133-493: The people of Cyprus are broadly divided into two main ethnic communities, Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots , who share many cultural traits but maintain distinct identities based on ethnicity , religion , language , and close ties with Greece and Turkey respectively. Before the dispute started in 1964 the peoples of Cyprus (then 77.1% Greek Cypriots, 18.2% Turkish Cypriots, <5% other communities, primarily Armenians , Maronites , and other Lebanese ) were dispersed over
266-522: A coup d'état in Cyprus, to unite the island with Greece . The coup ousted president Makarios III and replaced him with pro- enosis nationalist Nikos Sampson . In response to the coup, five days later, on 20 July 1974, the Turkish army invaded the island, citing a right to intervene to restore the constitutional order from the 1960 Treaty of Guarantee . This justification has been rejected by
399-583: A Cypriot king is Kushmeshusha , as appears on letters sent to Ugarit in the 13th century BC. At the end of the Bronze Age, the island experienced two waves of Greek settlement. The first wave consisted of Mycenaean Greek traders, who started visiting Cyprus around 1400 BC. A major wave of Greek settlement is believed to have taken place following the Late Bronze Age collapse of Mycenaean Greece from 1100 to 1050 BC, with
532-553: A Greek national policy in the 1950s. The Turkish Cypriot population initially advocated the continuation of the British rule, then demanded the annexation of the island to Turkey, and in the 1950s, together with Turkey, established a policy of taksim , the partition of Cyprus and the creation of a Turkish polity in the north. Following nationalist violence in the 1950s , Cyprus was granted independence in 1960. The crisis of 1963–64 brought further intercommunal violence between
665-732: A ceasefire had been agreed, Turkey had landed 30,000 troops on the island and captured Kyrenia, the corridor linking Kyrenia to Nicosia, and the Turkish Cypriot quarter of Nicosia itself. The junta in Athens , and then the Sampson regime in Cyprus fell from power. In Nicosia, Glafkos Clerides temporarily assumed the presidency. But after the peace negotiations in Geneva , the Turkish government reinforced their Kyrenia bridgehead and started
798-479: A conflict between territorial government forces and NSAs or NSAs themselves, but also a foreign military intervention against a NSA only if the territorial state consents to such intervention in its territory. Should the intervening country do so without the consent of the territorial state or in support of a NSA against that state, then Common Article 2 applies. For example, the American-led intervention in
931-567: A fighting function and fights on the State's behalf, a relationship of belonging for the purposes of Article 4A(2) exists." For example, the Viet Cong was under effective control and direction by North Vietnam during the Vietnam War , therefore Common Article 2 solely applied to the conflict. The term protecting power has a specific meaning under these Conventions. A protecting power
1064-511: A final settlement of the Cyprus problem. Geneva Conventions The Geneva Conventions are international humanitarian laws consisting of four treaties and three additional protocols that establish international legal standards for humanitarian treatment in war . The singular term Geneva Convention colloquially denotes the agreements of 1949, negotiated in the aftermath of the Second World War (1939–1945), which updated
1197-509: A golden “opportunity” in achieving enosis with Cyprus. Alternatively it was a “lost opportunity” when the Zaimis administration declined the British proposal. In 1923, under the Treaty of Lausanne , the nascent Turkish republic relinquished any claim to Cyprus, and in 1925 it was declared a British crown colony . During the Second World War , many Greek and Turkish Cypriots enlisted in
1330-720: A key military base for its colonial routes. By 1906, when the Famagusta harbour was completed, Cyprus was a strategic naval outpost overlooking the Suez Canal , the crucial main route to India which was then Britain's most important overseas possession. Following the outbreak of the First World War and the decision of the Ottoman Empire to join the war on the side of the Central Powers , on 5 November 1914
1463-691: A member of the European Union . After the restoration of constitutional order and the return of Archbishop Makarios III to Cyprus in December 1974, Turkish troops remained, occupying the northeastern portion of the island. In 1983, the Turkish Cypriot parliament , led by the Turkish Cypriot leader Rauf Denktaş , proclaimed the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC), which is recognised only by Turkey. The events of
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#17327647119041596-733: A member of the Byzantine imperial family, took over Cyprus and declared it independent of the Empire. In 1191, during the Third Crusade , Richard I of England captured the island from Isaac. He used it as a major supply base that was relatively safe from the Saracens . A year later Richard sold the island to the Knights Templar , who, following a bloody revolt, in turn sold it to Guy of Lusignan . His brother and successor Aimery
1729-484: A military command structure. The other Geneva Conventions are not applicable in this situation but only the provisions contained within Article 3, and additionally within the language of Protocol II . The rationale for the limitation is to avoid conflict with the rights of Sovereign States that were not part of the treaties. When the provisions of this article apply, it states that: Persons taking no active part in
1862-668: A much needed update to the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 . In light of these developments, two Protocols were adopted in 1977 that extended the terms of the 1949 Conventions with additional protections. In 2005, a third brief Protocol was added establishing an additional protective sign for medical services, the Red Crystal , as an alternative to the ubiquitous Red Cross and Red Crescent emblems, for those countries that find them objectionable. The Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949. Commentary ( The Commentaries )
1995-551: A personal name ) are also used, though less frequently. The state's official name in Greek literally translates to "Cypriot Republic" in English, but this translation is not used officially; "Republic of Cyprus" is used instead. Hunter-gatherers first arrived on Cyprus around 13–12,000 years ago (11,000 to 10,000 BC), based on dating of sites like Aetokremnos on the south coast and the inland site of Vretsia Roudias. The arrival of
2128-721: A reversal from the days of Latin rule, the head of the Church of Cyprus was invested as leader of the Greek Cypriot population and acted as mediator between Christian Greek Cypriots and the Ottoman authorities. This status ensured that the Church of Cyprus was in a position to end the constant encroachments of the Roman Catholic Church. Ottoman rule of Cyprus was at times indifferent, at times oppressive, depending on
2261-575: A second invasion on 14 August. The invasion resulted in Morphou , Karpass , Famagusta and the Mesaoria coming under Turkish control. International pressure led to a ceasefire, and by then 36% of the island had been taken over by the Turks and 180,000 Greek Cypriots had been evicted from their homes in the north. At the same time, around 50,000 Turkish Cypriots were displaced to the north and settled in
