egypt's withdrawal was most likely political turmoil in Egypt proper rather than the invasion by the Sea Peoples , as there is little evidence that the Sea Peoples caused much destruction ca. 1200 BC. Many Egyptian garrisons or sites with an "Egyptian governor's residence" in the southern Levant were abandoned without destruction including Deir al-Balah , Ascalon , Tel Mor, Tell el-Far'ah (South) , Tel Gerisa , Tell Jemmeh , Tel Masos , and Qubur el-Walaydah. Not all Egyptian sites in

5428-417: The later Greeks and Romans. Ancient Egyptians obtained the material through trade with Mesopotamians, as part of Egypt–Mesopotamia relations . During the height of the Indus Valley civilisation , approximately 2000 BC, the Harappan colony, now known as Shortugai , was established near the lapis mines. In addition to the Afghan deposits, lapis is also extracted in the Andes (near Ovalle , Chile ); and to

5520-421: The majority were Hurrian, although there were a number of Semites and even some Kassite and Luwian adventurers amongst their number. The reign of Amenhotep III , as a result, was not quite so tranquil for the Asiatic province, as Habiru/'Apiru contributed to greater political instability. It is believed that turbulent chiefs began to seek their opportunities, although as a rule they could not find them without

5612-496: The name Amorite as synonymous with "Canaanite". The name Amorite is, however, never used for the population on the coast. In the centuries preceding the appearance of the biblical Hebrews, parts of Canaan and southwestern Syria became tributary to the Egyptian pharaohs , although domination by the Egyptians remained sporadic, and not strong enough to prevent frequent local rebellions and inter-city struggles. Other areas such as northern Canaan and northern Syria came to be ruled by

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5704-448: The name of Egypt's province in the Levant, and evolved into the proper name in a similar fashion to Provincia Nostra (the first Roman colony north of the Alps, which became Provence ). An alternative suggestion, put forward by Ephraim Avigdor Speiser in 1936, derives the term from Hurrian Kinaḫḫu , purportedly referring to the colour purple, so that "Canaan" and " Phoenicia " would be synonyms ("Land of Purple"). Tablets found in

5796-461: The naming "Hyksos", and after that royal titulature becomes purely Egyptian. Regular conflicts continued with the Egyptian dynasties to the south, the Sixteenth Dynasty , the Abydos Dynasty and the Seventeenth Dynasty , with short intervals of peace during which there were some relations with Nubia . Soon after the occupation of the Nile Delta , where it replaced the Fourteenth Dynasty, the Fifteenth Dynasty expanded to occupy Memphis , leading to

5888-409: The north Asia Minor ( Hurrians , Hattians , Hittites , Luwians ) and Mesopotamia ( Sumer , Akkad , Assyria ), a trend that continued through the Iron Age . The end of the period is marked by the abandonment of the cities and a return to lifestyles based on farming villages and semi-nomadic herding, although specialised craft production continued and trade routes remained open. Archaeologically,

5980-439: The official and diplomatic East Semitic Akkadian language of Assyria and Babylonia , though "Canaanitish" words and idioms are also in evidence. The known references are: Text RS 20.182 from Ugarit is a copy of a letter of the king of Ugarit to Ramesses II concerning money paid by "the sons of the land of Ugarit" to the "foreman of the sons of the land of Canaan ( *kn'ny )" According to Jonathan Tubb, this suggests that

6072-447: The oldest known works of literature. The Statue of Ebih-Il , a 3rd millennium BC statue found in the ancient city-state of Mari in modern-day Syria , now in the Louvre , uses lapis lazuli inlays for the irises of the eyes. In ancient Egypt, lapis lazuli was a favorite stone for amulets and ornaments such as scarabs . Lapis jewellery has been found at excavations of the Predynastic Egyptian site Naqada (3300–3100 BC). At Karnak ,

6164-561: The people of Ugarit, contrary to much modern opinion, considered themselves to be non-Canaanite. The other Ugarit reference, KTU 4.96, shows a list of traders assigned to royal estates, one of the estates having three Ugaritans, an Ashdadite, an Egyptian and a Canaanite. A Middle Assyrian letter during the reign of Shalmaneser I includes a reference to the "travel to Canaan" of an Assyrian official. Four references are known from Hattusa: Ann Killebrew has shown that cities such as Jerusalem were large and important walled settlements in

6256-539: The pigment ultramarine . Ultramarine was used by some of the most important artists of the Renaissance and Baroque , including Masaccio , Perugino , Titian and Vermeer , and was often reserved for the clothing of the central figures of their paintings, especially the Virgin Mary . Ultramarine has also been found in dental tartar of medieval nuns and scribes , perhaps as a result of licking their painting brushes while producing medieval texts and manuscripts . Excavations from Tepe Gawra show that Lapis lazuli

