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79-610: The First Corps Area Training Center was established in the Regular Army on 7 July 1921, and was organized on 9 November 1921 with headquarters at Fort Andrews , Massachusetts . The headquarters was moved to Fort Warren , Massachusetts, on 19 December 1921. The training center's training group, at Camp Devens , Massachusetts, conducted training and demonstration functions for Regular Army, National Guard, and Organized Reserve units, ROTC cadets, and CMTC candidates. The depot group consisted of an illiterate and development section, and

158-731: A belligerent power in time of war . There are significant differences among POW camps, internment camps , and military prisons . Purpose-built prisoner-of-war camps appeared at Norman Cross in England in 1797 during the French Revolutionary Wars and HM Prison Dartmoor , constructed during the Napoleonic Wars , and they have been in use in all the main conflicts of the last 200 years. The main camps are used for marines , sailors , soldiers , and more recently, airmen of an enemy power who have been captured by

237-706: A prisoner-of-war camp for Italian prisoners during World War II, who were employed as laborers following the Italian surrender to the Allies in 1943. Today, the fort is abandoned, and is managed by the Massachusetts Department of Conservation and Recreation , as part of the Boston Harbor Islands National Recreation Area . Fort Andrews' gun and mortar batteries as built were as follows: In its heyday,

316-848: A "warrior spirit", which stated that an individual must calmly face death. Those who disobeyed orders would be sentenced to death via decapitation , usually carried out by the katana of Japanese officers. The sword was seen as a symbol of wisdom and perseverance to the Japanese, and they perceived that it was an honor to die by it. Allied prisoners-of-war in Japanese camps were forced to engage in physical labour such as building bridges, erecting forts, and digging defence trenches. These prisoners received limited food, and once their military uniforms wore out, no replacements were given. Some brutal prison guards would answer requests for water with their beatings or rifle butts. Prisoners who were seen as no use, physically weak, or rebellious, would often be killed. At

395-497: A 50-bed hospital. The fort even had a radio transmitting station, one of the Army's earliest. After World War I, Fort Andrews was put on caretaker status ("mothballed"), and was brought back into action again during World War II. By the 1930s the fort's mortars were superseded by the long-range guns of Fort Ruckman and Fort Duvall . In 1942 the fort's massive coast defense mortars were scrapped, but its 6-inch and 3-inch guns served out

474-514: A belligerent power during or immediately after an armed conflict. Civilians , such as merchant mariners and war correspondents , have also been imprisoned in some conflicts. Per the 1929 Geneva Convention on Prisoners of War , later superseded by the Third Geneva Convention , such camps have been required to be open to inspection by representatives of a neutral power , but this hasn't always been consistently applied. Before

553-478: A conventional recruit training section for new Regular Army recruits for units stationed in the First Corps Area. Originally, training for all arms and services except cavalry and field artillery was to be accomplished at Camp Devens, while cavalry and field artillery were to train at Fort Ethan Allen , Vermont . The First Corps Area Training Center was discontinued on 8 July 1922. Camp Devens then became

632-428: A depression position finder (DPF). Today, the structure is thickly overgrown with trees and brush, but during World War II controlled burns kept the brow of the hill clear of obstructions. The final fire control structure is a two-bay wood and plaster building that was 40 ft. long overall, constructed in 1907, and had dual observation platforms and plotting rooms for mortar batteries Whitman and Cushing, northwest of

711-454: A disability. Many survivors went home or to other areas of the world to have a successful life as a businessman, or they would devote themselves to helping poor people or people in the camps who were in need of support. A former PoW, Lieutenant Colonel Philip Toosey , stated that the Japanese committed brutal atrocities. Some of these included filling a prisoner's nose with water while the guards tied them with barbed wire, then they would stand on