2394-712: A total of twenty-six delegates to Geneva. On 22 August 1864, the conference adopted the first Geneva Convention "for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded in Armies in the Field". Representatives of 12 states and kingdoms signed the convention: For both of these accomplishments, Henry Dunant became co recipient of the first Nobel Peace Prize in 1901. On 20 October 1868 the first unsuccessful attempt to expand
2527-416: A trial unless the allegation of a war crime has been made. According to article 43 of the 1949 Conventions, soldiers are employed for the purpose of serving in war; engaging in armed conflict is legitimate, and does not constitute a grave breach. Should a soldier be arrested by belligerent forces, they are to be considered "lawful combatants" and afforded the protectorate status of a prisoner of war (POW) until
2660-681: Is a series of four volumes of books published between 1952 and 1958 and containing commentaries to each of the four Geneva Conventions. The series was edited by Jean Pictet who was the vice-president of the International Committee of the Red Cross . The Commentaries are often relied upon to provide authoritative interpretation of the articles. The Geneva Conventions are rules that apply only in times of armed conflict and seek to protect people who are not or are no longer taking part in hostilities. The first convention dealt with
2793-455: Is a state that is not taking part in the armed conflict, but that has agreed to look after the interests of a state that is a party to the conflict. The protecting power is a mediator enabling the flow of communication between the parties to the conflict. The protecting power also monitors the implementation of these Conventions, such as by visiting the zone of conflict and prisoners of war. The protecting power must act as an advocate for prisoners,
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#17327647119042926-488: Is addressed by the 1925 Geneva Protocol . The Swiss businessman Henry Dunant went to visit wounded soldiers after the Battle of Solferino in 1859. He was shocked by the lack of facilities, personnel, and medical aid available to help these soldiers. As a result, he published his book, A Memory of Solferino , in 1862, on the horrors of war. His wartime experiences inspired Dunant to propose: The former proposal led to
3059-535: Is also the home of 6,000 Jewish people who have a Synagogue in Larnaca . Cyprus has a well-developed system of primary and secondary education. The majority of Cypriots earn their higher education at Greek, British, or American universities, while there are also sizeable emigrant communities in the United Kingdom and Australia . Private colleges and state-supported universities have been developed by both
3192-572: Is an indication that the Cypriots were ruling the island with directly regulated relations with the Great King and there was not a Persian satrap . The Kingdoms of Cyprus enjoyed special privileges and a semi-autonomous status, but they were still considered vassal subjects of the Great King. The island was conquered by Alexander the Great in 333 BC and Cypriot navy helped Alexander during
3325-530: Is estimated that 113,687 northern Cyprus residents, or 44% of the population, are not Turkish Cypriots properly speaking, but are in fact "Turkish immigrants" or "Turkish settlers" from Anatolia. Alternative sources suggest that the Turkish Cypriots in northern Cyprus are today outnumbered by the Turkish settlers, contrary to the picture presented by the 2006 so called TRNC census. Settlement in northern Cyprus, especially if accompanied by naturalization,
3458-524: Is estimated to be 9,500 years old (7500 BC), predating ancient Egyptian civilisation and pushing back the earliest known feline-human association significantly. The remarkably well-preserved Neolithic village of Khirokitia is a UNESCO World Heritage Site , dating to approximately 6800 BC. During the Late Bronze Age , from around 1650 BC Cyprus (identified in whole or part as Alashiya in contemporary texts) became more connected to
3591-563: Is in violation of article 49 of the Geneva Conventions Protocol of 1977, since the Turkish occupation has been declared illegal by the UN. The UN General Assembly have stated the settlement of Turkish mainlanders, "constitute[s] a form of colonialism and attempt to change illegally the demographic structure of Cyprus". The Republic of Cyprus considers these Turkish immigrants to be "illegal settlers" and does not include them in
3724-514: Is the third largest and third-most populous island in the Mediterranean. It is east of Greece , north of Egypt , south of Turkey , and west of Lebanon and Syria . Its capital and largest city is Nicosia . Cyprus also shares land borders with Akrotiri and Dhekelia , a dependent territory of the United Kingdom . The northeast portion of the island is de facto governed by the self-declared Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus . Cyprus
3857-405: The 1960 constitution , to belong to the Greek Cypriot community. The 2011 census of the government-controlled area notes that 89.1% of the population follows Greek Orthodox Christianity , 2.9% are Roman Catholic , 2% are Protestants , 1.8% are Muslims and 1% are Buddhists ; Maronite Catholics , Armenian Orthodox , Jewish , Jehovah’s Witnesses and Baha’is make up the remainder. Cyprus
3990-783: The Algerian War and the Troubles . On February 7, 2002, President Bush adopted the view that Common Article 3 did not protect al Qaeda prisoners because the United States-al Qaeda conflict was "not of an international character." The Supreme Court of the United States invalidated the Bush Administration view of Common Article 3, in Hamdan v. Rumsfeld , by ruling that Common Article Three of
4123-553: The Congress of Berlin , Cyprus was leased to the British Empire which de facto took over its administration in 1878 (though, in terms of sovereignty, Cyprus remained a de jure Ottoman territory until 5 November 1914, together with Egypt and Sudan ) in exchange for guarantees that Britain would use the island as a base to protect the Ottoman Empire against possible Russian aggression. The island would serve Britain as
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4256-593: The Constitution of Cyprus . In Northern Cyprus, the official language is Turkish (Article 2 of the 1983 Constitution of Northern Cyprus ). English is widely spoken on the island. The Greek Cypriot community adheres to the Autocephalous Greek Orthodox Church of Cyprus and the Turkish Cypriot community adheres to Islam . The religious groups of Armenians, Maronites and Latins (about 9,000 people in total) opted, in accordance with
4389-600: The Cyprus Regiment . The Greek Cypriot population, meanwhile, had become hopeful that the British administration would lead to enosis . The idea of enosis was historically part of the Megali Idea , a greater political ambition of a Greek state encompassing the territories with large Greek populations in the former Ottoman Empire, including Cyprus and Asia Minor with a capital in Constantinople , and
4522-572: The Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 . The "Convention relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War" was not to replace these earlier conventions signed at The Hague; rather it supplemented them. There was considerable debate over whether the Geneva Convention should prohibit indiscriminate forms of warfare, such as aerial bombings, nuclear bombings and starvation, but no agreement was reached on those forms of violence. Inspired by