6348-477: The power vacuum left by the disintegration of the Fourteenth Dynasty. Subsequent relations with Egyptian polities, however, were marked with violent conflict. The people of Avaris in the Nile Delta were called "Aamu" by the Egyptians, which was also the term used to designate the inhabitants of Syria and the Levant, or the enemies of Ramses II at the battle of Kadesh . This has generally been translated as "Western Asiatics" by Egyptologists. The term Hyksos

6440-429: The pre-Israelite Middle Bronze IIB and the Israelite Iron Age IIC period ( c.  1800–1550 and c.  720–586 BC), but that during the intervening Late Bronze (LB) and Iron Age I and IIA/B Ages sites like Jerusalem were small and relatively insignificant and unfortified towns. Just after the Amarna period, a new problem arose which was to trouble the Egyptian control of southern Canaan (the rest of

6532-404: The region then being under Assyrian control). Pharaoh Horemhab campaigned against Shasu (Egyptian = "wanderers") living in nomadic pastoralist tribes, who had moved across the Jordan River to threaten Egyptian trade through Galilee and Jezreel . Seti I ( c.  1290 BC) is said to have conquered these Shasu, Semitic-speaking nomads living just south and east of the Dead Sea , from

6624-601: The reign of the Sumerian king, Shulgi of Ur III , their appearance in Canaan appears to have been due to the arrival of a new state based in Asia Minor to the north of Assyria and based upon a Maryannu aristocracy of horse-drawn charioteers , associated with the Indo-Aryan rulers of the Hurrians , known as Mitanni . The Habiru seem to have been more a social class than an ethnic group. One analysis shows that

6716-567: The relief carvings of Thutmose III (1479–1429 BC) show fragments and barrel-shaped pieces of lapis lazuli being delivered to him as tribute. Powdered lapis was used as eyeshadow by Cleopatra . Jewelry made of lapis lazuli has also been found at Mycenae attesting to relations between the Myceneans and the developed civilizations of Egypt and the East. Pliny the Elder wrote that lapis lazuli

6808-620: The ruins of Mari , an Assyrian outpost at that time in Syria . Additional unpublished references to Kinahnum in the Mari letters refer to the same episode. Whether the term Kinahnum refers to people from a specific region or rather people of "foreign origin" has been disputed, such that Robert Drews states that the "first certain cuneiform reference" to Canaan is found on the Alalakh statue of King Idrimi (below). A reference to Ammiya being "in

6900-544: The so-called Syro-Hittite states and the Phoenician city-states. The entire region (including all Phoenician/Canaanite and Aramean states, together with Israel , Philistia , and Samaria ) was conquered by the Neo-Assyrian Empire during the 10th and 9th centuries BC, and would remain so for three hundred years until the end of the 7th century BC. Emperor-kings such as Ashurnasirpal , Adad-nirari II , Sargon II , Tiglath-Pileser III , Esarhaddon , Sennacherib and Ashurbanipal came to dominate Canaanite affairs. During

6992-467: The southern Levant were abandoned without destruction. The Egyptian garrison at Aphek was destroyed, likely in an act of warfare at the end of the 13th century. The Egyptian gate complex uncovered at Jaffa was destroyed at the end of the 12th century between 1134-1115 based on C14 dates, while Beth-Shean was partially though not completely destroyed, possibly by an earthquake, in the mid-12th century. References to Canaanites are also found throughout

7084-484: The southern Levant, including a people known as "Israel". However, archaeological findings show no destruction at any of the sites mentioned in the Merneptah Stele and so it is considered to be an exercise in propaganda, and the campaign most likely avoided the central highlands in the southern Levant. Egypt's withdrawal from the southern Levant was a protracted process lasting some one hundred years beginning in

7176-638: The southern Levant, there is ample evidence that trade with other regions continued after the end of the Late Bronze Age in the Southern Levant. Archaeologist Jesse Millek has shown that while the common assumption is that trade in Cypriot and Mycenaean pottery ended around 1200 BC, trade in Cypriot pottery actually largely came to an end at 1300, while for Mycenaean pottery , this trade ended at 1250 BC, and destruction around 1200 BC could not have affected either pattern of international trade since it ended before

7268-710: The state of Babylon in 1894 BC. Later on, Amurru became the Assyrian/Akkadian term for the interior of south as well as for northerly Canaan. At this time the Canaanite area seemed divided between two confederacies, one centred upon Megiddo in the Jezreel Valley , the second on the more northerly city of Kadesh on the Orontes River. An Amorite chieftain named Sumu-abum founded Babylon as an independent city-state in 1894 BC. One Amorite king of Babylonia, Hammurabi (1792–1750 BC), founded

7360-583: The stone today known as the blue corundum variety sapphire. In his book on stones, the Greek scientist Theophrastus described "the sapphirus, which is speckled with gold," a description which matches lapis lazuli. There are many references to "sapphire" in the Old Testament , but most scholars agree that, since sapphire was not known before the Roman Empire, they most likely are references to lapis lazuli. For instance, Exodus 24:10: "And they saw