790-795: A large focus onto Japanese-Canadians even though innocent. Japan seemed to be able to attack along the Pacific and Canada could potentially be next. Canadian Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King implemented the War Measures Act and the Defence of Canada Regulations ; therefore, they could not get involved with Canadian services along with the Italians and Germans. The Nikkei (Canadians and Immigrants of Japanese origin) were stripped of possessions, which were later auctioned off without consent. The intense cold winters made it hard to live as

869-539: A means for dealing with large numbers of captured troops early in the American Civil War , the Union and Confederate governments relied on the traditional European system of parole and exchange of prisoners . While awaiting exchange, prisoners were confined to permanent camps. Neither Union or Confederate prison camps were always well run, and it was common for prisoners to die of starvation or disease. It

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948-513: A neutral country. A few countries were not on the same terms as Germany and Austria. For example, Hungary believed that harsh conditions would reduce the number of traitors. The countries in the east continued their fight to help the Red Cross provide support to POWs. At the end of the war, a Franco-German agreement was made that both countries would exchange their prisoners, but the French kept

1027-508: A neutral power. Not all combatants applied the provisions of the convention. In particular the Empire of Japan , which had signed but never ratified the convention, was notorious for its treatment of prisoners of war; this poor treatment occurred in part because the Japanese viewed surrender as dishonourable. Prisoners from all nations were subject to forced labour, beatings, torture, murder, and even medical experimentation. Rations fell short of

1106-519: A provision that all prisoners should be released without ransom. This is generally considered to mark the point where captured enemy fighters would be reasonably treated before being released at the end of the conflict or under a parole not to take up arms. The practice of paroling enemy fighters had begun thousands of years earlier, at least as early as the time of Carthage but became normal practice in Europe from 1648 onwards. The consequent increase in

1185-519: A range of 7 miles, these batteries could reach both the northern and southern channels into the harbor, interlocking with the fire of Fort Banks' mortars. As it was, only two pits (in a north-south alignment) were built for Battery Whitman (Whitman Pit A is the southerly one, with Pit B behind it), and two more, of a slightly different design, became Battery Cushing (built just to the east and in an east-west alignment). When fully equipped, these pits contained 16 12-inch coast defense mortars, able to bombard

1264-780: A small number while the Germans released all French prisoners. Krasnoyarsk in Siberia , Russia, was used after the Russian defeat to the Japanese in the Russo-Japanese war , as a base for military camps to train for future wars. Conditions there were dire and the detainees could be conscripted for war while they lived in concentration camps and prisons. Over 50,000 camp tenants were used for transportation, agriculture, mining and machinery production. Throughout World War I, captured prisoners of war were sent to various camps including

1343-499: A strength of 31,246. Miles retained command throughout the war. First Service Command was disestablished in 1946. Fort Andrews Fort Andrews was created in 1897 as part of the Coast (later Harbor) Defenses of Boston , Massachusetts . Construction began in 1898 and the fort was substantially complete by 1904. The fort was named after Major General George Leonard Andrews , an engineer and Civil War commander, who assisted in

1422-419: A visitor is virtually on the edge of the pit. The ruins are significant for being the only remains of one of the early wood and plaster fire control buildings that were so prevalent throughout Boston's harbor defenses in the period 1905-1925. Prisoner-of-war camp A prisoner-of-war camp (often abbreviated as POW camp ) is a site for the containment of enemy fighters captured as prisoners of war by

1501-522: Is believed to be the largest escape of POWs in recorded history and possibly the largest prison breakout ever. At least 545 Japanese POWs attempted to escape from a camp near Cowra, New South Wales , Australia . Most sources say that 234 POWs were killed or committed suicide. The remainder were recaptured. The Great Papago Escape , on December 23, 1944, was the largest POW escape to occur from an American facility. Over 25 German POWs tunneled out of Camp Papago Park , near Phoenix, Arizona , and fled into

1580-663: Is estimated that about 56,000 soldiers died in prisons during the war; almost 10% of all Civil War fatalities. During a period of 14 months in Camp Sumter , located near Andersonville, Georgia , 13,000 (28%) of the 45,000 Union soldiers confined there died. At Camp Douglas in Chicago, Illinois, 10% of its Confederate prisoners died during one cold winter month; and the 25% death rate at Elmira Prison in New York State very nearly equaled that of Andersonville's. During

