Abd Allah ibn Wahb al-Rasibi †
119-617: The First Fitna was the first civil war in the Islamic community. It led to the overthrow of the Rashidun Caliphate and the establishment of the Umayyad Caliphate . The civil war involved three main battles between the fourth Rashidun caliph, Ali , and the rebel groups. The roots of the first civil war can be traced back to the assassination of the second caliph , Umar . Before he died from his wounds, Umar formed
238-587: A six-member council which elected Uthman as the next caliph. During the final years of Uthman's caliphate, he was accused of nepotism and killed by rebels in 656. After Uthman's assassination, Ali was elected the fourth caliph. Aisha , Talha , and Zubayr revolted against Ali to depose him. The two parties fought the Battle of the Camel in December 656, from which Ali emerged victorious. Afterward, Mu'awiya ,
357-461: A block of land on which he built his own house. He was made the brother in Islam of Sa'id ibn Zayd . Talha and Sa'id missed fighting at the Battle of Badr because Muhammad sent them as scouts to locate Abu Sufyan's caravan. However, both were awarded shares of the plunder, as if they had been present. Talha distinguished himself at the Battle of Uhud by keeping close to Muhammad while most of
476-591: A brief siege in July 634 ( see Battle of Bosra ), effectively ending the dynasty of the Ghassanids . From Bosra, Khalid sent orders to the other corps commanders to join him at Ajnadayn, where, according to early Muslim historians, a Byzantine army of 90,000 (modern sources state 9,000) was concentrated to push back the Muslims. The Byzantine army was defeated decisively on 30 July 634 in the Battle of Ajnadayn . It
595-618: A civil war he caused, Zubayr was pursued and killed by the troops of al-Ahnaf bin Qays , a chief of the Banu Sa'd who had remained on the sidelines of the battle. Talha was killed by the Umayyad Marwan ibn al-Hakam . With the deaths of Talha and Zubayr, the fate of the battle was sealed in favor of Ali. However, the fight continued until Ali's troops succeeded in killing Aisha's camel, which her forces had rallied around. From this camel,
714-586: A few short decades would lead to one of the largest empires in history . Abu Bakr began with Iraq , the richest province of the Sasanian Empire . He sent general Khalid ibn al-Walid to invade the Sassanian Empire in 633. He thereafter also sent four armies to invade the Roman province of Syria , but the decisive operation was only undertaken when Khalid, after completing the conquest of Iraq,
833-521: A fight. Abu Ubaida himself, along with Khalid, moved to northern Syria to reconquer it with a 17,000-man army. Khalid, along with his cavalry, was sent to Hazir and Abu Ubaidah moved to the city of Qasreen. Khalid defeated a strong Byzantine army at the Battle of Hazir and reached Qasreen before Abu Ubaidah. The city surrendered to Khalid, and soon after, Abu Ubaidah arrived in June 637. Abu Ubaidah then moved against Aleppo , with Khalid, as usual, commanding
952-431: A governor ( amir ) and a financial officer called an amil . These new posts were integral to the efficient network of taxation that financed the empire. With the bounty secured from conquest, Umar was able to support its faith in material ways: the companions of Muhammad were given pensions on which to live, allowing them to pursue religious studies and exercise spiritual leadership in their communities and beyond. Umar
1071-535: A group separated from Ali when he agreed to settle the dispute with Mu'awiya through arbitration, a move considered by the group as against the Quran. Most of them had pressured Ali to accept the arbitration, but subsequently reversed course and declared that the right to judgment belonged to God alone. While Ali largely succeeded in regaining their support, the remaining opponents of arbitration gathered in Nahrawan, on
1190-402: A man following them, holding an order to execute them, at which point, the protesters returned to Uthman's home, bearing the order. Uthman swore that he did not write the order and to talk the protesters down. The protesters responded by demanding he step down as caliph. Uthman refused and returned to his room, whereupon the protesters broke into Uthman's house from the back and killed him while he
1309-639: A new force, which made a stand at the Battle of Nihawānd , some forty miles south of Hamadan in modern Iran . The Rashidun army, under the command of Umar's appointed general Nu'man ibn Muqarrin al-Muzani, attacked and again defeated the Persian forces. The Muslims proclaimed it the Victory of Victories (Fath alfotuh), as it marked the End of the Sasanians , shattering the last strongest Sasanian army. Yazdegerd
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#17327651195611428-549: A perilous march of 5 days, appeared in north-western Syria. The border forts of Sawa , Arak , Tadmur , Sukhnah , al-Qaryatayn and Hawarin were the first to fall to the invading Muslims. Khalid marched on to Bosra via the Damascus road. At Bosra, the Corps of Abu Ubaidah and Shurhabil joined Khalid, upon which, per Abu Bakr's orders, Khalid assumed overall command from Abu Ubaidah. Bosra, caught unprepared, surrendered after
1547-481: A representative that he would recognize Ali as caliph in exchange for the governorship of Syria and Egypt for life. Ali rejected this proposal. In response, Mu'awiya declared war on Ali on behalf of the Syrians, demanding vengeance for Uthman's death. The governor aimed to depose Ali and establish a Syrian council to appoint the next caliph, who would presumably be Mu'awiya himself. Ali responded by letter that Mu'awiya
1666-493: A third faction known as Kharijites , who were former supporters of Ali, rebelled against both Ali and Mu'awiya after refusing to accept the arbitration in the Battle of Siffin . The war led to the overthrow of the Rashidun Caliphate and the establishment of the Umayyad Caliphate in 661 by Mu'awiya. The civil war permanently consolidated the divide between Sunni and Shia Muslims, with Shia Muslims believing Ali to be
1785-534: Is also remembered for establishing the Islamic calendar; like the Arabian calendar, it is lunar , but the origin is set in 622, the year of the Hijra when Muhammad emigrated to Medina. While Umar was leading the morning prayers in 644, he was assassinated by the Persian slave Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz . He appointed Suhayb ibn Sinan to lead the prayers. Before Umar died, he appointed a committee of six men to decide on
1904-465: Is considered in Sunni Islam to have been 'rightly-guided', meaning that it constitutes a model ( sunnah ) to be followed and emulated from a religious point of view. This term is not used by Shia Muslims , who reject the rule of the first three caliphs as illegitimate. After Muhammad 's death in 632 CE (11 AH ), his Medinan companions debated which of them should succeed him in running