4655-694: The Ionian cities during the unsuccessful Ionian Revolt in 499 BC against the Achaemenids. The revolt was suppressed, but Cyprus managed to maintain a high degree of autonomy and remained inclined towards the Greek world. During the whole period of the Persian rule, there is a continuity in the reign of the Cypriot kings and during their rebellions they were crushed by Persian rulers from Asia Minor, which
4788-637: The Linobambaki , a crypto-Catholic community that arose due to religious persecution of the Catholic community by the Ottoman authorities; this community would assimilate into the Turkish Cypriot community during British rule. As soon as the Greek War of Independence broke out in 1821, several Greek Cypriots left for Greece to join the Greek forces. In response, the Ottoman governor of Cyprus arrested and executed 486 prominent Greek Cypriots, including
4921-533: The Muslim population never exceeded 35-40 per cent of the total population of Cyprus. Rather, many Orthodox Christians registered as Muslims in order to reduce taxation from the government. In the census from 1881 to 1960, all Muslims are counted as Turks, only Greek Orthodox are counted as Greeks. There were small populations of Greek-speaking Muslims and Turkish-speaking Greek Orthodox. In total, between 1955 and 1973, 16,519 Turks and 71,036 Greeks emigrated from
5054-707: The Soviet–Afghan War was an IAC because the Soviet Union invaded the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (DRA) to remove Afghan communist leader Hafizullah Amin from power, then installed puppet leader Babrak Karmal , who "invited" Soviet troops to intervene against the Afghan mujahideen fighters. While non-state armed groups are automatically presumed to engage in NIACs, they also can cross into
5187-775: The Syrian civil war . The lines between combatants and civilians have blurred when the actors are not exclusively High Contracting Parties (HCP). Since the fall of the Soviet Union , an HCP often is faced with a non-state actor, as argued by General Wesley Clark in 2007. Examples of such conflict include the Sri Lankan Civil War , the Sudanese Civil War , and the Colombian Armed Conflict , as well as most military engagements of
5320-532: The United Nations and the international community. The Turkish air force began bombing Greek positions in Cyprus, and hundreds of paratroopers were dropped in the area between Nicosia and Kyrenia, where well-armed Turkish Cypriot enclaves had been long-established; while off the Kyrenia coast, Turkish troop ships landed 6,000 men as well as tanks, trucks and armoured vehicles. Three days later, when
5453-741: The Walls of Nicosia , and used it as an important commercial hub. Throughout Venetian rule, the Ottoman Empire frequently raided Cyprus. In 1539 the Ottomans destroyed Limassol and so fearing the worst, the Venetians also fortified Famagusta and Kyrenia . Although the Lusignan French aristocracy remained the dominant social class in Cyprus throughout the medieval period, the former assumption that Greeks were treated only as serfs on
Demographics of Cyprus - Misplaced Pages Continue
5586-426: The displacement of over 150,000 Greek Cypriots and 50,000 Turkish Cypriots. A separate Turkish Cypriot state in the north was established by unilateral declaration in 1983; the move was widely condemned by the international community , with Turkey alone recognising the new state. These events and the resulting political situation are matters of a continuing dispute . Cyprus is a major tourist destination in
5719-474: The hostilities , including members of armed forces who have laid down their arms and those placed hors de combat by sickness, wounds , detention , or any other cause, shall in all circumstances be treated humanely, without any adverse distinction founded on race, colour, religion or faith, sex, birth or wealth, or any other similar criteria. To this end, the following acts are and shall remain prohibited at any time and in any place whatsoever with respect to
5852-407: The siege of Tyre (332 BC) . The Cypriot fleet was also sent to help Amphoterus . In addition, Alexander had two Cypriot generals Stasander and Stasanor both from the Soli and later both became satraps in Alexander's empire. Following Alexander's death, the division of his empire , and the subsequent Wars of the Diadochi , Cyprus became part of the Hellenistic empire of Ptolemaic Egypt . It
5985-451: The 1864 treaty was undertaken. With the 'Additional Articles relating to the Condition of the Wounded in War' an attempt was initiated to clarify some rules of the 1864 convention and to extend them to maritime warfare. The Articles were signed but were only ratified by the Netherlands and the United States of America. The Netherlands later withdrew their ratification. The protection of the victims of maritime warfare would later be realized by
6118-417: The 1949 Geneva Conventions. The 1929 conference yielded two conventions that were signed on 27 July 1929. One, the " Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armies in the Field ", was the third version to replace the original convention of 1864. The other was adopted after experiences in World War I had shown the deficiencies in the protection of prisoners of war under
6251-404: The 1949 conventions. Those not listed as protected persons in such conflicts are instead protected by international human rights law and general treaties concerning the legal status of aliens in belligerent nations. In international law and diplomacy the term convention refers to an international agreement, or treaty. With two Geneva Conventions revised and adopted and two added in 1949,
6384-409: The Archbishop of Cyprus, Kyprianos , and four other bishops. In 1828, modern Greece's first president Ioannis Kapodistrias called for union of Cyprus with Greece, and numerous minor uprisings took place. Reaction to Ottoman misrule led to uprisings by both Greek and Turkish Cypriots, although none were successful. After centuries of neglect by the Ottoman Empire, the poverty of most of the people and
6517-445: The British Empire formally annexed Cyprus and declared the Ottoman Khedivate of Egypt and Sudan a Sultanate and British protectorate . In October 1915, Britain offered Cyprus to Greece, ruled by King Constantine I of Greece , on the condition that Greece join the war on the side of the British and went to Serbia ’s assistance, in order to fulfill her Treaty obligations under the Serbo-Greek pact of May 1913. It gave Greece
6650-402: The Church of Cyprus organised a referendum under the supervision of clerics and with no Turkish Cypriot participation, where 96% of the participating Greek Cypriots voted in favour of enosis . The Greeks were 80.2% of the total island's population at the time ( census 1946 ). Restricted autonomy under a constitution was proposed by the British administration but eventually rejected. In 1955
6783-414: The EOKA organisation was founded, seeking union with Greece through armed struggle. At the same time the Turkish Resistance Organisation (TMT), calling for Taksim, or partition, was established by the Turkish Cypriots as a counterweight. British officials also tolerated the creation of the Turkish underground organisation TMT The Secretary of State for the Colonies in a letter dated 15 July 1958 had advised