1659-693: The Hague Convention of 1907 . The main combatant nations engaged in World War I abided by the convention and treatment of prisoners was generally good. The situation on the eastern front was significantly worse than the western front , with prisoners in Russia at risk from starvation and disease. In total during the war about eight million men were held in prisoner of war camps, with 2.5 million prisoners in German custody, 2.9 million held by

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1738-586: The Peace of Westphalia , enemy fighters captured by belligerent forces were usually executed, enslaved, or held for ransom. This, coupled with the relatively small size of armies, meant there was little need for any form of camp to hold prisoners of war. The Peace of Westphalia , a series of treaties signed between May and October 1648 that ended the Thirty Years' War and the Eighty Years' War , contained

1817-585: The Red Cross was entrusted with more rights and responsibilities. In the course of World War II , it provided millions of Red Cross parcels to Allied POWs in Axis prison camps; most of these contained food and personal hygiene items, while others held medical kits. A special "release kit" parcel was also provided to some newly released POWs at the war's end. During the United States' call for war on Japan,

1896-478: The Russian Empire , and about 720,000 held by Britain and France. Permanent camps did not exist at the beginning of the war. The unexpectedly large number of prisoners captured in the first days of the war by the German army created an immediate problem. By September 1914, the German army had captured over 200,000 enemy combatants. These first prisoners were held in temporary camps until 1915, by which time

1975-609: The Second Boer War , the British government established prisoner-of-war camps (to hold captured Boer belligerents or fighters) and concentration camps (to hold Boer civilians). In total, six prisoner-of-war camps were erected in South Africa and around 31 in overseas British colonies to hold Boer prisoners of war. The majority of Boer prisoners of war were sent overseas (25,630 out of the 28,000 Boer men captured during

2054-535: The Tuchola internment camp , in Pomerania . These prisoners lived in dugouts, and many died of hunger, cold, and infectious diseases. According to historians Zbigniew Karpus and Waldemar Rezmer , up to 2000 prisoners died in the camp during its operation. In a joint work by Polish and Russian historians, Karpus and Rezmer estimate the total death toll in all Polish POW camps during the war at 16,000–17,000, while

2133-526: The Western Front . It appears these guns never left the fort, and they were remounted in 1920. As part of a forcewide re-alignment, almost half of Fort Andrews' mortars were removed in early 1918. It was determined that attempting to simultaneously reload four mortars per pit was inefficient, and that a similar rate of fire could be obtained with only two mortars per pit. Also, many 12-inch mortars were needed as railway artillery for potential service on

2212-479: The Commander of the fort and a plotting room . A second east side fire control station was the coincidence range finder (CRF) station that was located ( 42°18′06″N 70°55′46″W  /  42.301715°N 70.929545°W  / 42.301715; -70.929545 )in a blockhouse constructed in 1925 on the gun platform for Gun #1 of Battery Rice, a 5-inch battery built in the early 20th century but for which

2291-571: The I and XI Corps. The rest of the nondivisional units were turned over to the three Organized Reserve divisions for administrative control. At Brainard Field , a civilian airfield located at Hartford, Connecticut, the 43d Division Aviation (1923–29) and the 118th Observation Squadron (1923–41) trained. In May 1941, the Corps Area became the First Corps Area Service Command (CASC). Major General Francis B. Wilby

2370-534: The Nikkei were placed in camps; these campers were made of Japanese immigrants and Japanese-Canadians. They lived in barns and stables which were used for animals, therefore unsanitary. It took 5 years after the war for the Nikkei to gain their rights. Compensation was given but was not enough to cover the loss of properties. Over 22,000 Nikkei were put into these camps. In many POW camps, cigarettes were widely used as currency known as ' commodity money '. They performed