2023-625: Is known as the Battle of the Iron Bridge . The Muslim army defeated the Byzantines and Antioch surrendered on 30 October 637 CE. Later during the year, Abu Ubaidah sent Khalid and Iyad ibn Ghanm at the head of two separate armies against the western part of Jazira , most of which was conquered without strong resistance, including parts of Anatolia, Edessa and the area up to the Ararat plain . Other columns were sent to Anatolia as far west as
2142-620: Is mostly known for being among al-ʿashara al-mubashshara ('the ten to whom Paradise was promised'). He played an important role in the Battle of Uhud and the Battle of the Camel , in which he died. According to Sunnis, he was given the title "the Generous" by Muhammad. However, Shia Muslims do not honour him. Talha was born c.594, A member of the Taym clan of the Quraysh in Mecca , Talha
2261-674: The Banu Adi clan. Under Umar, the caliphate expanded at an unprecedented rate, ruling more than two-thirds of the Byzantine Empire and nearly the entire Sasanian Empire . Umar was assassinated in November 644 and was succeeded by Uthman, a member of the Banu Umayya clan, who was elected by a six-person committee arranged by Umar. Under Uthman, the caliphate concluded its conquest of Persia in 651 and continued expeditions into
2380-572: The Battle of Muzieh , then the Battle of Sanni , and finally the Battle of Zumail . These devastating defeats ended Persian control over Iraq. In December 633, Khalid reached the border city of Firaz, where he defeated the combined forces of the Sasanian Persians , Byzantines and Christian Arabs in the Battle of Firaz . This was the last battle in his conquest of Iraq. Khalid then left Mesopotamia to lead another campaign in Syria against
2499-469: The Battle of River , fought in the third week of April 633; the Battle of Walaja , fought in May 633 (where he successfully used a pincer movement ), and the Battle of Ullais , fought in mid-May of 633. In the last week of May 633, the capital city of Iraq fell to the Muslims after initial resistance in the Battle of Hira . After resting his armies, Khalid moved in June 633 towards Anbar , which resisted and
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#17327651195612618-680: The Battle of the Bridge in which Abu Ubayd was killed. The response was delayed until after a decisive Muslim victory against the Romans in the Levant at the Battle of Yarmouk in 636. Umar was then able to transfer forces to the east and resume the offensive against the Sasanians. Umar dispatched 36,000 men along with 7500 troops from the Syrian front, under the command of Sa`d ibn Abī Waqqās against
2737-584: The Byzantine Empire to recover. The first Islamic invasion of the Sasanian Empire, launched by Caliph Abu Bakr in 633, was a swift conquest, taking only four months. Abu Bakr sent his general, Khalid ibn al-Walid, to conquer Mesopotamia after the Ridda wars . After entering Iraq with his army of 18,000, Khalid won decisive victories in four consecutive battles: the Battle of Chains , fought in April 633;
2856-610: The Hashim clan (the clan of Muhammad), appointing Talha, Ali ibn Abi Talib and Zubayr each as commanders of one-third of the newly organised force. For the rest of his life, Talha served Majlis-ash-Shura as a council member of the Rashidun caliphate. In 635 to 636, caliph Umar assembled his council, including Zubayr, Ali and Talha, about the battle plan to face the Persian army of Rostam Farrokhzad in Qadisiyyah. At first
2975-509: The Quraysh , who had enjoyed significant authority during the reign of his two predecessors. He appointed his kinsmen to all of the provincial governorships. Although Uthman continued Muslim expansion in Persia and Egypt, these conquests came to a halt by the later half of his reign. The influx of spoils slowed, magnifying economic issues that had previously been tempered by incoming revenue. This
3094-498: The Taurus Mountains , the important city of Marash , and Malatya , which were all conquered by Khalid in the autumn of 638 CE. During Uthman's reign, the Byzantines recaptured many forts in the region and on Uthman's orders, a series of campaigns were launched to regain control of them. In 647 Muawiyah , the governor of Syria, sent an expedition against Anatolia, invading Cappadocia and sacking Caesarea Mazaca . In 648
3213-730: The Transcaucasus in the north; North Africa from Egypt to present-day Tunisia in the west; and the Iranian Plateau to parts of Central and South Asia in the east. The four Rashidun caliphs were chosen by a small electoral body – consisting of prominent members of the high-ranking companions of the Prophet ;– called shūrā ( شُورَى , lit. ' consultation ' ). The Arabic word rāshidūn (singular: rāshid راشد ) means "rightly-guided". The reign of these four caliphs
3332-503: The campaigns of Muhammad . During the Expedition of Dhu Qarad , Talha personally sponsored the operation through his wealth, thus causing Muhammad to give him the sobriquet "Talha al-Fayyad". Talha is included among the ten to whom Paradise was promised . In the third week of July 632, Medina faced an imminent invasion by the apostate forces of Tulayha , a self-proclaimed prophet. Abu Bakr scraped together an army mainly from
3451-660: The "orthodox" or "patriarchal" caliphs. The caliphate arose following Muhammad’s death in June 632 and the subsequent debate over the succession to his leadership . Muhammad's close companion Abu Bakr, of the Banu Taym clan, was elected the first caliph in Medina and he began the conquest of the Arabian Peninsula . His brief reign ended in August 634 when he died and was succeeded by Umar, his appointed successor from
3570-529: The Ansar for his succession, explained by the genealogical links he shared with them. Whether his candidacy for the succession was raised during Saqifah is unknown, though it is not unlikely. Abu Bakr later sent Umar to confront Ali to gain his allegiance, resulting in an altercation which may have involved violence. However, after six months the group made peace with Abu Bakr and Ali offered him his fealty. Troubles emerged soon after Muhammad's death, threatening
3689-642: The Arabian tribes, which had claimed that although they pledged allegiance to Muhammad and accepted Islam, they owed nothing to Abu Bakr. As a caliph, Abu Bakr was not a monarch and never claimed such a title; nor did any of his three successors. Rather, their election and leadership were based upon merit . Notably, according to Sunnis, all four Rashidun Caliphs were connected to Muhammad through marriage, were early converts to Islam, were among ten who were explicitly promised paradise , were his closest companions by association and support and were often highly praised by Muhammad and delegated roles of leadership within