7452-409: The title "Lord of Canaan" If correct, this would suggest that Eblaites were conscious of Canaan as an entity by 2500 BC. Jonathan Tubb states that the term ga-na-na "may provide a third-millennium reference to Canaanite ", while at the same time stating that the first certain reference is in the 18th century BC. See Ebla-Biblical controversy for further details. Urbanism returned and the region

7544-655: The west of Lake Baikal in Siberia, Russia, at the Tultui lazurite deposit. It is mined in smaller amounts in Angola , Argentina, Burma , Pakistan, Canada, Italy, India, and in the United States in California and Colorado . Lapis takes an excellent polish and can be made into jewellery, carvings, boxes, mosaics , ornaments, small statues, and vases. Interior items and finishing buildings can be also made with lapis. During

7636-853: Was a Semitic -speaking civilization and region of the Southern Levant in the Ancient Near East during the late 2nd millennium BC . Canaan had significant geopolitical importance in the Late Bronze Age Amarna Period (14th century BC) as the area where the spheres of interest of the Egyptian , Hittite , Mitanni , and Assyrian Empires converged or overlapped. Much of present-day knowledge about Canaan stems from archaeological excavation in this area at sites such as Tel Hazor , Tel Megiddo , En Esur , and Gezer . The name "Canaan" appears throughout

7728-404: Was conquered during the reign of Khayan . The Abydos Dynasty also vanished on the occasion of these southern conquests. Numerous monuments from conquered areas were brought north to the capital of Avaris , and many were marked with additional inscriptions, especially by Apophis . All of this is contested however. For Alexander Ilin-Tomich, the territory directly ruled by the Hyksos kings of Avaris

7820-473: Was destroyed around 1200 BC. At Lachish , The Fosse Temple III was ritually terminated while a house in Area S appears to have burned in a house fire as the most severe evidence of burning was next to two ovens while no other part of the city had evidence of burning. After this though the city was rebuilt in a grander fashion than before. For Megiddo , most parts of the city did not have any signs of damage and it

7912-619: Was divided among small city-states, the most important of which seems to have been Hazor. Many aspects of Canaanite material culture now reflected a Mesopotamian influence, and the entire region became more tightly integrated into a vast international trading network. As early as Naram-Sin of Akkad 's reign ( c.  2240 BC), Amurru was called one of the "four quarters" surrounding Akkad , along with Subartu / Assyria , Sumer , and Elam . Amorite dynasties also came to dominate in much of Mesopotamia, including in Larsa , Isin and founding

8004-529: Was introduced to Mesopotamia approximately in the late Ubaid period , c. 4900–4000 BCE. A traditional understanding was that the lapis was mined some fifteen hundred miles to the east – in Badakhshan . Indeed, the Persian لاژورد lāžavard/lāževard , also written لاجورد lājevard , is commonly interpreted as having an origin in a local place name. From the Persian, the Arabic لازورد lāzaward

8096-491: Was likely confined to the eastern Delta and the nature and extent of their control over Middle Egypt remains unclear. The Fifteenth Dynasty eventually ended with the conquest of Avaris by the Pharaoh Ahmose I . The trading relations of the Fifteenth Dynasty were mainly with Canaan and Cyprus . Trade with Canaan is said to have been "intensive", especially with many imports of Canaanite wares, and may have reflected

8188-675: Was still being imported to the southern Levant after 1200 BC during the early Iron Age. By the Early Iron Age , the southern Levant came to be dominated by the kingdoms of Israel and Judah , besides the Philistine city-states on the Mediterranean coast, and the kingdoms of Moab , Ammon , and Aram-Damascus east of the Jordan River, and Edom to the south. The northern Levant was divided into various petty kingdoms,

8280-622: Was the most advanced metal technology in the ancient world. Their work is similar to artifacts from the later Maykop culture , leading some scholars to believe they represent two branches of an original metalworking tradition. Their main copper mine was at Wadi Feynan . The copper was mined from the Cambrian Burj Dolomite Shale Unit in the form of the mineral malachite . All of the copper was smelted at sites in Beersheba culture . Genetic analysis has shown that

8372-537: Was the usual ancient Egyptian name for Canaan and Syria, covering the region from Gaza in the south, to Tartous in the north. Its borders shifted with time, but it generally consisted of three regions. The region between Ascalon and the Lebanon , stretching inland to the Sea of Galilee , was named Djahy , which was approximately synonymous with Canaan. There are several periodization systems for Canaan. One of them

8464-512: Was traditionally used to designate foreign chieftains, and more specifically "rulers of the Asiatics", already before the Fifteenth Dynasty and also after it. It was not an official title of the rulers of the Fifteenth dynasty, and is never encountered together with royal titulature, except in one rare instance in an inscription from Tell el-Dab'a mentioning an unknown king and describing him as

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