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189-533: Levant: Military orders: Muslim forces: In the Holy Land (1095–1291) Later Crusades (1291–1717) Northern (1147–1410) Against Christians (1209–1588) Popular (1096–1320) Period post-First Crusade Second Crusade Period post-Second Crusade Third Crusade Period post-Third Crusade Fourth Crusade Fifth Crusade Sixth Crusade and aftermath Seventh Crusade End of

378-453: A Last Voyage and two additional Holy Wars. These Voyages include the First through Eighth Crusades in current numbering. Shortly thereafter, French Jesuit Louis Maimbourg (1610–1686) published his Histoire des Croisades pour la délivrance de la Terre Sainte (1675), identify the First through Fifth Crusades. In his work The Crusades—An Encyclopedia, historian Alan V. Murray further explains

567-613: A Nicaean stronghold west of Constantinople. Crusade against the Mongols. The Crusade against the Mongols (1241) was led by Conrad IV of Germany and is also known as the Anti-Mongol Crusade of 1241. British historian Peter Jackson documented this crusade in his study Crusade against the Mongols (1241) . Seventh Crusade. The Seventh Crusade (1248–1254) is also known as the Crusade of Louis IX of France to

756-476: A capable ruler. Philip's ability to rule as a king should be demonstrated by the rich clothing and the stately appearance of the participants in the festival. On Christmas Day the king went in a solemn procession with his splendidly dressed wife to the service under the crown. The Saxon Duke Bernard carried the king's sword in front of him and showed his support for the Hohenstaufen. The sword bearer service

945-761: A conflict with Pope Alexander III . It was not until 1177 that the long standing conflict of the Emperor with the Pope and the Italian cities of the Lombard League could be resolved in the Treaty of Venice . The Hohenstaufen had never used the name Philip before. The prince was named after the Archbishop Philip of Cologne , who was an important helper and confidante of Barbarossa at this time. The name of

1134-528: A continuation of the World Chronicle ( Chronicon universale ) of Ekkehard of Aura and Frutolf of Michelsberg in 1229/30. The chronicle is one of the most important sources for the history of the empire at the beginning of the 13th century. For the chronicler (who was loyal to the Hohenstaufen), Philip was of a meek and mild disposition, of affable speech, kind and quite generous, while Otto IV

1323-836: A crusade (as noted above). In the twelve Latin chronicles , the event is called, for example, the Deeds of the Franks or the Expedition to Jerusalem. Anna Komnene simply notes the arrival of the various armies in Constantinople, and Arabic historian ibn Athir calls it the Coming of the Franks. Thomas Fuller referred to it as Voyage 1 of the Holy Warre. It is unclear as to who first used the term, but it has been credited to Louis Maimbourg in his 1675 Histoire des Croisades. The term

1512-617: A crusade or pilgrimage to the Holy Land c. 1275 and was captured by the Egyptians and held for 32 years. The only known reference to this is by Thomas Fuller in his Historie of the Holy Warre , where it is referred to as the Last Voyage. Siege of Acre. The Siege of Acre (1291) marked the loss of the Holy Land to the Mamluks, typically identifying the end of the traditional Crusades. The anonymous Les Gestes des Chiprois (Deeds of

1701-466: A crusade, and began organizing Crusading armies led by Andrew II of Hungary and Leopold VI of Austria , soon to be joined by John of Brienne , titular King of Jerusalem . An initial campaign in late 1217 in Syria was inconclusive, and Andrew departed. A German army led by cleric Oliver of Paderborn , and a mixed army of Dutch , Flemish and Frisian soldiers led by William I of Holland , then joined

1890-421: A daughter of Emperor Isaac II and the widow of junior King Roger III of Sicily , a lady who was described by Walther von der Vogelweide as "the rose without a thorn, the dove without guile": she was among those taken prisoner by Henry VI when he invaded Sicily in 1194. In early 1195, Philip accompanied his imperial brother on his journey to Sicily and at Easter 1195 he was made Margrave of Tuscany , receiving

2079-443: A failure of the crops in 1201–1202, and famine and pestilence ensued. People abandoned themselves to atrocious practices, habitually resorting to cannibalism. Violent earthquakes, felt as far away as Syria and Armenia, devastated whole cities, and increased the general misery. After naval raids on Rosetta in 1204 and Damietta in 1211, the chief concern of al-Adil was Egypt. He was willing to make concessions to avoid war, and favoured

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2268-532: A former classmate of the pope's. He was met with bitter complaints by the clergy, accusing the legate of encroaching on their domains. Philip II of France supported his clergy, and Innocent III realized the Robert's zeal was a threat to the success of the Crusade. On 11 November 1215, the Fourth Lateran Council was convened. The prelates of France presented their grievances, many well-founded, and

2457-647: A large tribute. Zeno and Pietro da Canale were accused by Francesco Dandolo with arranging an anti-Turkish alliance. By the end of the year the Holy League (also known as the Naval League) "a union, society and league for the discomfiture of the Turks and the defence of the true faith", had been formally constituted. In 1334, Zeno took command of the league's fleet and defeated the fleet of the Beylik of Karasi at

2646-546: A neglected ruler for a long time in medieval studies . For several decades no major accounts of Philip appeared. His murder in Bamberg didn't attract the interest of even the Historical Association of Bamberg ( Historischer Verein Bamberg ) in 1908 or 1958. Only recently has Philip received greater attention in historical studies. In 1998, historian Bernd Ulrich Hucker characterized Philip as a "weak king" who

2835-539: A rage when he learned of the dissolution of his betrothal to Gertrude of Silesia by her father, the Piast Duke Henry I the Bearded , who was apparently informed of Count Otto VIII's cruel tendencies and in an act of concern for his young daughter decided to terminate the marriage agreement. Later, after an unfortunate campaign to Thuringia, Philip had betrothed his third daughter Kunigunde to Count Otto VIII in

3024-776: A son on 26 December 1194 in Jesi , the later Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor . While the Emperor was absent, the princes elected his two-year-old son Frederick as King of the Romans in Frankfurt at the end of 1196; with this move, Henry VI wanted to see his succession secured before he prepared for the Crusade of 1197 . To improve relationships with the Byzantine Empire , in April 1195 Henry VI betrothed Philip to Irene Angelina ,

3213-530: A treaty was concluded by which were renewed the marriage negotiations of the nephew of the Pope with one of Philip's daughters and to receive the disputed territory of Tuscany. From the 12th century the court developed into a central institution of royal and princely rule. It was a “decision-making center and theater of power, consumer and entertainment center, distribution center, broker's seat for and for power, money and goods and social opportunities, for tastes, ideas and fashions of all kinds”. Medieval kingship

3402-460: A two-prong attack. In Syria, Andrew's forces would engage al-Mu'azzam , son of Al-Adil, at the stronghold of Nablus . At the same time, the fleet was to attack the port city of Damietta , wresting Egypt from the Muslims and enabling the conquest of the remainder of Syria and Palestine. This plan was abandoned at Acre due to the lack of manpower and ships. Instead, in anticipation of reinforcements,

3591-667: A union of the Holy Roman Empire with the Kingdom of Sicily. Thus, the Pope chose the Welf and excommunicated Philip and his associates. The papal judgment for Otto had no major effect in the empire. From then on, both kings tried to win over the undecided or opponents. In order to achieve this goal, there were fewer major decisive battles, but personal bonds between rulers and greats had to be strengthened. This happened because faithful, relatives and friends were favored by gifts or

3780-597: A very great extent, and appears to have been designated as guardian for the king's minor son, in the event of his early death. In September 1197 Philip had set out to fetch Frederick from Apulia for his coronation as King of the Romans in Aachen . While staying in Montefiascone , he heard of Henry VI's sudden death in Messina on 28 September 1197 and returned at once to Germany . He appears to have desired to protect