2449-830: The Red Cross held a conference in Geneva, Switzerland in September 1917. The conference addressed the war, and the Red Cross addressed the conditions that the civilians were living under, which resembled those of soldiers in prisoner of war camps, as well as "barbed wire disease" (symptoms of mental illness) suffered by prisoners in France and Germany. It was agreed at the conference that the Red Cross would provide prisoners of war with mail, food parcels, clothes, and medical supplies and that prisoners in France and Germany suffering from "barbed wire disease" should be interned in Switzerland,

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2528-544: The Red Cross stepped up to provide services for the soldiers overseas. A large number of provisions were needed for the soldiers in World War II over the 4 years that the Americans were involved. The American Red Cross and thirteen million volunteers had donated in the country with an average weekly donation of 111,000 pints of blood. Nurses, doctors, and volunteer workers worked on the front lines overseas to provide for

2607-510: The Russian historian Matvejev estimates it at 18,000–20,000. On the other side of the frontline about 20,000 out of about 51,000 Polish POWs died in Soviet and Lithuanian camps While the conditions for Soviet prisoners were clearly exposed by the free press in Poland, no corresponding fact-finding about Soviet camps for Polish POWs could be expected from the tightly controlled Soviet press of

2686-600: The U.S. courts. In the Hamdan v. Rumsfeld court case, on June 29, 2006, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the captives at Guantanamo Bay detention camp were entitled to the minimal protections listed under Common Article 3 of the Geneva Conventions . Other captives, including Saddam Hussein , have been accorded POW status. The International Red Cross has been permitted to visit at least some sites. Many prisoners were held in secret locations ( black sites ) around

2765-700: The UK government had recently declassified information that some British POWs in some Japanese POW camps were subjected to being fattened, then cannibalised. Apparently, Winston Churchill had been aware of this atrocity, but kept the information secret; families would have been too distressed to learn that their sons had been the victims of cannibalism rather than killed in action . More deaths occurred in Japanese POW camps than in any others. The Red Cross were not able to drop parcels into these camps because they were too well defended to fly over. The Second World War

2844-665: The Western Front. None of these mortars were shipped to France before the Armistice , but many were retained as railway mortars through World War II. The result at Fort Andrews was that Battery Cushing was reduced to four mortars and Battery Whitman was reduced to six mortars. For some reason, Pit A of Battery Whitman retained its four M1908 mortars. By the 1920s, Fort Andrews consisted of some 30 structures (see map at left), ranging from large brick barracks buildings that housed over 100 soldiers each to elegant officers' quarters and

2923-553: The battery, near the lip of the tall northern bluffs of the island, gave it a commanding view over toward Ft. Warren on Georges Island and the surrounding channels into Boston. Atop the tall hill on the west side of the parade ground were two more stations. In 1944, a single-story concrete bunker was built to house base end station #1 for Battery McCook. Located at a height of 128 feet above sea level ( 42°17′56″N 70°55′54″W  /  42.298989°N 70.931764°W  / 42.298989; -70.931764 ), this structure housed

3002-560: The construction of nearby Fort Warren in Boston Harbor. It occupies the entire northeast end of Peddocks Island in Boston Harbor, and was originally called the Peddocks Island Military Reservation . Once an active Coast Artillery post, it was manned by hundreds of soldiers and bristled with mortars and guns that controlled the southern approaches to Boston and Quincy Bay. The fort also served as

3081-479: The death, was somewhat common in the camps. Punishments for major infractions could include death by hanging. German POWs wore shirts with a large red dot painted on the back, an easily identifiable mark outside the camps. Therefore, escapees could be easily found and recaptured. In the wake of the Japanese attacking Hong Kong, the Philippines and Pearl Harbor in which 2000 Canadians were involved, Canadians put

3160-414: The end of the war, when the camp inmates were released, many had lost body parts, and many were starved and faced extreme emaciation . Some prisoners feared execution by the Japanese in response to American bombing. The brutality of the guards caused traumatized prisoners to suffer mental illnesses that persisted for decades afterward. In many cases, survivors of camps were traumatized or ended up living with