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3808-641: The Byzantine Empire, after which Mithna ibn Haris took command in Mesopotamia. The Persians once again concentrated armies to regain Mesopotamia, while Mithna ibn Haris withdrew from central Iraq to the region near the Arabian desert to delay war until reinforcement came from Medina. Umar sent reinforcements under the command of Abu Ubayd al-Thaqafi . This army was defeated by the Sasanian army at
3927-529: The Byzantine army was at Fahl, which was joined by survivors of Ajnadayn. With this threat at their rear, the Muslim armies could not move further north nor south. Thus Abu Ubaidah decided to deal with the situation, and defeated and routed this garrison at the Battle of Fahl on 23 January 635, which proved to be the "Key to Palestine". After this battle Abu Ubaidah and Khalid marched north towards Emesa ; Yazid
4046-549: The Byzantine territories. Uthman was assassinated in June 656, and succeeded by Ali, a member of the Banu Hashim clan, who transferred the capital to Kufa . Ali presided over the civil war called the First Fitna as his suzerainty was unrecognized by Uthman's kinsman and Syria's governor Mu'awiya ibn Abu Sufyan ( r. 661–680 ), who believed that Uthman's murderers should be punished immediately. Additionally,
4165-535: The Caliphate's existence, the empire was the most powerful economic, cultural, and military force in West Asia and Northeast Africa . In Sunni Islam , the caliphate is considered to have been 'rightly guided' (the meaning of al-Rāshidūn ; الراشدون ), meaning that it constitutes a model ( sunna ) to be followed and emulated from a religious point of view. The caliphs are also known in Muslim history as
4284-676: The Christian Arab auxiliaries of the Roman army in a skirmish . Nothing further happened until the third week of August, during which the Battle of Yarmouk was fought. The battle lasted 6 days during which Abu Ubaida transferred the command of the entire army to Khalid. Outnumbered five-to-one, the Muslims nevertheless defeated the Byzantine army in October 636. Abu Ubaida held a meeting with his high command officers, including Khalid, to decide on future conquests, settling on Jerusalem . The siege of Jerusalem lasted four months, after which
4403-576: The Kharijite Abd al-Rahman ibn Muljam . After the assassination of Ali in January 661, his eldest son, Hasan , was elected caliph in Kufa. Mu'awiya quickly marched on Kufa with a large army, while Hasan's military response suffered defections in large numbers. These were facilitated by military commanders and tribal chiefs who had been swayed to Mu'awiya's side by promises and offers of money. Hasan
4522-572: The Kharijites disemboweled a farmer's pregnant wife, cut out and killed her unborn infant, before beheading the farmer. Kharijites have been viewed as the forerunners of Islamic extremists . Ali received the news of the Kharijites' violence and moved to Nahrawan with his army. There, he asked the Kharjites to surrender the murderers and return to their families. The Kharijites, however, responded defiantly that they were collectively responsible for
4641-449: The Muslim army fled. He protected Muhammad's face from an arrow by taking the shot in his own hand, as a result of which his index and middle fingers were cut. He was also hit twice in the head, and it was said that he suffered a total of 39 or 75 wounds. Toward the end of the battle, Talha fainted from his heavy injuries, Abu Bakar soon reached their location to check Muhammad condition first, who immediately instructing Abu Bakar to check
4760-472: The Muslim cavalry, under Khalid's command, attacked the Roman army by catching up to them using an unknown shortcut at the battle of Maraj-al-Debaj . On 22 August 634, Abu Bakr died, making Umar his successor. As Umar became caliph, he restored Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah to the overall command of the Muslim armies. The conquest of Syria slowed down under him while he relied heavily on the advice of Khalid, who he kept close at hand. The last large garrison of
4879-402: The Persian . Demands to take revenge for the assassination of Caliph Uthman rose among parts of the population, and a large army of rebels led by Zubayr , Talha and the widow of Muhammad, Aisha , set out to fight the perpetrators. The army reached Basra and captured it, whereupon 4,000 suspected seditionists were put to death. Subsequently, Ali turned towards Basra and the caliph's army met
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4998-574: The Persian army. The Battle of al-Qādisiyyah followed, with the Persians prevailing at first, but, on the third day of fighting, the Muslims gained the upper hand. The legendary Persian general Rostam Farrokhzād was killed during the battle. According to some sources, the Persian losses were 20,000, and the Arabs lost 10,500 men. Following this Battle, the Arab Muslim armies pushed forward toward
5117-573: The Persian capital of Ctesiphon (also called Madā'in in Arabic), which was quickly evacuated by Yazdgird after a brief siege . After seizing the city, they continued their drive eastwards, following Yazdgird and his remaining troops. Within a short span of time, the Arab armies defeated a major Sasanian counterattack in the Battle of Jalūlā', as well as other engagements at Qasr-e Shirin , and Masabadhan. By
5236-413: The Persian government was, however, incitement to revolt in the conquered territories and unlike the Byzantine army, the Sasanian army was continuously striving to regain their lost territories. Finally, Umar pressed forward, which eventually resulted in the wholesale conquest of the Sasanian Empire. Yazdegerd, the Sasanian king, made yet another effort to regroup and defeat the invaders. By 641 he had raised
5355-498: The Rashidun army raided Phrygia . A major offensive into Cilicia and Isauria in 650–651 forced the Byzantine Emperor Constans II to enter into negotiations with Muawiyah. The truce that followed allowed a short respite and made it possible for Constans II to hold on to the western portions of Armenia . In 654–655, on the orders of Uthman, an expedition prepared to attack Constantinople , but this plan
5474-804: The Taym clan came to help. Thereafter they were known as "the Two Tied Together". In September 622, when Talha was returning from a business trip to Syria, he met with the Muslims who had left Mecca and were emigrating to Medina . Talha gave them some Syrian garments and mentioned that the Muslim community in Medina had said that their prophet was slow to arrive. As Muhammad and Abu Bakr continued to Medina, Talha returned to Mecca to put his affairs in order. Soon afterwards, he accompanied Abu Bakr's family to Medina, where he settled. At first he lodged with As'ad ibn Zurara , but later Muhammad gave him