3969-673: A veteran of the Fourth Crusade, would also return to the Holy Land with the Fifth Crusade. French canon Jacques de Vitry had come under the influence of the saintly Marie of Oignies and preached the Albigensian Crusade after 1210. He arrived at his new position as Bishop of Acre in 1216 and shortly thereafter Honorius III tasked him with preaching the Crusade in the Latin settlements of Syria, made difficult with

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4158-580: A “comprehensive conspiratorial plan” in 1998 and suspected a “coup d'état”. The Andechs Dukes of Merania , King Philip II of France and Duke Henry I of Brabant should have been involved in this comprehensive plot; allegedly, the conspirators had planned to put the Duke of Brabant on the German throne. But Hucker's coup hypothesis did not prevail. It remains to be seen what use the French king would have had from

4347-668: Is as follows. First Crusade. The First Crusade (1095–1099) refers to the activities from the Council of Clermont of 1095 through the establishment of the Kingdom of Jerusalem and the battle of Ascalon in 1099. Sometimes segregated into the People's Crusade and the Princes' Crusade. Some accounts also include the Crusade of 1101 here. The original chroniclers of the First Crusade did not, of course, refer to it as such, or even as

4536-469: Is by a combination of dates and descriptive terminology relating to participation, goals, or both, and this is the solution that has been adopted [here]. However, the names of the First, Second, Third, Fourth, and Fifth Crusades, which are at least unambiguous (if not accurate), have been retained, as they are now established by long tradition. The list of the Crusades to the Holy Land from 1095 through 1291

4725-517: Is considered to be the "first Roman-German ruler whose court can be shown to have courtly poetry and who himself became the subject of courtly poetry." Walther von der Vogelweide dedicated a special song to the Magdeburg Court Day of 1199, in which he honored Philip as ruler. During his short reign, Philip didn't have the opportunity to promote art or build buildings. Spiritual institutions were not particularly promoted by him. Since

4914-606: Is known as the Hungarian Crusade of 1217. List of Crusades to Europe and the Holy Land#Later Crusades (1291-1578) The list of Crusades in Europe and to the Holy Land identifies those conflicts in the 11th through 16th centuries that are referred to as Crusades . These include the traditional numbered crusades and others that prominent historians have identified as crusades. The scope of

5103-431: Is probably due to the fact that he did not obtain the imperial crown, because it would have led to a change in title. With his awarding of charters, Philip reached considerably further north, north-west ( Bremen , Utrecht , Zutphen ) and south-west ( Savoy , Valence ) to assert his kingship. With the issuing of charters, Philip wanted to bind his followers more closely to himself in these areas as well. His itinerarium

5292-578: Is regarded by some as an extension of the Eighth Crusade. Edward, later King of England, was accompanied by his wife Eleanor of Castile , who came to his aid after an assassination attempt. Discussed as part of the Eighth Crusade by Joseph François Michaud in Volume 3 of his seminal Histoire des Croisades (1812–1822). Crusade of Henry of Mecklenburg. The Crusade of Henry of Mecklenburg (1275). Henry I, Lord of Mecklenburg (died 1302) went on

5481-428: Is shaped like no other ruling rulers from the Hohenstaufen era by the political situation of the controversy for the throne. An almost orderly move through the empire with continuous notarial activity did not take place. Rather, a regionalization of itinerary, awarding of charters and visits to the court can be identified, which historian Bernd Schütte interpreted as a “withdrawal of the royal central authority”. Philip

5670-522: Is sometimes regarded as part of the Fifth Crusade (1217–1221) and sometimes as a separate expedition. This means that the term Sixth Crusade may refer either to Frederick II's crusade or to the first crusade of King Louis IX of France, which might also be called the Seventh Crusade. Consequently, each subsequent number after the fifth might refer to either of two different expeditions. The only absolutely clear method of designating individual crusades

5859-456: Is therefore also seen as a turning point, as it marked the beginning of written alliances in the northern Alpine empire. The number of contracts concluded also rose during the controversy for the throne. However, these written agreements were regularly broken for political reasons. The nobles tried to use the political situation to expand their regional principalities. Landgrave Hermann of Thuringia, Philip's cousin, changed sides five times between

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6048-511: The Monumenta Germaniae Historica . The edition published in 2014 has a total of 216 documents and deperdita (lost documents that have been handed down in other sources, for example chronicles), including 199 documents from Philip's ten-year reign as king, of which around 2/3 are products of his court. Bernd Schütte's work, published in 2002, examined the scope of action and the ability to integrate Philip's monarchy on

6237-576: The Almohads . There was little appetite in Europe for a new Crusade. In Jerusalem, John of Brienne became the effective ruler of the kingdom through his marriage to Maria of Montferrat . In 1212, Isabella II of Jerusalem was proclaimed queen of Jerusalem shortly after her birth, and her father John became regent. Antioch was consumed with the War of the Antiochene Succession , begun with

6426-773: The Annales Pegaviensis (chronicle of the Pegau Abbey ) held Otto IV's supporters responsible for the murder. Philip's widow, Irene-Maria, pregnant at that time, took refuge in Hohenstaufen Castle , dying only two months after the Bamberg regicide as a result of a miscarriage. After Philip's death, Otto IV quickly prevailed against the remaining Hohenstaufen supporters, was acknowledged as German monarch at an Imperial Diet in Frankfurt in November 1208 and crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Innocent III

6615-566: The Ayyubid dynasty . Crusade to the East of Philip of Flanders. The Crusade to the East (1177) was a crusade led by Philip I, Count of Flanders that intended to invade Egypt, instead only mounting an unsuccessful siege of Harim . Third Crusade. The Third Crusade (1189–1192). The Third Crusade was in response to the loss of Jerusalem to Saladin in 1187 and had significant English participation, under Richard I of England , as well as by

6804-508: The German throne dispute : the two elected kings, Philip of Swabia and Otto of Brunswick , claimed the throne for themselves. Both opponents tried in the following years through European and papal support, with the help of money and gifts, through demonstrative public appearances and rituals, to decide the conflict for oneself by raising ranks or by military and diplomatic measures. Philip was able to increasingly assert his kingship against Otto in

6993-882: The War of the Sicilian Vespers (the Almogavar) against the Anatolian beyliks . It concluded with the Catalan's taking control of the Duchy of Athens and Thebes . Hospitaller Crusade. The Hospitaller Crusade (1306–1310). A crusade known as the Hospitaller conquest of Rhodes that consolidated hold of the Knights Hospitaller on Rhodes. Documented by Hans Prutz in his Die Anfänge der Hospitaliter auf Rhodos, 1310–1355 (1908). Crusade against

7182-549: The battle of Adramyttion . Zeno later served as one of the leaders of the Smyrna Crusade of 1344. The Holy League of Clement VI. The Holy League of Clement VI (1343) was a crusade proclaimed by Clement VI in 1343 that resulted in a naval attack on Smyrna the next year. The Grand Counci of Venice elected Pietro Zeno as captain of the flotilla sent to assist the crusade against Aydinid-held Smyrna. Other crusader leaders included patriarch Henry of Asti , The crusade

7371-571: The unio regni ad imperium (the reunification of the Holy Roman Empire and the Kingdom of Sicily , whose liege lord he was and wanted to remain) and he was also concerned about the Hohenstaufen claims to central Italy. For the pontiff, the question of obedience was a decisive factor in determining which candidate would have the papal recognition ( favor apostolicus ). In contrast to Otto, Philip expressed himself much more cautiously towards

7560-471: The 1980s, historical research on the Middle Ages has gained numerous new insights into high medieval royalty. The German royal rule in the Middle Ages was no longer perceived as a history of decline. Rather, the king and the nobility are seen as "natural main partners in the empire". The older image of the selfish princes who only wanted to weaken the kingship was put into perspective by pointing out that

