In the Holy Land (1095–1291)
61-422: Later Crusades (1291–1717) Northern (1147–1410) Against Christians (1209–1588) Popular (1096–1320) The First Swedish Crusade was a possibly mythical military expedition in the 1150s to Southwestern Finland by Swedish King Eric IX and English Bishop Henry of Uppsala . The earliest written sources of the crusade are from the late 13th century. The main sources of
122-613: A Nicaean stronghold west of Constantinople. Crusade against the Mongols. The Crusade against the Mongols (1241) was led by Conrad IV of Germany and is also known as the Anti-Mongol Crusade of 1241. British historian Peter Jackson documented this crusade in his study Crusade against the Mongols (1241) . Seventh Crusade. The Seventh Crusade (1248–1254) is also known as the Crusade of Louis IX of France to
183-733: A crusade or pilgrimage to the Holy Land c. 1275 and was captured by the Egyptians and held for 32 years. The only known reference to this is by Thomas Fuller in his Historie of the Holy Warre , where it is referred to as the Last Voyage. Siege of Acre. The Siege of Acre (1291) marked the loss of the Holy Land to the Mamluks, typically identifying the end of the traditional Crusades. The anonymous Les Gestes des Chiprois (Deeds of
244-647: A large tribute. Zeno and Pietro da Canale were accused by Francesco Dandolo with arranging an anti-Turkish alliance. By the end of the year the Holy League (also known as the Naval League) "a union, society and league for the discomfiture of the Turks and the defence of the true faith", had been formally constituted. In 1334, Zeno took command of the league's fleet and defeated the fleet of the Beylik of Karasi at
305-425: Is one of the most widely-read works about the crusades. Runciman's approach, while it may have had value in overcoming overly romantic views of the crusades held in the 19th century, has not aged well and is now seen as having gone beyond the mark by painting the crusaders as "simpletons or barbarians". Thomas F. Madden , writing in 2002, called the work "terrible history yet wonderfully entertaining". Runciman
366-578: Is regarded by some as an extension of the Eighth Crusade. Edward, later King of England, was accompanied by his wife Eleanor of Castile , who came to his aid after an assassination attempt. Discussed as part of the Eighth Crusade by Joseph François Michaud in Volume 3 of his seminal Histoire des Croisades (1812–1822). Crusade of Henry of Mecklenburg. The Crusade of Henry of Mecklenburg (1275). Henry I, Lord of Mecklenburg (died 1302) went on
427-508: Is the solution that has been adopted [here]. However, the names of the First, Second, Third, Fourth, and Fifth Crusades, which are at least unambiguous (if not accurate), have been retained, as they are now established by long tradition. The list of the Crusades to the Holy Land from 1095 through 1291 is as follows. First Crusade. The First Crusade (1095–1099) refers to the activities from
488-566: The Ayyubid dynasty . Crusade to the East of Philip of Flanders. The Crusade to the East (1177) was a crusade led by Philip I, Count of Flanders that intended to invade Egypt, instead only mounting an unsuccessful siege of Harim . Third Crusade. The Third Crusade (1189–1192). The Third Crusade was in response to the loss of Jerusalem to Saladin in 1187 and had significant English participation, under Richard I of England , as well as by
549-530: The Holy Land and an extensive study of primary sources in Greek, Latin, Armenian and Arabic. At the time of its initial publication, it offered a novel interpretation of the crusades. Runciman presented them not as Christendom's defensive war against the threat of Islamic expansion , but as a continuation of the destructive "barbarian invasions" that had led to the fall of Rome . Furthermore, Runciman includes
610-930: The War of the Sicilian Vespers (the Almogavar) against the Anatolian beyliks . It concluded with the Catalan's taking control of the Duchy of Athens and Thebes . Hospitaller Crusade. The Hospitaller Crusade (1306–1310). A crusade known as the Hospitaller conquest of Rhodes that consolidated hold of the Knights Hospitaller on Rhodes. Documented by Hans Prutz in his Die Anfänge der Hospitaliter auf Rhodos, 1310–1355 (1908). Crusade against
671-549: The battle of Adramyttion . Zeno later served as one of the leaders of the Smyrna Crusade of 1344. The Holy League of Clement VI. The Holy League of Clement VI (1343) was a crusade proclaimed by Clement VI in 1343 that resulted in a naval attack on Smyrna the next year. The Grand Counci of Venice elected Pietro Zeno as captain of the flotilla sent to assist the crusade against Aydinid-held Smyrna. Other crusader leaders included patriarch Henry of Asti , The crusade