5593-539: The affairs of the Muslims while Muhammad's household was busy with his burial. Umar and Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah pledged their loyalty to Abu Bakr , with the Ansar and the Quraysh soon following suit. Abu Bakr adopted the title of Khalīfaṫ Rasūl Allāh ( خَلِيفةُ رَسُولِ اللهِ , "Successor of the Messenger of God") or simply caliph. Abu Bakr embarked on campaigns to propagate Islam. First he would have to subdue
5712-607: The age of 46. It is believed that he was poisoned at the instigation of Mu'awiya. Rashidun Caliphate The Rashidun Caliphate ( Arabic : ٱلْخِلَافَةُ ٱلرَّاشِدَةُ , romanized : al-Khilāfah ar-Rāšidah ) consisted of the first four successive caliphs (lit. 'successors') who led the Muslim community following the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad in 632 – Abu Bakr ( r. 632–634 ), Umar ( r. 634–644 ), Uthman ( r. 644–656 ), and Ali ( r. 656–661 ). During
5831-484: The aid of Amr ibn al-As . In 661, Ali was assassinated by the Kharijite Abd al-Rahman ibn Muljam . After Ali's death, his heir Hasan was elected caliph and soon after attacked by Mu'awiya. The embattled Hasan concluded a peace treaty , acknowledging the rule of Mu'awiya, who subsequently founded the Umayyad Caliphate and ruled as its first caliph. Following Muhammad 's death in 632, Abu Bakr became
5950-428: The army himself, but Ali urged the caliph to instead delegate the battlefield commands to the field commanders, prompting the caliph decides instead delegate the reinforcement commands to Zubayr, Tulayha, Amr ibn Ma'adi Yakrib , Abdullah ibn Amr , Al-Ash'ath ibn Qays and others under the command of Al-Nu'man ibn Muqrin to go to Nahavand, to face the army of the Sasanian Empire in the battle of Nahavand . Talha
6069-536: The battle received its name. After admonishing Aisha, Ali sent her back to Medina, escorted by her brother. Ali also announced a public pardon and set the prisoners free. This pardon was also extended to high-profile rebels, including Marwan, who soon joined with his Umayyad kinsman Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan, the governor of Syria , as a senior advisor. Shortly after assuming power, Ali dismissed most governors whom he considered corrupt, including Mu'awiya, Uthman's cousin. Mu'awiya refused to step down and informed Ali through
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#17327651195616188-543: The caliph heard that Sassanid forces from Mah, Qom , Hamadan , Ray , Isfahan , Azerbaijan , and Nahavand had gathered in Nahavand to counter the Arab invasion. Caliph Umar responded by assembling a war council consisting of Zubayr, Ali, Uthman ibn Affan, Talha, Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas, Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf, and Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib to discuss the strategy to face the Sassanids in Nahavand. The caliph want to lead
6307-419: The caliph himself led the forces from Arabia to Iraq, but the council urges Umar not to lead the army in person and instead appoint someone else, as his presence was needed more urgently in the capital. Umar agreed and asked the council to suggest a commander. The council agreed to send Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas ; Sa'd served as the overall commander on Persian conquest and won the Battle of al-Qadisiyyah . Later,
6426-404: The capital, Medina . Uthman succeeded Umar upon the latter's assassination by a slave in 644. The new caliph's policies elicited discontent among the Muslim elite as well as accusations of nepotism. He began centralizing power by relying on his Umayyad relatives, who had long opposed Muhammad before converting to Islam in 630. His favor toward relatives was to the exclusion of other members of
6545-416: The cavalry. After the Battle of Aleppo the city finally agreed to surrender in October 637. Abu Ubaidah and Khalid ibn al-Walid, after conquering all of northern Syria, moved north towards Anatolia taking the fort of Azaz to clear the flank and rear of Byzantine troops. On their way to Antioch, a Roman army blocked them near a river on which there was an iron bridge. Because of this, the following battle
6664-450: The city agreed to surrender, but only to Caliph Umar Ibn Al Khattab in person. Amr ibn Al As suggested that Khalid should be sent as Caliph, because of his very strong resemblance to Caliph Umar. Khalid was recognized and eventually, Caliph Umar ibn Al Khattab came and Jerusalem surrendered in April 637. Abu Ubaida sent Amr bin al-As, Yazid bin Abu Sufyan, and Sharjeel bin Hassana back to their areas to reconquer them; most submitted without
6783-451: The city in March 636. The prisoners taken in the battle informed them about Emperor Heraclius's plans to take back Syria. They said that an army possibly 200,000 strong would soon emerge to recapture the province. Khalid stopped here on June 636. As soon as Abu Ubaida heard the news of the advancing Byzantine army, he gathered all his officers to plan their next move. Khalid suggested that they should consolidate all of their forces present in
6902-406: The condition of Talha, who already passed out due to his severe bloodloss. and his hand was left paralysed. For this heroic defence of Muhammad, Talha earned the byname "the living martyr". Talha is said to be the anonymous believer counted as a "martyr" in Quran 33:23 . Abu Bakr also called the battle of Uhud "the day of Talha". Talha fought at the Battle of the Trench and all
7021-465: The crown lands of Iraq as state assets, and demanded that the provincial surplus be forwarded to the caliph. This interference in provincial affairs brought about widespread opposition to his rule, especially from Iraq and Egypt, where the majority of the conquering armies had settled. Encouraged by the Medinese elite including prominent figures like Talha, Zubayr, Amr ibn al-As (a former governor of Egypt who Uthman deposed), and Muhammad's widow Aisha ,
7140-549: The east bank of the Tigris . Due to their exodus, this group became known as the Kharijites , from the Arabic for "to go out" or "to rise in revolt". The Kharijites elected Abd Allah ibn Wahb al-Rasibi as their caliph. They denounced Ali's leadership, and declared him, his followers, and the Syrians to be infidels. They declared the shedding blood of such infidels to be licit . The Kharijites began interrogating civilians about their views on Uthman and Ali, and executing those who did not share their views. In one notable incident,
7259-400: The eleventh year of the Hijri. The year 12 Hijri dawned on 18 March 633 with the Arabian peninsula united under the caliph in Medina. After Abu Bakr unified Arabia under Islam, he began the incursions into the Byzantine Empire and the Sasanian Empire . Whether or not he intended a full-out imperial conquest is hard to say; he did, however, set in motion a historical trajectory that in just