7749-505: The 19th and early 20th century was hampered by historians anachronistically projecting their contemporary political preferences backwards in time. Due to the contemporary Kulturkampf , nationalist Protestant historians viewed the Catholic church or anything that smacked of ultramontanism extremely negatively. Likewise Kleinstaaterei was seen as a historical calamity and there was a search for culpable parties in history. The historians of

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7938-533: The 19th century through such works as Heroes of the Crusades (1869) by Barbara Hutton. The references shown above for the First Crusade generally cover the People's Crusade as well. Crusade of 1101. The Crusade of 1101 (1101–1102) was also called the Crusade of the Faint-Hearted. Campaigns that followed the capture of Jerusalem in 1099 that were generally ignored by 18th and 19th century historians. Thomas Fuller nevertheless referred to it as Voyage 2 of

8127-446: The 19th century were therefore interested in a strong monarchical central power and therefore looked for the reasons for the late emergence of a unified German nation state. The "sources of strength of the German nation" were located in the Middle Ages. The kings and emperors were presented as early representatives of a strong monarchical power that was also longed for by the nationalist historians for their own time. The decisive factor for

8316-560: The Archbishop of Cologne was thus accepted into a royal family. For historian Gerd Althoff , this demonstrative honor makes "Barbarossa's preparations for the confrontation with Henry the Lion tangible". A little later, the Archbishop of Cologne played a key role in the overthrow of the powerful Duke of Bavaria and Saxony. As a child, Philip was initially prepared for an ecclesiastical career. He learned to read and also learned Latin, and

8505-477: The Archbishop of Cologne, as usual, but Archbishop Aymon II of Tarentaise who crowned Philip as German King. It is uncertain whether his wife was also crowned alongside him. Despite these violations of the consuetudines (Customs) when he was elected and crowned as King, Philip was able to unite the majority of the princes behind him. For the princes, property, ancestry and origins were essential for their support of Philip. Nevertheless, he knew that he had to settle

8694-482: The Archbishop was able to reduce the high debt burden of his diocese. The hostility to the kingship of a child was growing, so Philip was chosen by Ghibellines as defender of the empire during Frederick's minority, and Otto I of Burgundy, the only living elder brother of Philip who was passed over for being considered inefficient and busy solving problems in his own fief, also supported him. He finally consented to his own election at Nordhausen . On 6 March 1198, in front of

8883-501: The Barons' Crusade, 1239–1241. Among modern historians, René Grousset was among the first to discuss this crusade in his Histoire des croisades et du royaume franc de Jérusalem (1934-1936) Thomas Fuller referred to it as Voyage 10 of the Holy Warre. Crusade of Richard of Cornwall. The Crusade of Richard of Cornwall (1240–1241) was also known as the Crusade of Richard of Cornwall and Simon of Montfort to Jaffa. Richard also held

9072-728: The Catalan Grand Company. The Crusade against the Catalan Grand Company (1330–1332) was also called the Anti-Catalan Crusade , waged by Walter VI, Count of Brienne , and titular Duke of Athens. In 1330, John XXII issued a papal bull and ordered prelates in Italy and Greece to preach for a crusade against the Catalan Grand Company . Shortly thereafter, Robert of Naples gave the crusade his support. The Venetians, however, renewed their treaty with

9261-629: The Catalans in 1331. By the summer, it was clear that the expedition had failed, and Walter returned to Brindisi , saddled with crippling debts. The Naval Crusade of the Holy League. The Naval Crusade of the Holy League (1332–1333) was short-lived crusade against the Aydinid Turkish fleet by Pietro Zeno , serving as balio of Negroponte . In 1332, a Turkish armada under Umur Bey attacked Negroponte, and Zeno bought them off with

9450-404: The Count Palatine was decisive for a broad movement away from the Welf. During the siege of Weißensee on 17 September 1204, Landgrave Hermann of Thuringia humbly submitted to the Hohenstaufen. It is the only case of submission ( deditio ) through which the historical sources provide detailed information. According to chronicler Arnold of Lübeck , Philip held up to the Landgrave "while he

9639-414: The Crusade against Conradin of 1268 (cf. Italian Crusades below). Crusade of James I of Aragon. The Crusade of James I of Aragon (1269–1270). James I of Aragon joined forces with Abaqa , Mongol ruler of the Ilkhanate , to take a crusade to the Holy Land, but returned without engaging the Mamluks in light of their strength at Acre. Eighth Crusade. The Eighth Crusade (1270) was also known as

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9828-408: The Crusade in Acre , with a goal of first conquering Egypt, viewed as the key to Jerusalem. There, cardinal Pelagius Galvani arrived as papal legate and de facto leader of the Crusade, supported by John of Brienne and the masters of the Templars , Hospitallers and Teutonic Knights . Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II , who had taken the cross in 1215, did not participate as promised. Following

10017-412: The Crusade of Louis IX of France to Tunis. Accompanied by Jean de Joinville who wrote the biography Life of Saint Louis (1309) . Thomas Fuller referred to it as Voyage 31 of the Holy Warre. Lord Edward's Crusade. Lord Edward's Crusade (1271–1272) was led by the future Edward I of England , and is also known as the Crusade of Lord Edward of England, the Ninth Crusade, or the Last Crusade. It

10206-400: The Crusader states in the Levant The Fifth Crusade (September 1217 - August 29, 1221) was a campaign in a series of Crusades by Western Europeans to reacquire Jerusalem and the rest of the Holy Land by first conquering Egypt , ruled by the powerful Ayyubid sultanate, led by al-Adil , brother of Saladin . After the failure of the Fourth Crusade , Innocent III again called for

10395-451: The Crusaders decided to go to the Holy Land by their traditional sea journey. The fleet made their first stop at Dartmouth on the southern coast of England. There they elected their leaders and the laws by which they would organize their venture. From there, led by William I of Holland , they continued on their way south to Lisbon. As in previous crusading seaborne journeys, the fleet was dispersed by storms and only gradually managed to reach

10584-472: The Crusaders, capturing al-Qualai'ah , besieging Krak des Chevaliers and advancing to Tripoli , before accepting an indemnity from Bohemond IV in exchange for peace. Az-Zahir maintained an alliance with both Antioch and Kaykaus I , the Seljuk sultan of Rûm , to check the influence of Leo I of Armenia , as well as to keep his options open to challenge his uncle. Az-Zahir died in 1216, leaving as his successor al-Aziz Muhammad , his 3-year-old son, whose mother

10773-405: The Crusaders, he guarded the approaches to Damascus while al-Mu'azzam was sent to Nablus to protect Jerusalem. The Crusaders were camped near Acre at Tel Afek , and on 3 November 1217 began to traverse the plain of Esdraelon towards 'Ain Jalud , expecting an ambush. Upon seeing the strength of the Crusaders, al-Adil withdrew to Beisan against the wishes of al-Mu'azzam who wanted to attack from

10962-427: The Crusaders’ Egyptian plan, these diversions were useful in stretching the resources of the sultanate that controlled the Levant with an uneasy cooperation. The first to take up the cross in the Fifth Crusade was King Andrew II of Hungary . Andrew II had been called on by the pope in July 1216 to fulfill his father Béla III's vow to lead a crusade, and finally agreed, having postponed three times earlier. Andrew, who

11151-458: The Crusades in toto include Murray's Encyclopedia, Stephen Runciman's A History of the Crusades , 3 volumes (1951–1954), and the Wisconsin Collaborative History of the Crusades, 6 volumes (1969-1989). In the Holy Land (1095–1291) Later Crusades (1291–1717) Northern (1147–1410) Against Christians (1209–1588) Popular (1096–1320) The conflicts that are usually associated with crusades in