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#17327647119046916-453: The Geneva Conventions applies to detainees in the "War on Terror", and that the Guantanamo military commission process used to try these suspects was in violation of U.S. and international law. In response to Hamdan , Congress passed the Military Commissions Act of 2006 , which President Bush signed into law on October 17, 2006. Like the Military Commissions Act of 2006 , its successor the Military Commissions Act of 2009 explicitly forbids
7049-400: The Geneva Conventions apply to all the cases of international armed conflict (IAC), where at least one of the warring nations has ratified the Conventions. Primarily: Article 1 of Protocol I further clarifies that armed conflict against colonial domination and foreign occupation also qualifies as an international conflict. When the criteria of international armed conflict have been met,
7182-399: The Geneva Conventions in the Russo-Ukrainian War (2014–present) has been troublesome because some of the personnel who engaged in combat against the Ukrainians were not identified by insignia, although they did wear military-style fatigues. The types of comportment qualified as acts of perfidy under jus in bello doctrine are listed in Articles 37 through 39 of the Geneva Convention;
7315-417: The Governor of Cyprus not to act against TMT despite its illegal actions so as not to harm British relations with the Turkish government. During British rule, the future of the island became a matter of disagreement between the two prominent ethnic communities, Greek Cypriots , who made up 77% of the population in 1960, and Turkish Cypriots , who made up 18% of the population. From the 19th century onwards,
7448-568: The Greek Cypriot police. The violence resulted in the death of 364 Turkish and 174 Greek Cypriots, destruction of 109 Turkish Cypriot or mixed villages and displacement of 25,000–30,000 Turkish Cypriots. The crisis resulted in the end of the Turkish Cypriot involvement in the administration and their claiming that it had lost its legitimacy; the nature of this event is still controversial. In some areas, Greek Cypriots prevented Turkish Cypriots from travelling and entering government buildings, while some Turkish Cypriots willingly withdrew due to
7581-405: The Greek Cypriot population pursued enosis , union with Greece , which became a Greek national policy in the 1950s. The Turkish Cypriot population initially advocated the continuation of the British rule, then demanded the annexation of the island to Turkey, and in the 1950s, together with Turkey, established a policy of taksim , the partition of Cyprus and the creation of a Turkish polity in
7714-685: The ICTY ruled that grave breaches apply not only to international conflicts, but also to internal armed conflict. Further, those provisions are considered customary international law . Controversy has arisen over the US designation of irregular opponents as "unlawful enemy combatants " (see also unlawful combatant ), especially in the Supreme Court of the United States judgments over the Guantanamo Bay detention camp brig facility Hamdi v. Rumsfeld , Hamdan v. Rumsfeld and Rasul v. Bush , and later Boumediene v. Bush . President George W. Bush , aided by Attorneys-General John Ashcroft and Alberto Gonzales and General Keith B. Alexander , claimed
7847-541: The Mediterranean. The country has an advanced high-income economy . The Republic of Cyprus has been a member of the Commonwealth since 1961 and was a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement until it joined the European Union on 1 May 2004. On 1 January 2008, Cyprus joined the eurozone . The earliest attested reference to Cyprus is the 15th century BC Mycenaean Greek 𐀓𐀠𐀪𐀍 , ku-pi-ri-jo , meaning "Cypriot" (Greek: Κύπριος ), written in Linear B syllabic script. The classical Greek form of
7980-475: The Republic, though migrant rights groups dispute these figures. The demographic changes in society have led to some racist incidents, and the formation of the charity KISA in response. The demographic character of northern Cyprus changed after the Turkish invasion in 1974 and especially during the last 10–15 years. TRNC census carried out in April 2006 showed that out of a total population of 256,644 in northern Cyprus, 132,635, or 52%, were Turkish Cypriots in
8113-505: The Syrian civil war became both an IAC with Syria and a NIAC with the Islamic State because the U.S. intervened in Syrian territory without the former's consent. On the other hand, Russia intervened in Syrian territory against the Free Syrian Army upon invitation by Syria, making Russia's participation subject only to Common Article 3 and therefore Protocol II (which Russia ratified on September 29, 1989). The U.S.-led NATO invasion of Afghanistan from October 7 to December 17, 2001
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#17327647119048246-585: The Turkish and Greek communities. The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook , unless otherwise indicated. The data in subsections Age structure through Divorce rate are for the area controlled by the Republic of Cyprus government only. The estimates are for 2007 from the Republic of Cyprus Statistical Abstract 2007 (pp. 63–88) unless indicated otherwise. Number of marriages: Marriage rates: Mean age at marriage: "The information presented here concerns only part of Cyprus, due to an absence of reliable information concerning
8379-405: The US President Lyndon B. Johnson on 5 June, warning that the US would not stand beside Turkey in case of a consequential Soviet invasion of Turkish territory. Meanwhile, by 1964, enosis was a Greek policy and would not be abandoned; Makarios and the Greek prime minister Georgios Papandreou agreed that enosis should be the ultimate aim and King Constantine wished Cyprus "a speedy union with
8512-422: The US since 2000. Some scholars hold that Common Article 3 deals with these situations, supplemented by Protocol II (1977). These set out minimum legal standards that must be followed for internal conflicts. International tribunals, particularly the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), have clarified international law in this area. In the 1999 Prosecutor v. Dusko Tadic judgement,
8645-615: The above-mentioned persons: During the negotiation of the Geneva Conventions, France and Britain were initially staunchly opposed to Common Article 3. However, to save face during negotiations and make strategic concessions, France and Britain deliberately introduced ambiguous language in the text of Common Article 3 that made it easy for states to avoid the obligations of the rule. As a consequence, Common Article 3 only concerns with humane treatment and does not deal with methods and means of hostilities, such as bombings committed by non-state armed groups or state forces against civilian targets in
8778-485: The area and expanded the political influence of Kition. After c. 850 BC, the sanctuaries [at the Kathari site] were rebuilt and reused by the Phoenicians. Cyprus is at a strategic location in the Eastern Mediterranean. It was ruled by the Neo-Assyrian Empire for a century starting in 708 BC, before a brief spell under Egyptian rule and eventually Achaemenid rule in 545 BC. The Cypriots, led by Onesilus , king of Salamis, joined their fellow Greeks in