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#17327651195617378-403: The erstwhile arbitrator fled to Mecca in disgrace. Conversely, Amr was received triumphantly by Mu'awiya on his return to Syria. After the conclusion of the arbitration in 659 CE, Syrians pledged their allegiance to Mu'awiya as the next caliph. Ali denounced the conduct of the two arbitrators as contrary to the Quran and began to organize a new expedition to Syria. Following the Battle of Siffin,
7497-499: The field. Talha hugged his horse and galloped off the battlefield. He lay down using a stone as a pillow, while the auxiliaries tried to staunch the blood flow. Whenever they stopped pressing, the bleeding resumed. In the end, Talha said, "Stop it. This is an arrow sent by God ." He died of this injury, aged 64. Talha had at least fifteen children by at least eight different women. The known descendants of Talha by his various wives and concubines have divided into six lines. Talha
7616-408: The first rightful caliph and Imam after Muhammad, favouring his bloodline connection to Muhammad. The Rashidun Caliphate is characterized by a 25-year period of rapid military expansion followed by a five-year period of internal strife . The Rashidun Army numbered more than 100,000 men at its peak. By the 650s, in addition to the Arabian Peninsula , the caliphate had subjugated the Levant to
7735-503: The foundations of a political structure that could hold it together. He created the Diwan , a bureau for transacting government affairs. The military was brought directly under state control and into its pay. Crucially, in conquered lands, Umar did not require that non-Muslim populations convert to Islam, nor did he try to centralize government. Instead, he allowed subject populations to retain their religion, language, and customs, and he left their government relatively untouched, imposing only
7854-420: The hand and offered them to the Ansar as potential choices. He was countered with the suggestion that the Quraysh and the Ansar choose a leader each from among themselves, who would then rule jointly. The group grew heated upon hearing this proposal and began to argue amongst themselves. Umar hastily took Abu Bakr's hand and swore his own allegiance to the latter, an example followed by the gathered men. Abu Bakr
7973-466: The incumbent governor of Syria , declared war on Ali, ostensibly to avenge Uthman's death. The two parties fought the Battle of Siffin in July 657, which ended in a stalemate and arbitration. This arbitration was resented by the Kharijites , who declared Ali, Mu'awiya, and their followers infidels. Following Kharijite violence against civilians, Ali's forces crushed them in the Battle of Nahrawan . Soon after, Mu'awiya also seized control of Egypt with
8092-485: The initiation of al-Qumh (wheat) agricultural work among his community. Talha was said to have accumulated his lucrative properties and wealth by exchanging those that he acquired from the battle of Khaybar for the properties in Iraq that were possessed by Arab Hejazi settlers there and from the transaction of several land properties in Hadhramaut with Uthman. Talha is also said to have drawn profits from his lifetime of trade in Syria and Yemen. Talha ibn 'Ubayd Allah
8211-443: The intention of strengthening their position. Ali sent his son Hasan to mobilize troops in Kufa . After Ali arrived in Kufa himself, the combined army marched to Basra. The two armies met outside Basra. After three days of failed negotiations, the battle began in the afternoon of 8 December 656 and lasted until the evening. Zubayr left the field without fighting. Likely for the dishonorable act of leaving his fellow Muslims behind in
8330-409: The lands of the Persian crown and aristocracy were now in Muslim hands. These became state-administered communal property. The revenue was distributed among the conquering troops, who settled in Iraq. Umar also left provincial administration to regional governors, who ruled with considerable autonomy. Provincial surplus was spent on the Muslim settlers of the conquered territories rather than forwarded to
8449-529: The leader of the Muslim community. After reasserting Muslim control over the dissident tribes of Arabia , he sent armies to fight against the empires of Byzantium and Sasanian Persia , initiating a wave of conquests which were continued by his successor Umar ( r. 634–644 ). These battles brought about the near-total collapse of the Sasanians, and restricted the Byzantine Empire to Anatolia , North Africa , and its holdings in Europe. The conquests brought Muslims bounteous revenue and lands. In Iraq ,
8568-486: The lifetime of Muhammad. The first incident of apostasy was fought and concluded while Muhammad still lived; a supposed prophet Aswad Ansi arose and invaded South Arabia ; he was killed on 30 May 632 (6 Rabi' al-Awwal, 11 Hijri) by Governor Fērōz of Yemen, a Persian Muslim. The news of his death reached Medina shortly after the death of Muhammad. The apostasy of al-Yamama was led by another supposed prophet, Musaylimah , who arose before Muhammad's death; other centers of
8687-399: The long conflict between Byzantines and Persians had left both sides militarily exhausted, and the Islamic armies easily prevailed against them. By 640, they had brought all of Mesopotamia , Syria and Palestine under the control of the Rashidun Caliphate; Egypt was conquered by 642, and almost the entire Sassanian Empire by 643. While the caliphate continued its rapid expansion, Umar laid
8806-407: The meeting became concerned about a potential coup and hastened to the gathering. Upon arriving, Abu Bakr addressed the assembled men with a warning that any attempt to elect a leader outside of Muhammad's own tribe, the Quraysh , would likely result in dissension as only they can command the necessary respect among the community. He then took Umar and another companion, Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah , by
8925-698: The mid-7th century, the Arabs controlled all of Mesopotamia, including the area that is now the Iranian province of Khuzestan . It is said that Caliph Umar did not wish to send his troops through the Zagros Mountains and onto the Iranian plateau. One tradition has it that he wished for a "wall of fire" to keep the Arabs and Persians apart. Later commentators explain this as a common-sense precaution against over-extension of his forces. The Arabs had only recently conquered large territories that still had to be garrisoned and administered. The continued existence of
9044-465: The murders. After multiple failed attempts at deescalation, Ali announced an amnesty (that did not apply to murderers) and barred his army from commencing hostilities. The remaining Kharijites, estimated at 2,800, attacked and were vanquished by the vastly superior army of Ali. The injured, estimated at 400, were pardoned by Ali. In January 661, while praying at the Mosque of Kufa , Ali was assassinated by