11340-557: The Cypriots) contains one of two eyewitness accounts of the siege. After the fall of Acre, the crusades continued in the Levant through the 16th century. Principal references on this subject are Kenneth Setton's History of the Crusades, Volume III. The Fourteenth and Fifteen Centuries (1975), and Norman Housley's The Later Crusades, 1274-1580: From Lyons to Alcazar (1992) and The Crusading Movement, 1274–1700 (1995). Barbara Tuchman's A Distant Mirror: The Calamitous 14th Century (1978) provides an interesting perspective on both

11529-485: The Damascene atabeg Toghtekin . This marked a major victor for Baldwin II of Jerusalem prior to his second captivity in 1123. Crusade of 1129. The Crusade of 1129 , also known as the Damascus Crusade, was begun by Baldwin II of Jerusalem after his captivity. The crusade failed in its objective to capture Damascus and is described by Syriac historian Michael the Syrian in his Chronicle (after 1195). Second Crusade. The Second Crusade (1147–1150). After

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11718-445: The Duchy of Brabant. As a result, Henry I should be closely tied to the Hohenstaufen monarchy. After the protracted conflicts between the Archbishop of Cologne and Philip, order had to be restored in a demonstrative way. Philip moved into Cologne on the symbolic Palm Sunday . The adventus (formally entry to a city) had "the function of a homage, a solemn recognition of the rule of the king". In addition, numerous Welf supporters on

11907-486: The East, or Louis IX's First Crusade. Early works on this crusade include Primat of Saint-Denis' Roman des rois (1274) and Jean de Joinville's Life of Saint Louis (1309) . Thomas Fuller referred to it as Voyage 12 of the Holy Warre. Grousset's Histoire des croisades... and Peter Jackson's Seventh Crusade, 1244–1254: Sources and Documents (2007) provide the necessary historical background. Crusade of Odo of Burgundy. The Crusade of Odo of Burgundy (1265–1266)

12096-514: The Fifth Crusade, it was an extension of that activity that involved little fighting. Jerusalem was nevertheless returned to Western hands by negotiation. Original sources include Chronica Majora (1259) by Matthew Paris and Flores Historiarum (1235) by Roger of Wendover , with Arabic sources that include Abu'l-Feda's Tarikh al-Mukhtasar fi Akhbar al-Bashar (1329). Modern histories include Röhricht's Die Kreuzfahrt Kaiser Friedrich des Zweiten (1228–1229) (1872). Referred to it as Voyage 9 of

12285-401: The Georgian state to its zenith of power and prestige in the Middle Ages. Under her rule, Georgia challenged Ayyubid rule in eastern Anatolia. Tamar died in 1213 and was succeeded by her son George IV of Georgia . In the late 1210s, according to the Georgian chronicles, he began making preparations for a campaign in the Holy Land to support the Franks. His plans were cut short by the invasion of

12474-494: The German kings and emperors under the Ottonian , Salian and Hohenstaufen dynasties appeared to be extremely powerful, since they had a predominant position in Europe. In the course of the Middle Ages, however, the emperors lost this position of power. The papacy and the princes were held responsible for this. They were considered to be the "gravedigger of the German royal power" for Protestant, nationalist German historiography. Two turning points were considered to be decisive for

12663-423: The Gunzenle hill near Augsburg . Five daughters were certainly born from the union: Sources identified two short-lived sons, Reinald and Frederick, also born from the union of Philip and Irene-Maria Angelina, being both buried at Lorch Abbey alongside their mother. However, there were no contemporary sources who could ascertain their existence without doubt. Philip enjoyed his brother Henry VI's confidence to

12852-407: The Hermit , the first of what is known as the Popular Crusades . It is sometimes regarded as an integral part of the First Crusade, with the Princes' Crusade as the second part. A standard reference is Peter der Eremite. Ein kritischer Beitrag zur Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzuges (1879) by pioneering German historian Heinrich Hagenmeyer (1834–1915). Peter and his crusade achieved a popular status in

13041-405: The Hohenstaufen by participating. The chronicler of the Gesta of the Bishops of Halberstadt and the poet ( Minnesänger ) Walther von der Vogelweide were present. Walther's description of the great splendor of Magdeburg Court festivities in a series of poems and songs called "The Saying for Christmas in Magdeburg" ( Spruch zur Magdeburger Weihnacht ) in order to spread the reputation of Philip as

13230-512: The Hohenstaufen family was the prestigious connection with the Salian dynasty . Frederick Barbarossa's grandmother was Agnes , a daughter of Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor . Philip's father saw himself as a direct descendant of the first Salian ruler Conrad II , to whom he referred several times as his ancestor in documents. After the extinction of the Salian dynasty in the male line in 1125 firstly Frederick II, Duke of Swabia (Barbarossa's father) and then his brother Conrad tried in vain to claim

13419-417: The Hohenstaufen period up to Philip's election as king, only one single residence as a ruler can be proven. With this choice of location, Philip may have wanted to symbolically erase the humiliation that his great-uncle Conrad III suffered in autumn 1135 in Mühlhausen during his submission to Lothair III . Instead, the Imperial Regalia ( crown , sword and orb ) were in Philip's possession. His rival Otto

13608-573: The Hohenstaufen. Otto, however, refused to give his brother Henry , the city of Braunschweig and Lichtenberg Castle in the spring of 1204. Henry then went over to the Hohenstaufen side. For his change of loyalty, not only was the County Palatine of the Rhine restored to him by Philip, but he was also enfeoffed with the Vogtei over Goslar and rewarded with monetary payments. The change of

13797-829: The Hohenstaufen. The elevation of the bones of the Empress Cunigunde of Luxembourg , who was canonized by the Pope in 1200, was solemnly celebrated in Magdeburg Cathedral on 9 September 1201 in Philip's presence. Also in 1201, Philip was visited by his cousin Boniface of Montferrat , the leader of the Fourth Crusade . Although Boniface's exact reasons for meeting with Philip are unknown, while at Philip's court he also met Alexius Angelus , Philip's brother-in-law. Some historians have suggested that it

13986-563: The Holy Land begin with the Council of Clermont in 1095 and end with the loss of Acre in 1291. These include the numbered Crusades (First through Eighth or Ninth) with numerous smaller crusades intermixed. One of the first to view the Crusades as a movement was English historian Thomas Fuller (1608–1661), whose Historie of the Holy Warre (1639) identified crusades as the Holy War consisting of "Voyages," numbering One through Thirteen, plus

14175-430: The Holy Land. First treated by R. Röhricht in his Die Kreuzzuge des Grafen Theobald von Navarra und Richard von Cornwallis nach dem heligen Landen . Thomas Fuller referred to it as Voyages 10 and 11 of the Holy Warre. Crusade of Theobald I of Navarre. The Crusade of Theobald I of Navarre (1239–1240) was a crusade led by Theobald I of Navarre , also referred to as Thibaut of Navarre or Theobald of Champagne. Part of

14364-552: The Holy Land.” In April 1213, Innocent III issued his papal bull Quia maior , calling all of Christendom to join a new Crusade. This was followed by a conciliar decree, the Ad Liberandam, in 1215. The attendant papal instructions engaged a new enterprise to recover Jerusalem while establishing Crusading norms that were to last nearly a century. The message of the Crusade was preached in France by legate Robert of Courçon ,

14553-444: The Holy Warre by Thomas Fuller in his 1639 Historie . See also references under the Crusade against Frederick II (1220–1241) below. Barons' Crusade. Barons' Crusade (1239–1241) was also referred to as the Crusade of 1239, or the Crusade of Theobald I of Navarre and the Crusade of Richard of Cornwall . Called for in 1234 by Gregory IX in his papal bull Rachel suum videns . Some successful expeditions recaptured portions of

14742-433: The Holy Warre whereas Jonathan Riley-Smith considered it part of the First Crusade in his The First Crusaders, 1095-1131 (1997). Norwegian Crusade. The Norwegian Crusade (1107–1110), also known as the Crusade of Sigurd Jorsalfar , king of Norway. More of a pilgrimage than a crusade, it did include the participation in military action, with the king's forces participation in the siege of Sidon . This crusade marks