8911-477: The beginning of the Cold War era, leading many to believe that the 1949 Geneva Conventions were addressing a largely extinct reality: on the one hand, most armed conflicts had become internal, or civil wars, while on the other, most wars had become increasingly asymmetric . Modern armed conflicts were inflicting an increasingly higher toll on civilians, which brought the need to provide civilian persons and objects with tangible protections in time of combat, bringing
9044-416: The calls of the Turkish Cypriot administration. Turkish Cypriots started living in enclaves . The republic's structure was changed, unilaterally, by Makarios, and Nicosia was divided by the Green Line , with the deployment of UNFICYP troops. In 1964, Turkey threatened to invade Cyprus in response to the continuing Cypriot intercommunal violence , but this was stopped by a strongly worded telegram from
9177-450: The cessation of the conflict. Human rights law applies to any incarcerated individual, including the right to a fair trial. Charges may only be brought against an enemy POW after a fair trial, but the initial crime being accused must be an explicit violation of the accords, more severe than simply fighting against the captor in battle. No trial will otherwise be afforded to a captured soldier, as deemed by human rights law. This element of
9310-416: The characteristics of war, whether carried out within the confines of one country or not. There are two criteria to distinguish non-international armed conflicts from lower forms of violence. The level of violence has to be of certain intensity, for example when the state cannot contain the situation with regular police forces. Also, involved non-state groups need to have a certain level of organization, like
9443-414: The convention has been confused during past incidents of detainment of US soldiers by North Vietnam, where the regime attempted to try all imprisoned soldiers in court for committing grave breaches, on the incorrect assumption that their sole existence as enemies of the state violated international law. Although warfare has changed dramatically since the Geneva Conventions of 1949, they are still considered
9576-718: The cornerstone of contemporary international humanitarian law . They protect combatants who find themselves hors de combat , and they protect civilians caught up in the zone of war. These treaties came into play for all recent non-international armed conflicts, including the War in Afghanistan , the Iraq War , the invasion of Chechnya (1994–2017) , and the Russo-Georgian War . The Geneva Conventions also protect those affected by non-international armed conflicts such as
9709-412: The country. Of the emigrated Turkish Cypriots in this period, only 290 went to Turkey. In the 2011 census, 208 people stated their ethnic origin as being Latin . In 2020, 39% of children born in Cyprus were to mothers of foreign origin, both from non-EU countries and from other EU member states. Large-scale demographic changes have been caused since 1964 by the movements of peoples across the island and
9842-524: The creation, interpretation and application of the laws of armed conflict. The complexity of these new challenges, as well as the speed in which they are developed, complicates the application of the Conventions, which have not been updated in a long time. Adding to this challenge is the very slow speed of the procedure of developing new treaties to deal with new forms of warfare, and determining agreed-upon interpretations to existing ones, meaning that by
9975-522: The criteria of being protected persons . The treaties of 1949 were ratified, in their entirety or with reservations , by 196 countries . The Geneva Conventions concern only protected non-combatants in war. The use of wartime conventional weapons is addressed by the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 and the 1980 Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons , while the biological and chemical warfare in international armed conflicts
10108-459: The east, west, south and centre, where the majority are Greek Cypriots, and Turkish in the north, where the majority are Turkish Cypriots. English is widely used throughout the island, as a common language . The total population of Cyprus as of the end of 2006 was slightly over 1 million, comprising 789,300 in the territory controlled by the government of the Republic of Cyprus and 294,406 in
10241-643: The empires of the Assyrians , Egyptians and Persians , from whom the island was seized in 333 BC by Alexander the Great . Subsequent rule by Ptolemaic Egypt , the Classical and Eastern Roman Empire , Arab caliphates for a short period, the French Lusignan dynasty and the Venetians was followed by over three centuries of Ottoman rule between 1571 and 1878 ( de jure until 1914). Cyprus
10374-665: The enforcement of grave breaches when the United Nations Security Council asserts its authority and jurisdiction from the UN Charter to apply universal jurisdiction. The UNSC did this when they established the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda and the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia to investigate and/or prosecute alleged violations. Soldiers, as prisoners of war, will not receive
10507-593: The ensuing occupation and the declaration of independence by the TRNC have been condemned by United Nations resolutions, which are reaffirmed by the Security Council every year. Attempts to resolve the Cyprus dispute have continued. In 2004, the Annan Plan , drafted by then UN Secretary General Kofi Annan , was put to a referendum in both Cypriot administrations. 65% of Turkish Cypriots voted in support of
10640-597: The entire island, including its territorial waters and exclusive economic zone , with the exception of the Sovereign Base Areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia , which remain under the UK's control according to the London and Zürich Agreements . However, the Republic of Cyprus is de facto partitioned into two main parts: the area under the effective control of the Republic, in the south and west and comprising about 59% of
10773-410: The entire island. The Turkish invasion of Cyprus in 1974 de facto partitioned the island into two political areas: 99.5% of Greek Cypriots now live in the south part of the Republic of Cyprus while 98.7% of Turkish Cypriots live in northern areas. (99.2% of other nationalities live in the Greek Cypriot areas in the center, west, east and south). Greek and Cypriot dialect are predominantly spoken in
10906-406: The entire island: The numbers of births and deaths 1901–1932 are estimates calculated from the birth and death rates. Historical data about main demographic indicators from 1990 to 2022, for the southern part of the island: Source: UN World Population Prospects Turkish Cypriots were the majority of the population registered for taxation between 1777 and 1800. However, it is likely that
11039-517: The establishment of the Red Cross in Geneva . The latter led to the 1864 Geneva Convention , the first codified international treaty that covered the sick and wounded soldiers on the battlefield. On 22 August 1864, the Swiss government invited the governments of all European countries, as well as the United States, Brazil, and Mexico, to attend an official diplomatic conference. Sixteen countries sent
11172-494: The ever-present tax collectors fueled Greek nationalism, and by the 20th century the idea of union with newly independent Greece was firmly rooted among Greek Cypriots. Under Ottoman rule, numeracy, school enrolment and literacy rates were all low. They persisted some time after Ottoman rule ended, and then increased rapidly during the twentieth century. In the aftermath of the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) and