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#1732765036285732-543: The history of the Byzantine Empire in his scope, moving his focus further east and at the same time tempering the "Romantic" view of the crusades as heroic or chivalrous enterprise. When the first volume appeared in 1951, Egyptian historian Aziz Atiya noted that it was "essentially a narrative of crusading events rather than an analytical study and a discussion of problems." He also noted that Runciman did not have full access to Arabic texts but limited himself to
793-504: The loss of Acre in 1291. These include the numbered Crusades (First through Eighth or Ninth) with numerous smaller crusades intermixed. One of the first to view the Crusades as a movement was English historian Thomas Fuller (1608–1661), whose Historie of the Holy Warre (1639) identified crusades as the Holy War consisting of "Voyages," numbering One through Thirteen, plus a Last Voyage and two additional Holy Wars. These Voyages include
854-480: The 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries to the Holy Land. The conflicts to which the term is applied has been extended to include other campaigns initiated, supported and sometimes directed by the Roman Catholic Church against pagans, heretics or for alleged religious ends. This list first discusses the traditional numbered crusades, with the various lesser-known crusades interspersed. The later crusades in
915-587: The 12th century, the area was probably almost entirely Christian. According to legends, after the crusade, Bishop Henry was killed at Lake Köyliö by Lalli . Henry later became a central figure of the Catholic Church in Finland. Academics debate whether this crusade actually took place. No archaeological data gives any support for it, and the earliest written sources are from much later. No surviving written source describes Finland under Swedish rule before
976-649: The 19th century through such works as Heroes of the Crusades (1869) by Barbara Hutton. The references shown above for the First Crusade generally cover the People's Crusade as well. Crusade of 1101. The Crusade of 1101 (1101–1102) was also called the Crusade of the Faint-Hearted. Campaigns that followed the capture of Jerusalem in 1099 that were generally ignored by 18th and 19th century historians. Thomas Fuller nevertheless referred to it as Voyage 2 of
1037-501: The Barons' Crusade, 1239–1241. Among modern historians, René Grousset was among the first to discuss this crusade in his Histoire des croisades et du royaume franc de Jérusalem (1934-1936) Thomas Fuller referred to it as Voyage 10 of the Holy Warre. Crusade of Richard of Cornwall. The Crusade of Richard of Cornwall (1240–1241) was also known as the Crusade of Richard of Cornwall and Simon of Montfort to Jaffa. Richard also held
1098-512: The Bishop of Uppsala. The First Novgorod Chronicle relates that in 1142 a Swedish "prince" and bishop, accompanied by a fleet of 60 ships, plundered just three Novgorodian merchant vessels somewhere "on the other side of the sea". Almost every year of the 1150s has been suggested as the year that the crusade possibly took place. The most widely-supported years have been 1150, 1155, 1157 and 1158. Other candidates have been 1153, 1154 and 1156. At
1159-728: The Catalan Grand Company. The Crusade against the Catalan Grand Company (1330–1332) was also called the Anti-Catalan Crusade , waged by Walter VI, Count of Brienne , and titular Duke of Athens. In 1330, John XXII issued a papal bull and ordered prelates in Italy and Greece to preach for a crusade against the Catalan Grand Company . Shortly thereafter, Robert of Naples gave the crusade his support. The Venetians, however, renewed their treaty with
1220-629: The Catalans in 1331. By the summer, it was clear that the expedition had failed, and Walter returned to Brindisi , saddled with crippling debts. The Naval Crusade of the Holy League. The Naval Crusade of the Holy League (1332–1333) was short-lived crusade against the Aydinid Turkish fleet by Pietro Zeno , serving as balio of Negroponte . In 1332, a Turkish armada under Umur Bey attacked Negroponte, and Zeno bought them off with
1281-573: The Council of Clermont of 1095 through the establishment of the Kingdom of Jerusalem and the battle of Ascalon in 1099. Sometimes segregated into the People's Crusade and the Princes' Crusade. Some accounts also include the Crusade of 1101 here. The original chroniclers of the First Crusade did not, of course, refer to it as such, or even as a crusade (as noted above). In the twelve Latin chronicles ,