14931-627: The Holy Warre, and Richard's portion as Voyage 5. The numbering of this crusade followed the same history as the first ones, with English histories such as David Hume's The History of England (1754–1761) and Charles Mills' History of the Crusades for the Recovery and Possession of the Holy Land (1820) identifying it as the Third Crusade. The former only considers the follow-on crusades to the extent that England participated. Crusade of Emperor Henry VI. The Crusade of Henry VI (1197–1198)

15120-643: The Holy Warre. The Wendish Crusade of 1147 (one of the Northern Crusades) is usually associated with the Second Crusade. Crusader invasions of Egypt. The Crusader Invasions of Egypt (1154–1169) were attacks into Egypt by Amalric I of Jerusalem to take advantage of crises concerning the Fatimids . These activities eventually led to the fall of the Fatimids and the rise of Saladin and

15309-627: The Italian maritime states of Venice and Pisa, both for trading reasons and to preclude them from supporting further crusades. Most of his reign was conducted under truces with the Christians, and he constructed a new fortress at Mount Tabor , to buttress the defenses of Jerusalem and Damascus. Most of his conflicts in Syria were with the Knights Hospitaller at Krak des Chevaliers or with Bohemond IV of Antioch , and were dealt with by his nephew az-Zahir Ghazi. Only once, in 1207, did he directly confront

15498-533: The King's inner court, being "attested in a somewhat more noticeable density in the Hohenstaufen circle". The Bishops Konrad of Hildesheim , Hartwig of Eichstätt and Konrad IV of Regensburg and especially Konrad of Speyer joined to Philip's court. By contrast, none of the secular princes is as closely and frequently attested to at court as Bishop Konrad of Speyer. Duke Bernhard of Saxony , Duke Louis I of Bavaria and Margrave Theodoric I of Meissen probably had

15687-550: The Lower Rhine and from Westphalia had joined the Hohenstaufen side. Philip has now been able to unite a large number of supporters in the Holy Roman Empire behind him. The basis for Philip's success against Otto's followers was “a mixture of threats, promises and gifts”. On the occasion of the renewed coronation in Aachen, the Archbishop of Cologne went to meet Philip with “the greatest display of splendor and service” in front of

15876-478: The Mongols in 1220. After the death of George IV, his sister Rusudan of Georgia notified the pope that Georgia was unable to fulfill its promises. Saladin had died in 1193 and was succeeded in most of his domain by his brother al-Adil , who was the patriarch of all successive Ayyubid sultans of Egypt. Saladin's son az-Zahir Ghazi retained his leadership in Aleppo . An exceptionally low Nile River resulted in

16065-532: The Muslims as impregnable. A battle fought on 3 December 1217 was soon abandoned by the leaders, only to be revisited by the Templars and Hospitallers. Met with Greek fire, the siege was abandoned on 7 December 1217. A third sortie by the Hungarians, possibly led by Andrew's nephew, met disaster at Mashghara . The small force was decimated, and the few survivors returned to Acre on Christmas Eve. Thus ended what

16254-706: The Pope on this question. In the first months of 1199, the Welf party asked for confirmation of the decision and for an invitation from the Pope for Otto IV to be crowned Holy Roman Emperor. On 28 May 1199, the supporters of the Hohenstaufen drew the Speyer Prince Declaration ( Speyerer Fürstenerklärung ), whereby they rejected any papal exertion of influence on the Imperial line of succession. At this point in time, Philip could have 4 archbishops, 23 imperial bishops, 4 imperial abbots and 18 secular imperial princes behind him; they confidently appealed to

16443-763: The Portuguese city of Lisbon after making a stopover at the famous shrine of Santiago de Compostela . At their arrival in Portugal, the Bishop of Lisbon attempted to persuade the Crusaders to help them capture the Almohad controlled city of Alcácer do Sal . The Frisians, however, refused on account of Innocent III's disqualification of the venture at the Fourth Lateran Council. The other members of

16632-646: The Second Smyrna Crusade. Crusade against Francesco Ordelaffi . The Crusade against Francesco Ordelaffi (1355–1357) was a campaign by Innocent IV and Cardinal Gil Álvarez Carrillo de Albornoz against Francesco II Ordelaffi in order to restore papal authority to central Italy. The pope's Angevin troops had some success against Ordelaffi through 1356, by mercenary troops sent by Bernabò Visconti allowed him to hold out until 1357. Philip of Swabia Philip of Swabia (February/March 1177 – 21 June 1208), styled Philip II in his charters,

16821-463: The Venetian fleet, the largest European fleet of the times. Andrew and his troops embarked from Split on 23 August 1217. The Hungarian army landed on 9 October 1217 on Cyprus from where they sailed to Acre and joined John of Brienne, Raoul of Merencourt and Hugh I of Cyprus . Until his return to Hungary, King Andrew remained the leader of Christian forces in the Fifth Crusade. In October 1217,

17010-477: The armies was estimated at more than 32,000, including more than 10,000 knights. It was described by a contemporaneous Arab historian as: "This year, an infinite number of warriors left from Rome the great and other countries of the West." The Crusader force was also prepared to use the latest siege technology, including counterweight trebuchets. The departure of the Crusaders began finally in early July 1217. Many of

17199-587: The attempt to maintain Philip's memory . But the figure was also mistaken for either the Roman Emperor Constantine the Great , King Saint Stephen I of Hungary , or Emperors Henry II and Frederick II. Many chroniclers saw the divine order represented by the ruler as a result of the conflict between the two kings for the throne. Philip is described in detail in the chronicle of the premonstratensian priest Burchard of Ursperg . Burchard wrote

17388-479: The aunt of the reigning King William II of Sicily ; this gave the Hohenstaufen the possibility of a union of the Kingdom of Sicily with the Holy Roman Empire ( unio regni ad imperium ). As a result, however, the relationship with the Pope deteriorated, because the Holy See wanted to maintain the feudal claim over the Kingdom of Sicily. In the spring of 1193 Philip forsook his ecclesiastical calling, perhaps because of

17577-439: The basis of itinerary, award of certificates and court; he contradicted Hucker's thesis of a weak kingship of Philip of Swabia. Schütte interpreted the increase in document production from an average of 1.5 pieces per month to just over two pieces due to the transfer of Archbishop Adolph of Cologne in November 1204 as a "yardstick for the recognition of his kingship". He also found that Philip's radius of action had extended beyond

17766-479: The central authority's loss of power: the first one, was the Road to Canossa by Henry IV in 1077 (where he lost royal influence over the church) and the second one was the double election of 1198. The nobility used their right to vote for kings to obtain privileges from the monarchy and thus expand their own rule. This view of a loss of power for the German kingship through the double election of 1198 has long remained

17955-453: The childlessness of the imperial couple; also, Philip's three other brothers were also without male heirs: Duke Frederick VI of Swabia had already died in 1191 and Conrad of Rothenburg , who succeeded him as Duke of Swabia, was unmarried. In addition, Otto I, Count Palatine of Burgundy , although already married, had no male descendants yet. However, the concerns of the imperial couple turned out to be unfounded. Empress Constance gave birth to

18144-493: The city took defensive measures, and received reinforcements from al-Mujahid Shirkuh , the Ayyubid emir of Homs . Without engaging the enemy, the Crusaders returned to the camp near Acre, crossing over Jacob's Ford . Andrew II did not return to the battlefield, preferring to remain in Acre collecting relics. Now under the command of John of Brienne, as supported by Bohemond IV, the Hungarians moved against Mount Tabor , regarded by

18333-481: The coast of southern France and wintered in Civitavecchia in Italy in 1217–1218, before continuing on their way to Acre. In the north, Ingi II of Norway took the cross in 1216, only to die the next spring, and the eventual Scandinavian expedition was of little consequence. Innocent III had managed to secure the participation of the Kingdom of Georgia in the Crusade. Tamar of Georgia , queen since 1184, led