11305-446: The first humans coincides with the extinction of the 75 cm (2.46 ft) high Cypriot pygmy hippopotamus and 1 metre (3 ft 3 in) tall Cyprus dwarf elephant , the only large mammals native to the island. Neolithic farming communities emerged on the island by around 10,500 years ago (8500 BC). Remains of an eight-month-old cat were discovered buried with a human body at a separate Neolithic site in Cyprus. The grave
11438-433: The following: Nations that are party to these treaties must enact and enforce legislation penalizing any of these crimes. Nations are also obligated to search for persons alleged to commit these crimes, or persons having ordered them to be committed , and to bring them to trial regardless of their nationality and regardless of the place where the crimes took place. The principle of universal jurisdiction also applies to
11571-513: The full protections of the Conventions are considered to apply. This article states that the certain minimum rules of war apply to armed conflicts "not of an international character." The International Committee of the Red Cross has explained that this language describes non-international armed conflict (NIAC) "where at least one Party is not a State." For example, it would apply to conflicts between state forces and non-state actors (NSAs), or between two NSAs, or to other conflicts that have all
11704-419: The idea that "Cyprus is Turkish" and the ruling party declared Cyprus to be a part of the Turkish homeland that was vital to its security. Upon realising that the fact that the Turkish Cypriot population was only 20% of the islanders made annexation unfeasible, the national policy was changed to favour partition. The slogan "Partition or Death" was frequently used in Turkish Cypriot and Turkish protests starting in
11837-478: The invocation of the Geneva Conventions "as a basis for a private right of action." "... Common Article 3 continues the conventional practice (reflected in both the 'Lieber' and 'The Hague' provisions) of according humanitarian protections only to 'belligerents' who defer to the laws and customs of war : not to 'insurrectionists' who defy these norms from the very outset of hostilities. Observance of
11970-471: The island is no longer considered by academics to be accurate. It is now accepted that the medieval period saw increasing numbers of Greek Cypriots elevated to the upper classes, a growing Greek middle ranks , and the Lusignan royal household even marrying Greeks. This included King John II of Cyprus who married Helena Palaiologina . In 1570, a full-scale Ottoman assault with 60,000 troops brought
12103-548: The island as a whole" . [REDACTED] This article incorporates public domain material from The World Factbook (2024 ed.). CIA . (Archived 2006 edition.) Cyprus Cyprus ( / ˈ s aɪ p r ə s / ), officially the Republic of Cyprus , is an island country in the eastern Mediterranean Sea . It is geographically a part of West Asia , but its cultural ties and geopolitics are overwhelmingly Southeast European . Cyprus
12236-532: The island entered a period of impoverishment. Full Byzantine rule was restored in 965, when Emperor Nikephoros II Phokas scored decisive victories on land and sea. In 1156 Raynald of Châtillon and Thoros II of Armenia brutally sacked Cyprus over a period of three weeks, stealing so much plunder and capturing so many of the leading citizens and their families for ransom, that the island took generations to recover. Several Greek priests were mutilated and sent away to Constantinople. In 1185 Isaac Komnenos ,
12369-405: The island from Anatolia . This new community also included banished Anatolian tribes, "undesirable" persons and members of various "troublesome" Muslim sects, as well as a number of new converts on the island. The Ottomans abolished the feudal system previously in place and applied the millet system to Cyprus, under which non-Muslim peoples were governed by their own religious authorities. In
12502-459: The island under Ottoman control, despite stiff resistance by the inhabitants of Nicosia and Famagusta. Ottoman forces capturing Cyprus massacred many Greek and Armenian Christian inhabitants. The previous Latin elite were destroyed and the first significant demographic change since antiquity took place with the formation of a Muslim community. Soldiers who fought in the conquest settled on the island and Turkish peasants and craftsmen were brought to
12635-541: The island's area, and the north, administered by the self-declared Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, covering about 36% of the island's area. Another nearly 4% of the island's area is covered by the UN buffer zone . The international community considers the northern part of the island to be territory of the Republic of Cyprus occupied by Turkish forces. The occupation is viewed as illegal under international law and amounting to illegal occupation of EU territory since Cyprus became
12768-449: The island's predominantly Greek character dating from this period. Cyprus occupies an important role in Greek mythology , being the birthplace of Aphrodite and Adonis , and home to King Cinyras , Teucer and Pygmalion . Literary evidence suggests an early Phoenician presence at Kition , which was under Tyrian rule at the beginning of the 10th century BC. Some Phoenician merchants who were believed to come from Tyre colonised
12901-457: The late 1950s and continuing throughout the 1960s. Although after the Zürich and London conferences Turkey seemed to accept the existence of the Cypriot state and to distance itself from its policy of favouring the partition of the island, the goal of the Turkish and Turkish Cypriot leaders remained that of creating an independent Turkish state in the northern part of the island. In January 1950,
13034-530: The later influx of settlers from Turkey to northern Cyprus. According to the 2011 Census there are 170,383 non-citizens living in Cyprus, of whom 106,270 are EU citizens and 64,113 are from third countries. The largest EU groups by nationality are Greeks (29,321), Romanians (23,706) and Bulgarians (18,536). The largest non-EU groups are British (24,046), Filipinos (9,413), Russians (8,164), Sri Lankans (7,269) and Vietnamese (7,028). There are an estimated 20–25,000 undocumented migrants from third countries also living in
13167-449: The militant activity of EOKA. The Turkish Cypriots also viewed themselves as a distinct ethnic group of the island and believed in their having a separate right to self-determination from Greek Cypriots. Meanwhile, in the 1950s, Turkish leader Menderes considered Cyprus an "extension of Anatolia", rejected the partition of Cyprus along ethnic lines and favoured the annexation of the whole island to Turkey. Nationalistic slogans centred on
13300-421: The minority Turkish Cypriots a permanent veto, 30% in parliament and administration, and granting the three mother-states guarantor rights. However, the division of power as foreseen by the constitution soon resulted in legal impasses and discontent on both sides, and nationalist militants started training again, with the military support of Greece and Turkey respectively. The Greek Cypriot leadership believed that