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#17327650362851342-470: The Crusade against Conradin of 1268 (cf. Italian Crusades below). Crusade of James I of Aragon. The Crusade of James I of Aragon (1269–1270). James I of Aragon joined forces with Abaqa , Mongol ruler of the Ilkhanate , to take a crusade to the Holy Land, but returned without engaging the Mamluks in light of their strength at Acre. Eighth Crusade. The Eighth Crusade (1270) was also known as
1403-536: The Crusade of Louis IX of France to Tunis. Accompanied by Jean de Joinville who wrote the biography Life of Saint Louis (1309) . Thomas Fuller referred to it as Voyage 31 of the Holy Warre. Lord Edward's Crusade. Lord Edward's Crusade (1271–1272) was led by the future Edward I of England , and is also known as the Crusade of Lord Edward of England, the Ninth Crusade, or the Last Crusade. It
1464-683: The Crusades A History of the Crusades by Steven Runciman , published in three volumes during 1951–1954 (vol. I - The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem ; vol. II - The Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Frankish East, 1100-1187 ; vol. III - The Kingdom of Accre and the Later Crusades ), is an influential work in the historiography of the Crusades , including the events that led up to those expeditions to
1525-581: The Crusades , 3 volumes (1951–1954), and the Wisconsin Collaborative History of the Crusades, 6 volumes (1969-1989). In the Holy Land (1095–1291) Later Crusades (1291–1717) Northern (1147–1410) Against Christians (1209–1588) Popular (1096–1320) The conflicts that are usually associated with crusades in the Holy Land begin with the Council of Clermont in 1095 and end with
1586-666: The Cypriots) contains one of two eyewitness accounts of the siege. After the fall of Acre, the crusades continued in the Levant through the 16th century. Principal references on this subject are Kenneth Setton's History of the Crusades, Volume III. The Fourteenth and Fifteen Centuries (1975), and Norman Housley's The Later Crusades, 1274-1580: From Lyons to Alcazar (1992) and The Crusading Movement, 1274–1700 (1995). Barbara Tuchman's A Distant Mirror: The Calamitous 14th Century (1978) provides an interesting perspective on both
1647-710: The Damascene atabeg Toghtekin . This marked a major victor for Baldwin II of Jerusalem prior to his second captivity in 1123. Crusade of 1129. The Crusade of 1129 , also known as the Damascus Crusade, was begun by Baldwin II of Jerusalem after his captivity. The crusade failed in its objective to capture Damascus and is described by Syriac historian Michael the Syrian in his Chronicle (after 1195). Second Crusade. The Second Crusade (1147–1150). After
1708-486: The East, or Louis IX's First Crusade. Early works on this crusade include Primat of Saint-Denis' Roman des rois (1274) and Jean de Joinville's Life of Saint Louis (1309) . Thomas Fuller referred to it as Voyage 12 of the Holy Warre. Grousset's Histoire des croisades... and Peter Jackson's Seventh Crusade, 1244–1254: Sources and Documents (2007) provide the necessary historical background. Crusade of Odo of Burgundy. The Crusade of Odo of Burgundy (1265–1266)
1769-577: The Fifth Crusade, it was an extension of that activity that involved little fighting. Jerusalem was nevertheless returned to Western hands by negotiation. Original sources include Chronica Majora (1259) by Matthew Paris and Flores Historiarum (1235) by Roger of Wendover , with Arabic sources that include Abu'l-Feda's Tarikh al-Mukhtasar fi Akhbar al-Bashar (1329). Modern histories include Röhricht's Die Kreuzfahrt Kaiser Friedrich des Zweiten (1228–1229) (1872). Referred to it as Voyage 9 of
1830-488: The First through Eighth Crusades in current numbering. Shortly thereafter, French Jesuit Louis Maimbourg (1610–1686) published his Histoire des Croisades pour la délivrance de la Terre Sainte (1675), identify the First through Fifth Crusades. In his work The Crusades—An Encyclopedia, historian Alan V. Murray further explains the traditional numbering of crusades: It was in the eighteenth century that historians evidently first allocated numbers to individual crusades, from
1891-526: The Hermit , the first of what is known as the Popular Crusades . It is sometimes regarded as an integral part of the First Crusade, with the Princes' Crusade as the second part. A standard reference is Peter der Eremite. Ein kritischer Beitrag zur Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzuges (1879) by pioneering German historian Heinrich Hagenmeyer (1834–1915). Peter and his crusade achieved a popular status in