3239-480: The fighting). After an initial settling-in period, these prisoner-of-war camps were generally well administered. The number of concentration camps, all located in South Africa, was much higher and a total of 109 of these camps had been constructed by the end of the war - 45 camps for Boer civilians and 64 camps for black Africans. The vast majority of Boers held in the concentration camps were women and children. The concentration camps were generally poorly administered,

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3318-530: The food rations were insufficient to maintain health, standards of hygiene were low, and overcrowding was chronic. Due to these conditions, thousands perished in the 109 concentration camps. Of the Boer women and children held in captivity, over 26,000 died during the war. The first international convention on prisoners of war was signed at the Hague Peace Conference of 1899. It was widened by

3397-480: The fort is the so-called East Side fire control building, completed in 1904. Its position ( 42°18′04″N 70°55′42″W  /  42.301185°N 70.928462°W  / 42.301185; -70.928462 ), 100 ft. high on the hill to the northeast of the parade ground, gave it a commanding view of the southern harbor channels and out to sea. This structure originally contained a vertical base end station for Battery McCook, as well as observation instruments for

3476-411: The fort's armament was impressive. Fort Andrews was the site of one of Boston Harbor's two 12-inch coast defense mortar complexes (the other was Fort Banks ), meant to protect the southern approaches to Boston Harbor. The two pits of Battery Whitman at the northwest end of the fort were initially planned to be the first two pits of a four-pit (16-mortar) battery, in a so-called Abbott Quad design. With

3555-509: The fort's structures were seriously dilapidated or in danger of collapse, and Peddocks Island, normally reachable by ferry from Hull, was temporarily closed to the public. The island was reopened on 8 July 2011. Ft. Andrews is unusual in the number of different types of fire control structures it has. These were to house the evolving Coast Artillery fire control system . These were constructed beginning in 1904, with new structures built through World War II. The oldest fire control structure at

3634-419: The fort. Island residents also told of the blast from the mortar barrels igniting brush fires on the grassy slopes of the mortar pits. In addition, the fort had two 6-inch guns of Battery McCook (and until 1917 two 5-inch guns of Battery Rice) and two 3-inch guns of Battery Bumpus in concrete emplacements at the top of the bluff northeast of the fort, overlooking Nantasket Roads (the main channel to Quincy Bay),

3713-575: The four field army plan on 1 October 1933, the mobile units of the First Corps Area were reassigned to the First Army or GHQ Reserve, or were demobilized. For the administration of Organized Reserve units, all organizations initially came under the control of the I Corps, or the 76th, 94th, and 97th Divisions. When the XI Corps was inactivated in 1925, the HQ, Non-Divisional Group was established to direct

3792-660: The functions of money as a medium of exchange because they were generally accepted among the prisoners for settling payments or debts, and the function of money as a unit of account, because prices of other goods were expressed in terms of cigarettes. Compared with other goods, the supply of cigarettes was more stable, as they were rationed in the POW camps, and cigarettes were more divisible, portable, and homogeneous. The International Red Cross visited United Nations-run POW camps, often unannounced, noting prisoner hygiene, quality of medical care, variety of diet, and weight gain. They talked to

3871-536: The guns were never delivered. This small (13-foot square) structure housed a Barr and Stroud CRF device that, with a length of 9 ft., must have made for very cramped quarters. The third fire control station on the east side, also built in 1925, was the small pillbox that housed a second depression position finder (DPF) for Battery McCook. The position of this emplacement ( 42°18′09″N 70°55′48″W  /  42.302381°N 70.930062°W  / 42.302381; -70.930062 ), about 350 ft. northwest of