13433-423: The mother country". Greece dispatched 10,000 troops to Cyprus to counter a possible Turkish invasion. The crisis of 1963–64 had brought further intercommunal violence between the two communities, displaced more than 25,000 Turkish Cypriots into enclaves and brought the end of Turkish Cypriot representation in the republic. On 15 July 1974, the Greek military junta under Dimitrios Ioannides carried out
13566-466: The name is Κύπρος ( Kýpros ). The etymology of the name is unknown. Suggestions include: Through overseas trade, the island has given its name to the Classical Latin word for copper through the phrase aes Cyprium , "metal of Cyprus", later shortened to Cuprum . The standard demonym relating to Cyprus or its people or culture is Cypriot . The terms Cypriote and Cyprian (later
13699-553: The north. Cyprus was granted independence in 1960, following an armed campaign spearheaded by EOKA. As per the Zürich and London Agreement , Cyprus officially attained independence on 16 August 1960, and at the time had a total population of 573,566; of whom 442,138 (77.1%) were Greeks, 104,320 (18.2%) Turks, and 27,108 (4.7%) others. The UK retained the two Sovereign Base Areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia , while government posts and public offices were allocated by ethnic quotas, giving
13832-545: The northern areas of Cyprus. The population of the northern areas of Cyprus has increased following the immigration of 150,000–160,000 Turkish mainlanders, which the UN confirmed to have arrived illegally. On this basis, the Republic of Cyprus government does not include this group in the population statistics of the Republic of Cyprus Statistical Service. Population by citizenship Republic of Cyprus government controlled area : northern areas of Cyprus : Historical data about main demographic indicators from 1901 to 1990, for
13965-527: The northern coast, the Arabs exerted more influence in the south. In 688, Emperor Justinian II and Caliph Abd al-Malik signed a treaty whereby Cyprus would be paying an equal amount of tribute to the Caliphate and tax to the Empire, but would remain politically neutral to both while being retained as a province administered by the Empire. There are no Byzantine churches which survive from this period, and
14098-605: The plan and 74% Greek Cypriots voted against the plan, claiming that it disproportionately favoured Turkish Cypriots and gave unreasonable influence over the nation to Turkey. In total, 66.7% of the voters rejected the Annan Plan . On 1 May 2004 Cyprus joined the European Union , together with nine other countries. Cyprus was accepted into the EU as a whole, although the EU legislation is suspended in Northern Cyprus until
14231-421: The population estimates for the entire island published by the Republic of Cyprus Statistical Service. The national identities of the population of the area under the control of the Republic of Cyprus are: An influx of Israeli immigrants has been reported in the early 2020s, numbering 12,000 as of April 2024 according to Israeli estimates. Greek and Turkish are the official languages according to Article 3 of
14364-571: The power, as Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces, to determine that any person, including an American citizen, who is suspected of being a member, agent, or associate of Al Qaeda , the Taliban , or possibly any other terrorist organization, is an "enemy combatant" who can be detained in U.S. military custody until hostilities end, pursuant to the international law of war. The application of
14497-647: The prohibition of fake insignia is listed at Article 39.2, but the law is silent on the complete absence of insignia. The status of POWs captured in this circumstance remains a question. Educational institutions and organizations including Harvard University , the International Committee of the Red Cross , and the Rohr Jewish Learning Institute use the Geneva Convention as a primary text investigating torture and warfare. Artificial intelligence and autonomous weapon systems, such as military robots and cyber-weapons, are creating challenges in
14630-470: The properties of the displaced Greek Cypriots. Among a variety of sanctions against Turkey, in mid-1975 the US Congress imposed an arms embargo on Turkey for using US-supplied equipment during the Turkish invasion of Cyprus in 1974. There were 1,534 Greek Cypriots and 502 Turkish Cypriots missing as a result of the fighting from 1963 to 1974. The Republic of Cyprus has de jure sovereignty over
14763-713: The rights given to Turkish Cypriots under the 1960 constitution were too extensive and designed the Akritas plan , which was aimed at reforming the constitution in favour of Greek Cypriots, persuading the international community about the correctness of the changes and violently subjugating Turkish Cypriots in a few days should they not accept the plan. Tensions were heightened when Cypriot President Archbishop Makarios III called for constitutional changes , which were rejected by Turkey and opposed by Turkish Cypriots. Intercommunal violence erupted on 21 December 1963, when two Turkish Cypriots were killed at an incident involving
14896-414: The rules of warfare is what elevates an 'insurrectionist' to the legally cognizable status of 'belligerent' under the 'International law of war'; nothing short of such an 'observance' suffices to effect this transformation from the infra legal to legal ." Whether the conflict is an IAC or a NIAC or both depends on the nature and circumstances of the situation. Since there is a general prohibition against
15029-462: The sense that they were born in Cyprus of at least one Cyprus-born parent (for 120,007 of these both parents were Cyprus-born). In addition, 43,062 so called TRNC citizens (17%) had at least one non-Cypriot Turkish-born parent, 2,334 so called TRNC citizens (1%) had parents born in other countries, 70,525 residents (27%) had Turkish citizenship, and 8,088 (3%) were citizens of other countries (mainly UK, Bulgaria, and Iran). Based on these census data, it
15162-435: The strong Hellenistic-Christian character that continues to be a hallmark of the Greek Cypriot community. Beginning in 649, Cyprus endured repeated attacks and raids launched by Umayyad Caliphate . Many were quick raids, but others were large-scale attacks in which many Cypriots were killed and great wealth carried off or destroyed. The city of Salamis was destroyed and never rebuilt. Byzantine control remained stronger in
15295-529: The summer of 1974 dominate the politics on the island, as well as Greco-Turkish relations . Turkish settlers have been settled in the north with the encouragement of the Turkish and Turkish Cypriot states. The Republic of Cyprus considers their presence a violation of the Geneva Convention , whilst many Turkish settlers have since severed their ties to Turkey and their second generation considers Cyprus to be their homeland. The Turkish invasion,
15428-417: The temperaments of the sultans and local officials. The ratio of Muslims to Christians fluctuated throughout the period of Ottoman domination. In 1777–78, 47,000 Muslims constituted a majority over the island's 37,000 Christians. By 1872, the population of the island had risen to 144,000, comprising 44,000 Muslims and 100,000 Christians. The Muslim population included numerous crypto-Christians , including