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1952-430: The Holy Land. First treated by R. Röhricht in his Die Kreuzzuge des Grafen Theobald von Navarra und Richard von Cornwallis nach dem heligen Landen . Thomas Fuller referred to it as Voyages 10 and 11 of the Holy Warre. Crusade of Theobald I of Navarre. The Crusade of Theobald I of Navarre (1239–1240) was a crusade led by Theobald I of Navarre , also referred to as Thibaut of Navarre or Theobald of Champagne. Part of
2013-444: The Holy Warre by Thomas Fuller in his 1639 Historie . See also references under the Crusade against Frederick II (1220–1241) below. Barons' Crusade. Barons' Crusade (1239–1241) was also referred to as the Crusade of 1239, or the Crusade of Theobald I of Navarre and the Crusade of Richard of Cornwall . Called for in 1234 by Gregory IX in his papal bull Rachel suum videns . Some successful expeditions recaptured portions of
2074-433: The Holy Warre whereas Jonathan Riley-Smith considered it part of the First Crusade in his The First Crusaders, 1095-1131 (1997). Norwegian Crusade. The Norwegian Crusade (1107–1110), also known as the Crusade of Sigurd Jorsalfar , king of Norway. More of a pilgrimage than a crusade, it did include the participation in military action, with the king's forces participation in the siege of Sidon . This crusade marks
2135-627: The Holy Warre, and Richard's portion as Voyage 5. The numbering of this crusade followed the same history as the first ones, with English histories such as David Hume's The History of England (1754–1761) and Charles Mills' History of the Crusades for the Recovery and Possession of the Holy Land (1820) identifying it as the Third Crusade. The former only considers the follow-on crusades to the extent that England participated. Crusade of Emperor Henry VI. The Crusade of Henry VI (1197–1198)
2196-643: The Holy Warre. The Wendish Crusade of 1147 (one of the Northern Crusades) is usually associated with the Second Crusade. Crusader invasions of Egypt. The Crusader Invasions of Egypt (1154–1169) were attacks into Egypt by Amalric I of Jerusalem to take advantage of crises concerning the Fatimids . These activities eventually led to the fall of the Fatimids and the rise of Saladin and
2257-663: The Levant through the 16th century are then listed. This is followed by lists of the crusades against the Byzantine empire, crusades that may have been pilgrimages, popular crusades, crusades against heretics and schismatics, political crusades, the Northern Crusades, crusades in the Iberian peninsula, Italian crusades and planned crusades that were never executed. Comprehensive studies of the Crusades in toto include Murray's Encyclopedia, Stephen Runciman's A History of
2318-546: The Second Smyrna Crusade. Crusade against Francesco Ordelaffi . The Crusade against Francesco Ordelaffi (1355–1357) was a campaign by Innocent IV and Cardinal Gil Álvarez Carrillo de Albornoz against Francesco II Ordelaffi in order to restore papal authority to central Italy. The pope's Angevin troops had some success against Ordelaffi through 1356, by mercenary troops sent by Bernabò Visconti allowed him to hold out until 1357. A History of
2379-459: The collection Gesta Dei per Francos (God's Work through the Franks) (1611) by Jacques Bongars . A standard reference is Reinhold Röhricht's Studien zur Geschichte des fünften Kreuzzuges (1891). Thomas Fuller referred to it as Voyage 8 of the Holy Warre. Sixth Crusade. The Sixth Crusade (1228–1229), was also known as the Crusade of Emperor Frederick II . Sometimes regarded as part of
2440-671: The crusade and its aftermath. Voltaire did not call it a crusade in his Histoire des Croisades , instead calling it the Suite de la Prise de Constantinople par les Croisés. Jonathan Philips' The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople (2004) is a standard reference today. Fifth Crusade. The Fifth Crusade (1217–1221) was a failed attempt to recapture Jerusalem by first conquering Cairo. Critical original sources include Historia Damiatina by Oliver of Paderborn (died 1227) and Chronica Hungarorum by Joannes de Thurocz , compiled in
2501-464: The crusade was against the Byzantine empire. Thomas Fuller referred to it as Voyage 7 of the Holy Warre. Charles du Cange , wrote the first serious study of the Fourth Crusade in his Histoire de l'empire de Constantinople sous les empereurs françois (1657). Geoffrey of Villehardouin was a knight and historian who wrote his eyewitness account De la Conquête de Constantinople (c. 1215) of