9163-594: The nascent Muslim community. These caliphs are collectively known in Sunni Islam as the Rashidun , or "Rightly Guided" caliphs ( الْخُلَفاءُ الرّاشِدُونَ , al-Khulafāʾ ar-Rāšidūn ). According to Sunni Muslims, the term Rashidun Caliphate is derived from a famous hadith of Muhammad, where he foretold that the caliphate after him would last for 30 years (the length of the Rashidun Caliphate) and would then be followed by kingship (the Umayyad Caliphate
9282-573: The natives of Medina, took place in the Saqifah (courtyard) of the Banu Sa'ida clan. The general belief at the time was that the purpose of the meeting was for the Ansar to decide on a new leader of the Muslim community among themselves, with the intentional exclusion of the Muhajirun (migrants from Mecca ), though this has later become the subject of debate. Nevertheless, Abu Bakr and Umar, both prominent companions of Muhammad, upon learning of
9401-471: The next caliph and charged them with choosing one of their own numbers. All of the men, like Umar, were from the tribe of Quraysh. The committee narrowed down the choices to two: Uthman and Ali . Ali was from the Banu Hashim clan (the same clan as Muhammad) of the Quraysh tribe, and he was the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad and had been one of his companions from the inception of his mission. Uthman
9520-604: The proceedings likely lasted until mid April 658 CE. At Dumat al-Jandal, the arbitrators reached the verdict that Uthman had been killed wrongfully and that Mu'awiya had the right to seek revenge. According to scholar Wilferd Madelung , this verdict was political rather than judicial, and a blunder of the naive Abu Musa. This verdict strengthened the Syrians' support for Mu'awiya and weakened the position of Ali. The second meeting at Udhruh likely broke up in disarray when Amr violated his earlier agreement with Abu Musa. The Kufan delegation reacted furiously to Abu Musa's concessions, and
9639-431: The province of Syria (Syria, Jordan, Palestine) and then move towards the plain of Yarmouk for battle. Abu Ubaida ordered the Muslim commanders to withdraw from all the conquered areas, return the tributes they had previously gathered, and move towards Yarmuk. Heraclius's army also moved towards Yarmuk, but the Muslim armies reached it in early July 636, a week or two before the Byzantines. Khalid's mobile guard defeated
9758-418: The province of Syria. However, it is regarded more as an attempt by Mu'awiya to assume the caliphate, rather than to take revenge for Uthman's murder. Ali fought Mu'awiya's forces to a stalemate at the Battle of Siffin , and then lost a controversial arbitration that ended with the arbiter, 'Amr ibn al-'As , pronouncing his support for Mu'awiya. After this Ali was forced to fight the Battle of Nahrawan against
9877-608: The provincial opposition subsequently broadened into open rebellion. Dissidents from Egypt and Iraq marched on Medina, killing the caliph in June 656. Ali , Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, was subsequently recognized caliph. Aisha, Talha, and Zubayr opposed Ali's succession and gathered in Mecca, where they demanded vengeance for Uthman's death and the election of a new caliph, presumably either Talha or Zubayr, through consultation. The rebels raised an army and captured Basra from Ali's governor, inflicting heavy casualties on his men, with
9996-428: The rebel army. Though neither Ali nor the leaders of the opposing force, Talha and Zubayr, wanted to fight, a battle broke out at night between the two armies. It is said, according to Sunni Muslim traditions, that those who were involved in the assassination of Uthman initiated combat, as they were afraid that negotiations between Ali and the opposing army would result in their capture and execution. The battle thus fought
10115-549: The rebellious Kharijites , a faction of his former supporters who, as a result of their dissatisfaction with the arbitration, opposed both Ali and Mu'awiya. Weakened by this internal rebellion and a lack of popular support in many provinces, Ali's forces lost control over most of the caliphate's territory to Mu'awiya while large sections of the empire—such as Sicily , North Africa , the coastal areas of Spain and some forts in Anatolia —were also lost to outside empires. In 661, Ali
10234-551: The rebels in the Battle of Dawmat al-Jandal in the last week of August 633. Returning from Arabia, he received news that a large Persian army was assembling. Within a few weeks, he decided to defeat them piecemeal in order to avoid the risk of defeat by a large unified Persian army. Four divisions of Persian and Christian Arab auxiliaries were present at Hanafiz, Zumiel, Sanni, and Muzieh. In November 633, Khalid divided his army into three units, and attacked these auxiliaries one by one from three different sides at night, starting with
10353-538: The rebels were in the Najd , Eastern Arabia (known then as al-Bahrayn ) and South Arabia (known as al-Yaman and including the Mahra ). Many tribes claimed that they had submitted to Muhammad and that with Muhammad's death, their allegiance was ended. Caliph Abu Bakr insisted that they had not just submitted to a leader but joined an ummah ( أُمَّـة , community) of which he was the new head. The result of this situation
10472-532: The regions which were not conquered during Umar's reign; hence, the Rashidun Caliphate's frontiers in the east extended to the lower river Indus and north to the Oxus River . After Khalid consolidated his control of Iraq, Abu Bakr sent four armies to Syria on the Byzantine front under four different commanders: Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah (acting as their supreme commander), Amr ibn al-As , Yazid ibn Abu Sufyan and Shurhabil ibn Hasana . However, their advance
10591-517: The reportedly neutral Abu Musa al-Ashari as their representative. Ali considered Abu Musa politically naive, but appointed him despite these reservations. In an agreement on 2 August, 657 CE, Abu Musa represented Ali's army while Mu'awiya's top general, Amr ibn al-As , represented the other side. The two representatives committed to adhere to the Quran and Sunnah , and to save the Muslim community from war and division. The two arbitrators met together, first at Dumat al-Jandal and then at Udhruh , and
10710-489: The span of 24 years, a vast territory was conquered comprising Mesopotamia , the Levant , parts of Anatolia , and most of the Sasanian Empire . Unlike the Sasanian Persians , the Byzantines, after losing Syria, retreated back to Anatolia. As a result, they also lost Egypt to the invading Rashidun army, although the civil wars among the Muslims halted the war of conquest for many years, and this gave time for