18522-459: The collection Gesta Dei per Francos (God's Work through the Franks) (1611) by Jacques Bongars . A standard reference is Reinhold Röhricht's Studien zur Geschichte des fünften Kreuzzuges (1891). Thomas Fuller referred to it as Voyage 8 of the Holy Warre. Sixth Crusade. The Sixth Crusade (1228–1229), was also known as the Crusade of Emperor Frederick II . Sometimes regarded as part of

18711-496: The conflict with Otto and his supporters. A first attempt to mediate by Archbishop Conrad of Mainz in 1199 was rejected by the Welf. Both sides strived for the coronation as Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Innocent III and with it the recognition of their rule. The pontiff himself acted tactically before decided on one of the conflicting parties; this gave the opportunity to contact the Holy See several times through letters and embassies. Pope Innocent III wanted to prevent by all means

18900-603: The consensus on his rule in the part of the empire north of the Alps, and part of the princes renounced to their vow of obedience to Otto IV and chose Philip's nephew Frederick II as a rival emperor ( alium imperatorem ). In 1212 Frederick II moved to the northern part of the empire. At the turn of the year 1213/14, Frederick II's rule in the empire north of the Alps was not yet secured. In this situation, Frederick II had Philip's remains transferred from Bamberg to Speyer . Personally, Frederick II does not seem to have come to Bamberg for

19089-474: The court was the Chancery . Philip's Chancery was in the personal tradition of Henry VI. In other ways, too, Philip's document system does not differ from that of his Hohenstaufen predecessors. In contrast to his predecessors, his rival Otto IV and his nephew Frederick II, Philip had few seals . The ducal seals for Tuscany and Swabia as well as a wax seal and a gold bull for the royal period are verifiable. This

19278-671: The crusade and its aftermath. Voltaire did not call it a crusade in his Histoire des Croisades , instead calling it the Suite de la Prise de Constantinople par les Croisés. Jonathan Philips' The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople (2004) is a standard reference today. Fifth Crusade. The Fifth Crusade (1217–1221) was a failed attempt to recapture Jerusalem by first conquering Cairo. Critical original sources include Historia Damiatina by Oliver of Paderborn (died 1227) and Chronica Hungarorum by Joannes de Thurocz , compiled in

19467-457: The crusade was against the Byzantine empire. Thomas Fuller referred to it as Voyage 7 of the Holy Warre. Charles du Cange , wrote the first serious study of the Fourth Crusade in his Histoire de l'empire de Constantinople sous les empereurs françois (1657). Geoffrey of Villehardouin was a knight and historian who wrote his eyewitness account De la Conquête de Constantinople (c. 1215) of

19656-433: The crusades and the general history of the era. A nineteenth-century reference often cited is Joseph François Michaud's Histoire des Croisades (1812–1822), translation by William Robson . Crusade against Frederick III. The Crusade against Frederick III of Sicily (1298, 1299, 1302). The final round of the War of the Sicilian Vespers in which pope Boniface VIII attempted to dislodge Frederick. Frederick's position

19845-411: The date for the beginning of the expedition. In Europe, the troubadours were equally adept in awakening the interest in the Crusade. These included Elias Cairel , a veteran of the Fourth Crusade, Pons de Capduelh , later joining the Crusade in 1220, and Aimery de Pégulhan , who implored by verse a young William VI of Montferrat to follow in his father's footsteps and take the cross. The strength of

20034-481: The death of Bohemond III , not to be resolved until 1219. Before the arrival of John of Brienne in Acre in 1210, the local Christians had refused to renew their truce the Ayyubids. The next year, John negotiated with the aging sultan al-Adil a new truce between the kingdom and the sultanate to last through 1217. At the same time, in light of the strength of the Muslims and their renewed fortifications, John also asked

20223-754: The disastrous siege of Edessa in 1144, the Western powers launched the Second Crusade, which accomplished little. Principal chroniclers of the event were Odo of Deuil , chaplin to Louis VII of France , who wrote his account De profectione Ludovici VII in Orientem and Otto of Freising who wrote Gesta Friderici imperatoris concerning the emperor Frederick Barbarosso . Referred to as the Second Crusade in Maimbourg's Histoire des Croisades. .. as well as Georg Müller's De Expedition Cruciatis Vulgo Von Kreutz Fahrten (1709). Thomas Fuller referred to it as Voyage 3 of

20412-554: The dispute for the German throne. In 1203 he tried to find a balance with the Holy See through a marriage project, in which Philip wanted to arranged the betrothal of one of his daughters with a nephew of Pope Innocent III . However, Philip did not agree with important points required by the Pope, such as carrying out a crusade, returning unlawfully confiscated goods to the Roman Church or concession to canonical elections, which

20601-689: The disputed Matildine lands; in his retinue in Italy was the Minnesinger Bernger von Horheim . Philip's rule in Tuscany there earned him the enmity of Pope Celestine III , who excommunicated him. On 3 May 1196, Philip was documented for the last time as Margrave of Tuscany. After the murder of his brother Conrad in August 1196, Philip succeeded him as Duke of Swabia . The marriage of Philip and Irene Angelina (renamed Maria upon her wedding) probably took place at Pentecost (25 May) 1197 in

20790-526: The ecclesiastical and secular greats present in Ichtershausen , he declared his willingness to be elected king. Two days later ( 8 March ) Philip was elected German King at Mühlhausen in Thuringia . The election took place on Laetare Sunday , a day that was of considerable symbolic importance in the Hohenstaufen royal tradition. Otherwise there were a number of symbolic deficits: Although backed in

20979-403: The election by Duke Leopold VI of Austria , Duke Ottokar I of Bohemia , Duke Berthold V of Zähringen , and Landgrave Hermann I of Thuringia , all the three Rhenish Archbishops ( Cologne , Mainz and Trier ), who traditionally performed an important ceremonial act of institution, were absent from Philip's election, and Mühlhausen was an unusual location for a king's election. For Mühlhausen, in

21168-844: The emperor Frederick Barbarossa and Philip II of France . To the English, it was known as the Itinerarium Regis Ricardi , the Itinerary of king Richard, and to the Germans as the expedition of Frederick, as described in Historia Peregrinorum (History of the Pilgrims). Thomas Andrew Archer's The Crusade of Richard I, 1189–1192 (1889) provides a comprehensive look at the crusade and its sources. Thomas Fuller referred to Frederick's portion as Voyage 4 of

21357-467: The end of May 1208, Philip had been preparing for a campaign against Otto IV and his allies. He interrupted the planning to attend the wedding of his niece Countess Beatrice II of Burgundy with Duke Otto of Merania on 21 June in Bamberg . After the marriage, the King retired to his private apartments. In the afternoon he was murdered by Count Otto VIII of Wittelsbach . After the murder, Count Otto VIII

21546-494: The establishment of a German nation-state in the 19th century. Representations of the Bamberg regicide are rarely found in history painting . Alexander Zick made a drawing of the murder in 1890, and Karl Friedrich Lessing made a draft without converting it into a painting. On 4 July 1998, Rainer Lewandowski's play “The King's Murder in Bamberg” was premiered at the E.T.A.-Hoffmann-Theater in Bamberg. Historical research of

21735-461: The expenses of a Crusader, but did not go on the Crusade themselves. In order to protect Raoul of Merencourt , the Latin patriarch of Jerusalem, on his return trip to the kingdom, Innocent III tasked John of Brienne to provide escort. As John was in conflict with Leo I of Armenia and Hugh I of Cyprus , the pope ordered them to reconcile their differences before the Crusaders reached the Holy Land. Innocent III died on 16 July 1216 and Honorius III