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2562-548: The crusade, the legend of Saint Erik and the legend of Saint Henry , describe the crusade as caused by the multiple raids of pagan Finns on Sweden. The crusade has traditionally been seen as the first attempt of the Catholic Church and Sweden to convert Finnish pagans to Christianity . However, the Christianisation of Southwestern Finland is known to have already started in the 10th century, and in
2623-433: The crusades and the general history of the era. A nineteenth-century reference often cited is Joseph François Michaud's Histoire des Croisades (1812–1822), translation by William Robson . Crusade against Frederick III. The Crusade against Frederick III of Sicily (1298, 1299, 1302). The final round of the War of the Sicilian Vespers in which pope Boniface VIII attempted to dislodge Frederick. Frederick's position
2684-754: The disastrous siege of Edessa in 1144, the Western powers launched the Second Crusade, which accomplished little. Principal chroniclers of the event were Odo of Deuil , chaplin to Louis VII of France , who wrote his account De profectione Ludovici VII in Orientem and Otto of Freising who wrote Gesta Friderici imperatoris concerning the emperor Frederick Barbarosso . Referred to as the Second Crusade in Maimbourg's Histoire des Croisades. .. as well as Georg Müller's De Expedition Cruciatis Vulgo Von Kreutz Fahrten (1709). Thomas Fuller referred to it as Voyage 3 of
2745-844: The emperor Frederick Barbarossa and Philip II of France . To the English, it was known as the Itinerarium Regis Ricardi , the Itinerary of king Richard, and to the Germans as the expedition of Frederick, as described in Historia Peregrinorum (History of the Pilgrims). Thomas Andrew Archer's The Crusade of Richard I, 1189–1192 (1889) provides a comprehensive look at the crusade and its sources. Thomas Fuller referred to Frederick's portion as Voyage 4 of
2806-479: The end of the 1240s. Furthermore, the diocese and the bishop of Finland are not listed among their Swedish counterparts before the 1250s. Also, the Christianisation of south-western Finland is known to have already started in the 10th century, and in the 12th century, the area was probably almost entirely Christian. The Swedish bishop who was normally involved in the eastern campaigns was the Bishop of Linköping , not
2867-715: The event is called, for example, the Deeds of the Franks or the Expedition to Jerusalem. Anna Komnene simply notes the arrival of the various armies in Constantinople, and Arabic historian ibn Athir calls it the Coming of the Franks. Thomas Fuller referred to it as Voyage 1 of the Holy Warre. It is unclear as to who first used the term, but it has been credited to Louis Maimbourg in his 1675 Histoire des Croisades. The term
2928-516: The excerpts found in European editions. The History has seen numerous reprints and translations and in some respects has come to be seen as a standard work on the crusades. Its scope encompasses the ascendancy of Islam in the Levant during the early 7th century until the fall of Acre in 1291, with later chapters covering through 1464, the time of Pope Pius II . Along with Jonathan Riley-Smith's The Crusades: A Short History , Runciman's work
2989-519: The first time a European king visited the Holy Land. This crusade is described in Heimskringla by Icelandic historian Snorri Sturluson . Venetian Crusade. The Venetian Crusade (1122–1124), also known as the Crusade of Calixtus II . The Western participants from the Republic of Venice were regarded by Riley-Smith as First Crusaders, and the actions resulted in the capture of Tyre from
3050-402: The first to the ninth. However, these numbers are neither consistent nor accurate. Of the identity of the First Crusade (1096—1099) there can be no doubt, but there is no consensus about numbering after the Fourth Crusade (1202–1204). The Crusade of Emperor Frederick II (1227–1229) is sometimes regarded as part of the Fifth Crusade (1217–1221) and sometimes as a separate expedition. This means that
3111-453: The harbour and the citadel but not the acropolis. Sometimes considered as part of the Holy League of Clement VI. Crusade of Humbert II of Viennois. The Crusade of Humbert II of Viennois (1346) was the second of the Smyrniote Crusades . A second expedition under the command of Humbert II of Viennois with little to show other than a victory over the Turks at Mytilene . Described in the Book of Chivalry by Geoffroi de Charny. Also called