10829-417: The strategic town of Chalcis made peace with the Muslims for one year in order to buy time for Heraclius to prepare his defences and raise new armies. The Muslims welcomed the peace and consolidated their control over the conquered territory. However, as soon as the Muslims received the news of reinforcements being sent to Emesa and Chalcis, they marched against Emesa, laid siege to it and eventually captured
10948-401: The two men. The treaty stated that Mu'awiya would not name a successor during his reign, and that he would let the Islamic world choose the next leader. This treaty would later be broken by Mu'awiya as he named his son Yazid I successor. Hasan was assassinated, and Mu'awiya founded the Umayyad Caliphate , supplanting the Rashidun Caliphate. The Rashidun Caliphate expanded steadily; within
11067-667: The unity and stability of the new community and state. Apostasy spread to every tribe in the Arabian Peninsula with the exception of the people in Mecca and Medina , the Banu Thaqif in Ta'if and the Bani Abdul Qais of Oman . In some cases, entire tribes apostatized. Others merely withheld zakat , the alms tax, without formally challenging Islam. Many tribal leaders made claims to prophethood; some made it during
11186-550: The wars of conquest started by Umar. The Rashidun army conquered North Africa from the Byzantines and even raided Spain, conquering the coastal areas of the Iberian Peninsula , as well as the islands of Rhodes and Cyprus . Coastal Sicily was raided in 652. The Rashidun army fully conquered the Sasanian Empire, and its eastern frontiers extended up to the lower Indus River . Uthman's most lasting project
11305-602: Was a hereditary monarchy). Furthermore, according to other hadiths in Sunan Abu Dawood and Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal , towards the end times, the Rightly Guided Caliphate will be restored once again by God. Note that a caliph's succession does not necessarily occur on the first day of the new year. After Muhammad's death in June 632, a gathering of the Ansar ( lit. ' Helpers ' ),
11424-449: Was again rejected. In turn, Ali challenged Mu'awiya to a one-on-one duel to settle the matters and avoid the bloodshed. This offer was declined by Mu'awiya. The negotiations ceased without success on 18 July 657 and the two sides prepared for the battle. Fighting began on Wednesday, 26 July, and lasted for three or four days. By the final day, the balance had shifted in Ali's favor. When Mu'awiya
11543-402: Was assassinated by Ibn Muljam as part of a Kharijite plot to assassinate all the different Islamic leaders in an attempt to end the civil war, but the Kharijites failed to assassinate Mu'awiya and 'Amr ibn al-'As. Ali's son Hasan briefly assumed the caliphate for six months and came to an agreement with Mu'awiya to fix relations between the two groups of Muslims that were each loyal to one of
11662-749: Was coupled with Arab nomads' antipathy toward central authority, which had hitherto been superseded by the continued war effort. The continued migration of tribes from Arabia to the conquered territories also resulted in reduced payments from the revenue of the lands, which led to resentment among the earlier settlers. Early settlers also saw their status threatened by land grants in the conquered territories to prominent Qurayshites like Talha ibn Ubayd Allah and Zubayr ibn al-Awwam , as well as land acquisitions by late-arriving tribal chiefs, such as Ashath ibn Qays . These chiefs were given this territory in exchange for their lands in Arabia. Furthermore, Uthman took control of
11781-509: Was defeated , and eventually surrendered after a siege of a few weeks in July 633. Khalid then moved towards the south, and conquered the city of Ein ul Tamr in the last week of July 633. By now, almost the whole of Iraq was under Islamic control. Khalid received a call for help from Dumat al-Jandal in Northern Arabia, where another Muslim general, Iyad ibn Ghanm , was trapped among the rebel tribes. Khalid diverted there and defeated
11900-690: Was described as a dark-skinned man with a great deal of wavy hair, a handsome face and a narrow nose. He liked to wear saffron-dyed clothes and musk. He walked swiftly and, when nervous, he would toy with his ring, which was of gold and set with a ruby. Talha was a successful cloth-merchant who eventually left an estate estimated at 30 million dirhams . According to modern writer Asad Ahmed, Talha possessed wealth that second only to that of Uthman ibn Affan. A report from Munzir ibn Sawa Al-Tamimi states that Talha had one property in Iraq that yielded four to five hundred dinar in gold. His enterprises included
12019-509: Was first to clear Najd and Western Arabia near Medina, then tackle Malik ibn Nuwayrah and his forces between the Najd and al-Bahrayn, and finally concentrate against the most dangerous enemy, Musaylimah and his allies in al-Yamama. After a series of successful campaigns Khalid ibn al-Walid defeated Musaylimah in the Battle of Yamama . The Campaign on the Apostasy was fought and completed during
12138-689: Was from the Umayyad clan of the Quraysh. He was the second cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad and one of the early converts of Islam. Uthman was ultimately chosen. Uthman reigned for twelve years as a caliph. During the first half of his reign, he was the most popular caliph among all the Rashiduns , while in the latter half of his reign he met increasing opposition, led by the Egyptians and concentrated around Ali, who would albeit briefly, succeed Uthman as caliph. Despite internal troubles, Uthman continued
12257-483: Was halted by a concentration of the Byzantine army at Ajnadayn. Abu Ubaidah then sent for reinforcements. Abu Bakr ordered Khalid, who by now was planning to attack Ctesiphon , to march from Iraq to Syria with half his army. There were 2 major routes to Syria from Iraq, one passing through Mesopotamia and the other through Daumat ul-Jandal. Khalid took an unconventional route through the Syrian Desert , and after
12376-471: Was informed his army could not win, he decided to appeal to the Quran . Before noon, Syrians raised copies of the book on their lances, shouting, "Let the book of God be the judge between us." Although Ali was suspicious of this appeal, his forces ceased fighting. Compelled by strong peace sentiments in his army and threats of mutiny, Ali accepted a proposal for arbitration. The majority in Ali's army pressed for
12495-472: Was killed at the Battle of the Camel on 10 December 656. Several conflicting narratives have been provided to explain how it happened. According to one account, during the battle, Marwan ibn al-Hakam , who was fighting on the same side as Aisha, shot Talha in the thigh. His motivations for killing Talha were because of Talha's involvement in the killing of Uthman . Another account attributes Talha's death to being killed by Ali's supporters while retreating from