21924-411: The experience of the dynastic dispute over in the empire, a considerable development spurt began, which led to a rethink in writing down the customs. The Sachsenspiegel of Eike of Repgow is an important testimony to this. In modern times, little was remembered of Philip of Swabia. He fell significantly behind the other Hohenstaufen rulers Frederick Barbarossa and Frederick II . His reign, which

22113-519: The first time a European king visited the Holy Land. This crusade is described in Heimskringla by Icelandic historian Snorri Sturluson . Venetian Crusade. The Venetian Crusade (1122–1124), also known as the Crusade of Calixtus II . The Western participants from the Republic of Venice were regarded by Riley-Smith as First Crusaders, and the actions resulted in the capture of Tyre from

22302-576: The fleet, however, were convinced by the Portuguese and started the siege of Alcácer do Sal in August 1217. The Crusaders finally captured the city with the help of the Knights Templar and Knights Hospitaller , on October 1217. A group of Frisians who refused to aid the Portuguese with their siege plans against Alacácer do Sal, preferred to raid several coastal towns on their way to the Holy Land. They attacked Faro , Rota , Cádiz and Ibiza , gaining much booty thereby. They thereafter followed

22491-570: The harbour and the citadel but not the acropolis. Sometimes considered as part of the Holy League of Clement VI. Crusade of Humbert II of Viennois. The Crusade of Humbert II of Viennois (1346) was the second of the Smyrniote Crusades . A second expedition under the command of Humbert II of Viennois with little to show other than a victory over the Turks at Mytilene . Described in the Book of Chivalry by Geoffroi de Charny. Also called

22680-561: The heights of Nain . Again against the wishes of his son, Al-Adil abandoned Beisan which soon fell to the Crusaders who pillaged the city. He continued his retreat to Ajlun , ordering al-Mu'azzam to protect Jerusalem from the heights of Lubban , near Shiloh . Al-Adil continued to Damascus, stopping at Marj al-Saffar . On 10 November 1217, the Crusaders crossed the Jordan River at the Jisr el-Majami , threatening Damascus. The governor of

22869-509: The historians' judgment was whether the medieval rulers increased the royal development of power over the nobility and the church or whether they were seen to be responsible for the loss of power. The image of history shaped by this aspect emerged after the 1806 dissolution of the HRE and the Wars of Liberation against Napoleon and was heavily colored by romantic nationalism . From this point of view,

23058-441: The interests of his nephew and to quell the disorder which arose on Henry VI's death: On 21 January 1198, Philip issued a charter for the citizens of Speyer , in which he indicated that he was acting in the name of King Frederick; however, he was overtaken by events. Meanwhile, a number of Princes of the Holy Roman Empire hostile to the ruling Hohenstaufen dynasty under the leadership of Prince-Archbishop Adolph of Cologne took

23247-649: The kingship was on display, but the role of the great in the respective system of rule was revealed. Philip did little to symbolically represent his kingship. In 1199, Philip and Irene-Maria celebrated Christmas with tremendous splendor ( cum ingenti magnificentia ) in Magdeburg —close to Otto's residence in Brunswick —in the presence of the Ascanian Duke Bernard of Saxony and numerous Saxon and Thuringian nobles. Contemporary sources had criticized

23436-448: The large expenditures on farm days as a waste, assuming a consistent modernization and more effective rulership; more recent studies, however, see the expenses of the court festival less as useless expenditure, but as a result of the goal of acquiring fame and honor. The Magdeburg Court Day at Christmas is considered to be the first high point in the fight for royal dignity. Some of the princes present expressed their first public support for

23625-567: The leaders of the expedition held a war council there, presided by Andrew II. Representing the military orders were the masters Guérin de Montaigu of the Hospitallers, Guillaume de Chartres of the Templars, and Hermann of Salza of the Teutonic Knights . Additional attendees included Leopold VI of Austria, Otto I of Merania, Walter II of Avesnes , and numerous archbishops and bishops. The war plan of John of Brienne envisioned

23814-477: The long-fought king acceptable to him. The repetition of the coronation also cleared up the taint of his first coronation in 1198. On 27 July 1206, Philip defeated a Cologne army loyal to Otto in Wassenberg . This was the only time that the armies of the two kings met. After the battle, the two kings met for the first time. It took place in an atmosphere of confidentiality ( colloquium familiare ) and offered

24003-541: The most intensive contact within the court. They had profited significantly from the fall of Henry the Lion and feared that his son Otto IV would gain access to the Welf inheritance. The ministeriales had in Henry of Kalden their most outstanding representant: he was not only a military leader, but also influenced Philip's politics by arranging a personal encounter with Otto. He is mentioned in more than 30 charters and also in narrative sources. The most important part of

24192-405: The murder of Philip as being cursed by God. The image of Philip in posterity had a major impact on Walther von der Vogelweide , who referred to him in an honorable short form as "young and brave man". The Bamberg regicide had no major impact on the further history of the empire. Later chroniclers and annals describe the transition of the royal rule from Philip to Otto IV as smooth. However, after

24381-407: The necessary consideration for the honor of the two kings. Direct negotiations in public were rather unusual at the time. However, the negotiations failed. Pope Innocent III also noticed Otto's decline in the empire and a month or two later Philip was loosed from the papal ban. In 1207/08 the Pope approached Philip and negotiations about the imperial coronation began, and also it seemed probable that

24570-567: The next year. For the new fully recognized German King, the most important goal was to restore order in the realm. A Landfrieden was established for this purpose and the Imperial ban on Philip's murderer and alleged accomplices, the Andechs brothers Bishop Ekbert of Bamberg and Margrave Henry II of Istria, was imposed. As a result, they lost all offices, rights and property. In addition, Otto IV's engagement to Beatrix, Philip's eldest daughter,

24759-417: The nobility repeatedly tried to settle the throne dispute. The newer research shifted the focus to the communication and interaction of the ruler with his great ones. Philip's actions were no longer questioned about the increase in monarchical power, but rather about the means by which he tried to enforce his kingship in the aristocratic network of relationships. In contrast to other Staufers, Philip remained

24948-670: The north part of the Alps. However, at the height of his power, he was assassinated in 1208. This ended the dispute for the throne; his opponent Otto quickly found recognition. Philip was the first German king to be murdered during his reign. In posterity, Philip is one of the little-noticed Hohenstaufen rulers. Philip was born in or near Pavia in the Imperial Kingdom of Italy as the tenth child and eighth (but fifth and youngest surviving) son of Frederick Barbarossa , King of Germany and Holy Roman Emperor and his second wife Beatrice I, Countess of Burgundy . His paternal family

25137-529: The objective was to keep the enemy occupied in a series of small engagements, perhaps going as far as Damascus. The Muslims knew that the Crusaders were coming in 1216 with the exodus of merchants from Alexandria. Once the host gathered at Acre, Al-Adil began operations in Syria, leaving the bulk of his forces in Egypt under his eldest son and viceroy Al-Kamil . He personally led a small contingent to support al-Mu'azzam, then emir of Damascus . With too few to engage

25326-580: The occasion to elect a German anti-king in the person of the Welf Otto of Brunswick , the second surviving son of the former Saxon duke Henry the Lion and a nephew of King Richard I of England . He was by no means Adolph's preferred candidate, because the Archdiocese of Cologne had benefited considerably from the fall of the powerful Duke Henry the Lion. Rather, a group of financially strong citizens ran Otto's election. In exchange for his support,

25515-513: The only Roman-German ruler to be assassinated. No chronicler witnessed the murder. In contemporary sources there is little agreement about the course of the murder. Most medieval chroniclers saw the withdrawal of the promise of marriage as a motive for murder. Even in distant Piacenza , Philip's murder was still associated with a failed marriage project. Allegedly the Wittelsbach scion, already known for his unstable character, had fallen into