3950-625: The hardest part was surviving the Canadian winters. Most camps were isolated and located in the far north. Death and sickness caused by the elements was common. Many camps were only lightly watched, and as such, many Germans attempted escape. Tunnelling was the most common method. Peter Krug, an escapee from a prison located in Bowmanville, Ontario , managed to escape along the railroads, using forests as cover. He made his way to Toronto , where he then travelled to Texas . Fighting, sometimes to

4029-502: The international community to benefit the communist negotiation team. In May 1952, Chinese and North Korean prisoners rioted and took Brigadier General Francis T. Dodd captive. In 1952 the camp's administration were afraid that the prisoners would riot and demonstrate on May Day (a day honoring Communism) and so United States Navy ships (such as the USS Gunston Hall ) removed 15,000 North Korean and Chinese prisoners from

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4108-556: The island and moved them to prison facilities at Ulsan and Cheju-do. These ships also participated in Operation Big Switch in September 1953 when prisoners were exchanged at the end of the war. The Chinese operated three types of POW camps during the Korean war. Peace camps housed POWs who were sympathetic to communism, reform camps were intended for skilled POWs who were to be indoctrinated in communist ideologies and

4187-660: The lead up to the Second World War, Japan had engaged in several conflicts aimed at expanding its empire, most notably the Second Sino-Japanese War . Although maintaining its neutrality at the outbreak of war in Europe, in 1941 the Japanese military launched surprise attacks on Hong Kong , Singapore , Thailand , the Philippines , and Pearl Harbor , which had brought the United States into

4266-544: The minimum required to sustain life, and many were forced into labour. After March 20, 1943, the Imperial Navy was under orders to execute all prisoners taken at sea. Japanese POW camps are found throughout south-east Asia and the Japanese conquered territories. The Great Escape from Stalag Luft III, on the night of March 24, 1944, involved the escape of 76 Allied servicemen, although only three were able to avoid recapture. The Cowra breakout , on August 5, 1944,

4345-736: The number of prisoners was to lead eventually to the development of the prisoner of war camps. Following General John Burgoyne 's surrender at the Battle of Saratoga in 1777, several thousand British and German ( Hessian and Brunswick) troops were marched to Cambridge, Massachusetts . For various reasons, the Continental Congress desired to move them south. For this purpose, one of the congressmen offered his land outside of Charlottesville, Virginia . The remaining soldiers (some 2,000 British, upwards of 1,900 German, and roughly 300 women and children) marched south in late 1778—arriving at

4424-465: The one in Krasnoyarsk. There was a point where a large mix of nationalities was together in Krasnoyarsk which included Bulgarians, Czechs, Germans, and Poles. Many prisoners were nationalists, which led to violence within the camp. Militants would be forced to put down the instigators and keep the camp running. From autumn 1920, thousands of captured Red Army soldiers and guards had been placed in

4503-479: The organization, training, and administration of all nondivisional units. This arrangement was short-lived. On 8 September 1925, the Non-Divisional Group was discontinued and the HQ, Artillery Group was established. This new group managed only the corps area nondivisional field artillery units, the 158th Cavalry Brigade (part of the 64th Cavalry Division , Organized Reserves), and personnel assigned to

4582-493: The other being Fort Strong , on Long Island, and after the demolition of almost all of Fort Strong's wooden structures in about 2005 to make way for a children's camp, Fort Andrews is the sole survivor of its type in Massachusetts. In 1910 the four M1890 mortars of Battery Whitman, Pit A, were removed to provide half the armament for Battery Geary at Fort Mills on Corregidor Island in the Philippines . In 1913 Pit A

4661-492: The parade ground. Located ( 42°17′57″N 70°55′55″W  /  42.299118°N 70.931906°W  / 42.299118; -70.931906 ) about 80 ft. northwest of the 1944 bunker described above, this building has now collapsed under the weight of fallen trees, and its remaining walls are shaky. The building was built in a 15 ft. deep pit, with only its observation windows likely projecting above ground level, and today (in 2010) this renders it almost invisible until