15561-412: The terms of the two 1929 treaties and added two new conventions. The Geneva Conventions extensively define the basic rights of wartime prisoners , civilians and military personnel ; establish protections for the wounded and sick; and provide protections for the civilians in and around a war-zone. The Geneva Conventions define the rights and protections afforded to those non-combatants who fulfill
15694-447: The third Hague Convention of 1899 and the tenth Hague Convention of 1907 . In 1906 thirty-five states attended a conference convened by the Swiss government. On 6 July 1906 it resulted in the adoption of the "Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armies in the Field", which improved and supplemented, for the first time, the 1864 convention. It remained in force until 1970 when Costa Rica acceded to
15827-531: The threshold of an IAC. The 2020 ICRC commentary on the Third Geneva Convention requires two elements for this classification: "the group must in fact fight on behalf of that Party" and "that Party must accept both the fighting role of the group and the fact that the fighting is done on its behalf." It further states that "[w]here a Party to a conflict has overall control over the militia , volunteer corps or organized resistance movement that has
15960-473: The treatment of wounded and sick armed forces in the field. The second convention dealt with the sick, wounded, and shipwrecked members of armed forces at sea. The third convention dealt with the treatment of prisoners of war during times of conflict. The fourth convention dealt with the treatment of civilians and their protection during wartime. Individuals who fulfill the criteria of protected persons in international armed conflicts are protected by
16093-427: The two communities, displaced more than 25,000 Turkish Cypriots into enclaves and brought the end of Turkish Cypriot representation in the republic. On 15 July 1974, a coup d'état was staged by Greek Cypriot nationalists and elements of the Greek military junta . This action precipitated the Turkish invasion of Cyprus on 20 July, which led to the capture of the present-day territory of Northern Cyprus and
16226-534: The use of force between States (as is reflected within article 2(4) of the United Nations Charter ) with respect to Common Article 2, it is generally presumed that any use of such military force which is governed by international humanitarian law (IHL) is attributable to deliberate belligerent intent. Regarding Common Article 3, the ICRC in its 2016 commentary stated the provision includes not just
16359-511: The wave of humanitarian and pacifistic enthusiasm following World War II and the outrage towards the war crimes disclosed by the Nuremberg and Tokyo trials , a series of conferences were held in 1949 reaffirming, expanding and updating the prior Geneva and Hague Conventions. It yielded four distinct conventions: Despite the length of these documents, they were found over time to be incomplete. The nature of armed conflicts had changed with
16492-651: The whole is referred to as the "Geneva Conventions of 1949" or simply the "Geneva Conventions". Usually only the Geneva Conventions of 1949 are referred to as First, Second, Third or Fourth Geneva Conventions. The treaties of 1949 were ratified, in whole or with reservations , by 196 countries . The 1949 conventions have been modified with three amendment protocols : The Geneva Conventions apply at times of war and armed conflict to governments who have ratified its terms. The details of applicability are spelled out in Common Articles 2 and 3. This article states that
16625-609: The wider Mediterranean world driven by the trade in copper extracted from the Troodos Mountains, which stimulated the development of urbanised settlements across the island, with records suggesting that Cyprus at this time was ruled by "kings" who corresponded with the leaders of other Mediterranean states (like the pharaohs of the New Kingdom of Egypt , as documented in the Amarna letters ). The first recorded name of
16758-541: The wounded, and civilians. Not all violations of the treaty are treated equally. The most serious crimes are termed grave breaches and provide a legal definition of a war crime . Grave breaches of the Third and Fourth Geneva Conventions include the following acts if committed against a person specifically protected by the conventions: Also considered grave breaches of the Fourth Geneva Convention are
16891-427: Was a natural right. In the 1950s, the pursuit of enosis became a part of the Greek national policy. Initially, the Turkish Cypriots favoured the continuation of the British rule. However, they were alarmed by the Greek Cypriot calls for enosis , as they saw the union of Crete with Greece, which led to the exodus of Cretan Turks , as a precedent to be avoided, and they took a pro-partition stance in response to
17024-648: Was actively pursued by the Cypriot Orthodox Church , which had its members educated in Greece. These religious officials, together with Greek military officers and professionals, some of whom still pursued the Megali Idea , would later found the guerrilla organisation EOKA (Ethniki Organosis Kyprion Agoniston or National Organisation of Cypriot Fighters). The Greek Cypriots viewed the island as historically Greek and believed that union with Greece
17157-707: Was during this period that the island was fully Hellenised . In 58 BC Cyprus was acquired by the Roman Republic and became Roman Cyprus in 22 BC. When the Roman Empire was divided into Eastern and Western parts in 286, Cyprus became part of the East Roman Empire (also called the Byzantine Empire ), and would remain so for some 900 years. Under Byzantine rule, the Greek orientation that had been prominent since antiquity developed
17290-456: Was first settled by hunter-gatherers around 13,000 years ago, with farming settlements emerging a few thousand years later. During the late Bronze Age , Cyprus, known in contemporary sources as Alashiya , developed an urbanised society closely connected to the wider Mediterranean world. Cyprus experienced waves of settlement by Mycenaean Greeks at the end of the 2nd millennium BC . It was subsequently occupied by several major powers , including
17423-596: Was initially an IAC because it waged war against the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan under Taliban rule. Once the new Karzai administration was established and recognized internationally, the conflict changed from an IAC to a NIAC, with NATO troops under International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) and Resolute Support Mission (RSM) auspices assisting the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan with its consent in battling Taliban insurgents. In contrast,
17556-466: Was placed under the United Kingdom 's administration based on the Cyprus Convention in 1878 and was formally annexed by the UK in 1914. The future of the island became a matter of disagreement between the two prominent ethnic communities, Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots . From the 19th century onwards, the Greek Cypriot population pursued enosis , union with Greece , which became
17689-485: Was recognised as King of Cyprus by Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor . Following the death in 1473 of James II , the last Lusignan king, the Republic of Venice assumed control of the island, while the late king's Venetian widow, Queen Catherine Cornaro , reigned as figurehead. Venice formally annexed the Kingdom of Cyprus in 1489, following the abdication of Catherine. The Venetians fortified Nicosia by building
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