12614-494: Was near-universally accepted as head of the Muslim community (under the title of Caliph) as a result of Saqifah, though he did face contention as a result of the rushed nature of the event. Several companions, most prominent among them being Ali ibn Abi Talib , initially refused to acknowledge his authority. Ali may have been reasonably expected to assume leadership, being both cousin and son-in-law to Muhammad. The theologian Ibrahim al-Nakha'i stated that Ali also had support among
12733-536: Was not carried out due to the civil war that broke out in 656. The Taurus Mountains in Turkey marked the western frontiers of the Rashidun Caliphate in Anatolia during Caliph Uthman's reign. Talha ibn Ubayd Allah Ṭalḥa ibn ʿUbayd Allāh al-Taymī ( Arabic : طَلْحَة بن عُبَيْد اللّه التَّيمي , c. 594 – c. 656 ) was a companion of the Islamic prophet Muhammad . In Sunni Islam , he
12852-668: Was reading the Qur'an . It was later discovered that the order to kill the rebels did not, in fact, originate from Uthman, but was, rather, part of a conspiracy to overthrow him. Following Uthman's assassination, Muhammad's cousin Ali ( r. 656–661 ) was elected caliph by the rebels and townspeople of Medina . He transferred the capital to Kufa , a garrison city in Iraq. Soon thereafter, Ali dismissed several provincial governors, some of whom were relatives of Uthman, and replaced them with trusted aides, such as Malik al-Ashtar and Salman
12971-421: Was said to have been one of the first eight converts. Among the converts in Mecca, Talha was given a shared responsibility as a hafiz , people who memorized every verse of the Quran, along with Abu Bakr, Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf, Zubayr ibn al-Awwam and Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas. During the persecution of the Muslims in 614–616, Nawfal ibn Khuwaylid tied Talha to Abu Bakr and left them roped together. Nobody from
13090-487: Was stationed in Damascus while Amr and Shurhabil marched south to capture Palestine. While the Muslims were at Fahl, sensing the weak defense of Damascus, Emperor Heraclius sent an army to re-capture the city. This army, however, could not make it to Damascus and was intercepted by Abu Ubaidah and Khalid on their way to Emesa. The army was destroyed in the battle of Maraj-al-Rome and the second battle of Damascus. Emesa and
13209-418: Was the Ridda wars . Abu Bakr planned his strategy accordingly. He divided the Muslim army into several corps. The strongest corps, and the primary force of the Muslims, was the corps of Khalid ibn al-Walid . This corps was used to fight the most powerful of the rebel forces. Other corps were given areas of secondary importance in which to bring the less dangerous apostate tribes to submission. Abu Bakr's plan
13328-472: Was the final compilation of the Qur'an. Under his authority diacritics were written with Arabic letters so that non-native speakers of Arabic could easily read the Qur'an. After a protest turned into a siege on his house, Uthman refused to initiate any military action, in order to avoid civil war between Muslims and preferred to negotiate a peaceful solution. After the negotiations, the protesters returned but found
13447-418: Was the first battle between Muslims and is known as the Battle of the Camel . Ali emerged victoriously and the dispute was settled. The eminent companions of Muhammad, Talha, and Zubayr, were killed in the battle and Ali sent his son Hasan ibn Ali to escort Aisha back to Medina. Thereafter, there rose another cry for revenge for the blood of Uthman, this time by Mu'awiya , a kinsman of Uthman and governor of
13566-419: Was the first major pitched battle between the Muslims and Byzantines and cleared the way for the former to capture central Syria. Damascus , the Byzantine stronghold, was conquered shortly after on 19 September 634. The Byzantine army was given a deadline of 3 days to flee as far as they could, with their families and treasure, or simply agree to stay in Damascus and pay tribute. After the three days had passed,
13685-534: Was the son of Ubayd Allah ibn Uthman ibn Amr ibn Ka'b ibn Sa'd ibn Taym ibn Murra ibn Ka'b ibn Lu'ay ibn Ghalib and of al-Sa'ba bint Abd Allah, who was from the Hadram tribe. Talha's lineage meets with that of Muhammad at Murra ibn Ka'b . Muhammad Marmaduke Pickthall describes how Abu Bakr , after embracing Islam, immediately urged his closest associates to do likewise. Among them were Talha, Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf , Uthman ibn Affan , and Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas . Talha
13804-589: Was transferred to the Syrian front in 634. Before dying in August 634 from an illness, Abu Bakr appointed Umar ( r. 634–644 ) as his successor. Upon his accession, Umar adopted the title amir al-mu'minin , which later became the standard title of caliphs. The new caliph continued the war of conquests begun by his predecessor, pushing further into the Sassanian Empire , north into Byzantine territory, and went into Egypt . These were regions of great wealth controlled by powerful states, but
13923-583: Was unable to raise another army and became a hunted fugitive. In 642 Umar sent the army to conquer the remainder of the Persian Empire . The entirety of present-day Iran was conquered, followed by Greater Khorasan (which included the modern Iranian Khorasan province and modern Afghanistan ), Transoxania , Balochistan and Makran (part of modern-day Pakistan), Azerbaijan , Dagestan (Russia), Armenia and Georgia ; these regions were later re-conquered during Uthman's reign with further expansion into
14042-566: Was welcome to bring his case to Ali's court of justice, asking him to offer any evidence that would incriminate Ali in the murder of Uthman. Ali also challenged Mu'awiya to name any Syrian who would qualify for a council. Ali called a council of Islamic ruling elite which urged him to fight Mu'awiya. The two armies met at Siffin, west of the Euphrates , in 657 CE. There, the two sides negotiated for weeks. Notably, Mu'awiya repeated his proposition to recognize Ali in return for Syria and Egypt, which
14161-502: Was wounded in a failed attempt on his life. By the time Hasan agreed to a peace treaty with Mu'awiya, his authority did not exceed the area around Kufa. Under this treaty, Hasan ceded the caliphate to Mu'awiya. The treaty stipulated a general amnesty for the people and the return of the caliphate to Hasan after Mu'awiya's death. Mu'awiyah was crowned as caliph at a ceremony in Jerusalem in 661. Hasan predeceased Mu'awiya, dying in 670 at
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