4740-413: The primary training center for corps area infantry units only. Air corps units were sent to Mitchel Field , New York, engineer units to Fort Du Pont , Delaware ; and signal corps units were sent to Camp Alfred Vail (later renamed Fort Monmouth ), New Jersey . Corps area maneuvers of Regular Army mobile units were held, those years when funds were available, near Fort Ethan Allen. With the adoption of

4819-697: The prison population steadily rose, and by early 1966, there was no space to accommodate additional prisoners in the existing jails and prisons. In 1965, plans were made to construct five POW camps, each with an initial capacity of 1,000 prisoners and to be staffed by the South Vietnamese military police, with U.S. military policemen as a prisoner of war advisers assigned to each stockade. The United States of America refused to grant prisoner-of-war status to many prisoners captured during its War in Afghanistan (2001–2021) and 2003 invasion of Iraq . This

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4898-462: The prisoner population had increased to 652,000 living in unsatisfactory conditions. In response, the government began constructing permanent camps both in Germany and the occupied territories. The number of prisoners increased significantly during the war, exceeding one million by August 1915 and 1,625,000 by August 1916, and reaching 2,415,000 by the end of the war. The International Committee of

4977-685: The prisoners and asked for their comments on conditions, as well as providing them with copies of the Geneva Convention. The IRC delegates dispersed boots, soap, and other requested goods. A prison camp was established on the island of Koje-do , where over 170,000 communist and non-communist prisoners were held from December 1950 until June 1952. Throughout 1951 and early 1952, upper-level communist agents infiltrated and conquered much of Koje section-by-section by uniting fellow communists; bending dissenters to their will through staged trials and public executions; and exporting allegations of abuse to

5056-524: The prisoners, stepping on the wires. Or the guards would tie a prisoner on a tree by their thumbs, with their toes barely touching the ground, and leave them there for two days without food or water. After the two days of torture, the prisoner would be jailed prior to execution, after which their corpses would later be burnt. Life in the POW camps was recorded at great risk to themselves by artists such as Jack Bridger Chalker , Philip Meninsky , John Mennie , Ashley George Old , and Ronald Searle . Human hair

5135-527: The remaining prisoners were moved to Frederick, Maryland ; Winchester, Virginia ; and perhaps elsewhere. No remains of the encampment site are left. The earliest known purpose-built prisoner-of-war camp was established by the Kingdom of Great Britain at Norman Cross , in 1797 to house the increasing number of prisoners from the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars . The prison operated until 1814 and held between 3,300 and 6,272 men. Lacking

5214-527: The shipyards beyond, and (formerly) the southern entrance to Boston Harbor itself. The gun emplacements can still be seen, but they are seriously deteriorated and somewhat dangerous to visit. Fort Andrews was constructed in 1898-1904, one of many forts of the Endicott program , including an initial seven forts in the Boston area. Fort Andrews was one of two Endicott period forts of this size in Boston Harbor,

5293-586: The site (near Ivy Creek) in January 1779. Since the barracks were barely sufficient in construction, the officers were paroled to live as far away as Richmond and Staunton . The camp was never adequately provisioned, but the prisoners built a theater on the site. Hundreds escaped Albemarle Barracks because of the shortage of guards. As the British Army moved northward from the Carolinas in late 1780,

5372-465: The southern approaches to the harbor with projectiles weighing over 1,000 pounds (450 kg) each. Three of the mortar pits are still visible. The fourth (the most easterly of Cushing's two pits — Pit A) has been partially filled with debris from the recent demolition of other structures at the fort. The Boston press reported that when the mortars were test-fired in the 1920, they literally blew doors off of nearby barracks buildings and broke windows at

5451-597: The surrounding desert. Over the next few weeks all were recaptured. The escape of Felice Benuzzi, Giovanni ('Giuàn') Balletto, and Vincenzo ('Enzo') Barsotti from Camp 354 in Nanyuki, Kenya, on a lark to climb Mount Kenya is of particular note. The account is recorded by Benuzzi in No Picnic on Mount Kenya . After their attempt to climb Mount Kenya, the trio "escaped" back into Camp 354. After World War I , when around 40 million civilians and prisoners could not be saved,