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#17327650362853172-482: The mid-12th century. List of Crusades to Europe and the Holy Land#Later Crusades (1291-1578) The list of Crusades in Europe and to the Holy Land identifies those conflicts in the 11th through 16th centuries that are referred to as Crusades . These include the traditional numbered crusades and others that prominent historians have identified as crusades. The scope of the term crusade first referred to military expeditions undertaken by European Christians in
3233-447: The term Sixth Crusade may refer either to Frederick II's crusade or to the first crusade of King Louis IX of France, which might also be called the Seventh Crusade. Consequently, each subsequent number after the fifth might refer to either of two different expeditions. The only absolutely clear method of designating individual crusades is by a combination of dates and descriptive terminology relating to participation, goals, or both, and this
3294-458: The time, leading the leiðangr was the responsibility of the jarl . That gave rise to a theory that Eric had conducted the expedition before he became king or pretender to the throne. Legends give no year for the expedition, but all attempts to date it to an exact year in the 1150s have been much later speculations. All that is known about King Eric and Bishop Henry is that they most probably held important positions in Sweden at some time during
3355-450: The title King of the Romans, and had a noteworthy biography written by Noël Denholm-Young . Usually referred to as part of the Barons' Crusade, 1239–1241. Thomas Fuller referred to it as Voyage 11 of the Holy Warre. Crusade to Tzurulum. The Crusade to Tzurulum (1239) led by future Latin emperor Baldwin of Courtenay was conducted concurrently with the Barons' Crusade. In the military action, Baldwin besieged and captured Tzurulum ,
3416-436: Was a naval success and Smyrna was taken. Zeno was killed by Umur Bey's forces in an ambush while he and other crusaderswere attempting to celebrate mass in the no-man's-land between the battle lines. Smyrna Crusade. The Smyrna Crusade (1344) was the first of the Smyrniote Crusades (1343–1351). The Smyrna Crusade began in 1344 with the naval victory of the battle of Pallene and ended with an assault on Smyrna, capturing
3477-425: Was also known as the Crusade of 1197 or the German Crusade. A crusade led by Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI as a follow-up to the Third Crusade. Although Henry died before the crusade began, it was modestly successful with the recapture of Beirut. Thomas Fuller referred to it as Voyage 6 of the Holy Warre. Fourth Crusade. The Fourth Crusade (1202–1204) was also known as the Unholy Crusade. A major component of
3538-419: Was an expedition of Odo, Count of Nevers , who led 50 knights to protect Acre from Mamluk sultan Baibars . Crusade of 1267. The Crusade of 1267 was an expedition from the Upper Rhine to counter the threat posed by Baibars. Crusade of Charles of Anjou. The Crusade of Charles of Anjou against Lucera (1268) refers to the attack made by Charles I of Anjou on the Muslims at Lucera in conjunction with
3599-411: Was certainly in common use by the 18th century as seen in Voltaire's Histoire des Croisades (1750–1751) and Edward Gibbon's History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776–1789). Thomas Asbridge's The First Crusade: A New History (2004) is among the standard references used today. People's Crusade. The People's Crusade (1096) was a prelude to the First Crusade led by Peter
3660-460: Was said to have embraced subjectivity and to be prone to polemics. He himself stated that "The historian must attempt to add to his subjective study the qualities of intuitive sympathy and imaginative perception, without which he cannot hope to comprehend the fears and aspirations and convictions that have moved past generations." It is nevertheless undisputed that the work contains genuine scholarship and exerted great influence on scholars educated in
3721-421: Was solidified by the Peace of Caltabellotta in 1302, after which the crusaders were unable to dislodge him. Crusade against the Colonna Cardinals. The Crusade against the Colonna Cardinals (1298) was a crusade of Boniface VIII against the Colonna family . Expedition of the Almogavars. The Expedition of the Almogavars (1301–1311) consisted of campaigns of the Catalan Company , formed by veterans of
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