5530-419: The third type was the normal POW camps . Chinese policy did not allow for the exchange of prisoners in the first two camp types. While these POW camps were designated numerically by the communists, the POWs often gave the camps a colloquial name. By the end of 1965, Viet Cong suspects, prisoners of war, and even juvenile delinquents were mixed together in South Vietnamese jails and prisons. After June 1965,

5609-427: The time. Available data shows many cases of mistreatment of Polish prisoners. There have been also cases of Polish POWs' being executed by the Soviet army, when no POW facilities were available. The 1929 Geneva Convention on the Prisoners of War established certain provisions relative to the treatment of prisoners of war. One requirement was that POW camps were to be open to inspection by authorised representatives of

5688-510: The war on the side of the Allies. In 1942, after they had captured Hong Kong from the British, the Japanese established several prisoner-of-war camps in Kowloon to house Allied prisoners of war. Believing it was shameful to be captured alive in combat, the Japanese ran their prisoner-of-war camps brutally, with many Allied prisoners of war dying in them. The Japanese field army code included

5767-487: The war guarding the southern approaches to Boston Harbor. The fort also served as a prisoner-of-war camp for Italian prisoners during World War II, who were employed as laborers following the Italian surrender to the Allies in 1943. In 1946, Ft. Andrews was decommissioned by the Army, and in the 1970s it was purchased, along with the rest of Peddocks Island, by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. In 2010, most of

5846-406: The wounded and the needy. This program saved thousands of lives as plasma donations were delivered to the camps and bases. However, the Red Cross only accepted donations from white Americans and excluded those of Japanese, Italian, German and African Americans . To combat this, activists tried to fight such segregation back home with arguments that blood of Whites and blood of Blacks is the same. In

5925-445: Was mainly because it classed them as insurgents or terrorists , which did not meet the requirements laid down by the Third Geneva Convention of 1949 such as being part of a chain of command , wearing a "fixed distinctive marking, visible from a distance", bearing arms openly, and conducting military operations in accordance with the laws and customs of war . The legality of this refusal has been questioned and cases are pending in

6004-451: Was mainly fought in Europe and western Russia, East Asia, and the Pacific; there were no invasions of Canada. The few prisoners of war sent to Canada included Japanese and German soldiers, captured U-boat crews, and prisoners from raids such as Dieppe and Normandy. The camps meant for German POWs were smaller than those meant for Japanese prisoners of war and were far less brutal. German prisoners generally benefitted from good food. However,

6083-736: Was often used for brushes, plant juices and blood for paint, and toilet paper as the "canvas". Some of their works were used as evidence in the trials of Japanese war criminals. Many are now held by the Australian War Memorial , State Library of Victoria , and the Imperial War Museum in London. The State Library of Victoria exhibited many of these works under the title The Major Arthur Moon Collection , in 1995. In 2016, war historian Antony Beevor (who had recently completed his book The Second World War ), said that

6162-469: Was rearmed with four M1908 mortars. World War I brought further changes to Fort Andrews' armament. In February 1917 Battery Rice's two 5-inch guns were transferred to Fort Story at Cape Henry , Virginia for an emergency battery. The 5-inch gun was withdrawn from Coast Artillery service shortly after the war, and these guns were never replaced. In August 1917, Battery McCook's two 6-inch guns were ordered dismounted for potential service on field carriages on

6241-683: Was the commanding general from 15 July 1941–11 January 1942. Soon afterwards, the Assistant Chief of Staff, G-2, Brigadier General Sherman Miles , marked for his directorate's intelligence failure before the Attack on Pearl Harbor , was promoted to major general but then given the relatively unimportant command of First CASC. First CASC was again redesignated First Service Command, part of the Second World War Army Service Forces , on 22 July 1942. By 1943, it had

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