25704-532: The opportunity to be crowned by the rightful coronator (" Königskröner ") Adolph of Cologne on 12 July 1198 at the traditional royal place in Aachen , which had to be captured before against the resistance of loyal Hohenstaufen liensmen. In an empire without a written constitution, a solution had to be found under the conditions of a consensual system of rule where there were competing claims. These habits were agreed upon through consultation at court meetings, synods , or other gatherings. The consensus thus established

25893-487: The outbreak of the controversy and the election of Frederick II in September 1211. According to historian Stefan Weinfurter, the relativization of the oath by the Pope was also essential for the breach of contract. Pope Innocent III advised the spiritual and secular princes to submit to his judgment only. With the Duke of Brabant, Philip strengthens ties in 1207 with the betrothal of his daughter Maria with Henry , heir of

26082-572: The papacy, as the First Crusade should have been, to avoid the mistakes of the Fourth Crusade , which had been taken over by the Venetians. He planned to meet with the Crusaders at Brindisi and Messina for departure on 1 June 1217, and prohibited trade with the Muslims in order to ensure that the Crusaders would have ships and weapons, renewing an 1179 edict. Every Crusader would receive an indulgence as well as those who simply helped pay

26271-633: The pope for help. There was no real force among the Syrian Franks, with many of the deployed knights returning home. If a new Crusade were to begin, it must come from Europe. Innocent III had hoped to mount such a Crusade to the Holy Land, never forgetting the goal of restoring Jerusalem to Christian control. The pathos of the Children's Crusade only nerved him to fresh efforts. But for Innocent, this tragedy had its moral: “the very children put us to shame, while we sleep they go forth gladly to conquer

26460-422: The pope pleaded for them to forgive the legate's indiscretions. In the end, very few Frenchmen took part in the expedition of 1217, unwilling to go in the company of Germans and Hungarians, with France represented by Aubrey of Reims and the bishops of Limoges and Bayeux , Jean de Veyrac and Robert des Ablèges. At the council, Innocent III called for the recovery of the Holy Land. Innocent wanted it to be led by

26649-574: The predominant one. In Karl Bosl's work “ Die Reichsministerialität ” from 1950, Philip and Otto IV's government signified “a huge, if not perhaps the decisive, setback that the German monarchy suffered in its last attempt to build a state”. The historical study of Philip of Swabia began in 1852 with the monograph König Philipp der Hohenstaufe by Heinrich Friedrich Otto Abel , who made no secret of his sympathies for Philip. Eduard Winkelmann 's Yearbooks of German History ( Jahrbücher der Deutschen Geschichte ) under Philip of Swabia and Otto IV (1878) became

26838-482: The princely majority and announced the march to Rome for the imperial coronation. At the turn of the year 1200/01, the Pope subjected the candidates for the imperial coronation to a critical examination. In the Bull Deliberatio domni pape Innocentii super facto imperii de tribus electis , the Pope set out the reasons for and against the suitability of the respective candidates: Philip's nephew Frederick II

27027-540: The princes in their decisions for military support or in the question of their partisanship. With the transfer of the Archbishop of Cologne to his side, Philip's documentary production also increased considerably. However, the majority of Cologne's citizens remained on the Welf's side. The support commitments of Archbishop Adolph and Henry I of Brabant were the first one documented since the Hohenstaufen- Zähringen agreement from 1152. The double election

27216-580: The rampant corruption at the port cities. Oliver of Paderborn preached the Crusade in Germany and had great success in recruitment. In July 1216, Honorius III called on Andrew II of Hungary to fulfill his father's vow to lead a Crusade. Like many other rulers, the pope's former pupil, Frederick II of Germany , had taken an oath to embark for the Holy Land in 1215 and appealed to German nobility to join. But Frederick II hung back, with his crown still in contention with Otto IV , and Honorius repeatedly put off

27405-493: The removal of Philip and his replacement by the Duke of Brabant. The House of Andechs, as loyal followers of Philip, who often stayed at his court and were protected by him, had no interest in his death. Philip was initially buried in Bamberg Cathedral , the burial place of Emperor Henry II and King Conrad III . His rival Otto IV let the assassins be persecuted relentlessly and wanted to prove his innocence. Only

27594-463: The retreat from Damietta—leaving Egypt altogether—and an eight-year truce. The Fifth Crusade ended in September 1221, a Crusader defeat that failed to achieve its goals. By 1212, Innocent III had been pope for 14 years and faced the disappointment of the Fourth Crusade and its inability to recover Jerusalem, the on-going Albigensian Crusade , begun in 1209, and the popular fervor of the Children's Crusade of 1212. The Latin Empire of Constantinople

27783-557: The rooms of personal presence through the award of diplomas. In 2003, Peter Csendes published the first modern biography of Philip of Swabia in 130 years. On the 800th anniversary of the murder of Philip in 2008, the Society for Staufer History ( Gesellschaft für staufische Geschichte ) dedicated a volume to Philip. In the working group for regional and local history in the Association of Württemberg History and Antiquity Associations ( Arbeitskreis für Landes- und Ortsgeschichte im Verband der württembergischen Geschichts- und Altertumsvereine ),

27972-441: The royal dignity invoking his descent from the Salians. In 1138, Conrad III was finally elected King of Germany, being the first scion of the Swabian Hohenstaufen dynasty to be elected King of the Romans , against the fierce resistance of the rival House of Welf . In 1152 the royal dignity passed smoothly to Conrad III's nephew, Frederick Barbarossa, who was also Holy Roman Emperor from 1155 onwards. Barbarossa became embroiled in

28161-410: The standard reference work of later historiography. With 541 closely described pages, they are the most detailed account of the Hohenstaufen to date. Winkelmann wrote about Philip that he was "attractive as a person, as a king to be counted among the best and most capable”. In 1866 Wilhelm Grotefend published his dissertation. Unlike Winkelmann and Abel, he passed a damning verdict on Philip. To him, he

28350-486: The successful siege of Damietta in 1218–1219, the Crusaders occupied the port for two years. Al-Kamil , now sultan of Egypt, offered attractive peace terms, including the restoration of Jerusalem to Christian rule. The sultan was rebuked by Pelagius several times, and the Crusaders marched south towards Cairo in July 1221. En route, they attacked a stronghold of al-Kamil at the battle of Mansurah , but they were defeated and forced to surrender. The terms of surrender included

28539-516: The summer of 1203 in order to make him a reliable ally in the fight against Landgrave Hermann I of Thuringia. In the following years Philip increasingly succeeded in gaining acceptance for his kingship, so the betrothal with the Wittelsbach became without purpose to him; in November 1207 the King engaged Kunigunde to Wenceslaus , son and heir of King Ottokar I of Bohemia, on the Hoftag in Augsburg . Philip hoped that this alliance would gain permanent support from Bohemia. For Count Otto VIII this behavior

28728-432: The term crusade first referred to military expeditions undertaken by European Christians in the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries to the Holy Land. The conflicts to which the term is applied has been extended to include other campaigns initiated, supported and sometimes directed by the Roman Catholic Church against pagans, heretics or for alleged religious ends. This list first discusses the traditional numbered crusades, with

28917-450: The title King of the Romans, and had a noteworthy biography written by Noël Denholm-Young . Usually referred to as part of the Barons' Crusade, 1239–1241. Thomas Fuller referred to it as Voyage 11 of the Holy Warre. Crusade to Tzurulum. The Crusade to Tzurulum (1239) led by future Latin emperor Baldwin of Courtenay was conducted concurrently with the Barons' Crusade. In the military action, Baldwin besieged and captured Tzurulum ,

29106-437: The traditional numbering of crusades: It was in the eighteenth century that historians evidently first allocated numbers to individual crusades, from the first to the ninth. However, these numbers are neither consistent nor accurate. Of the identity of the First Crusade (1096—1099) there can be no doubt, but there is no consensus about numbering after the Fourth Crusade (1202–1204). The Crusade of Emperor Frederick II (1227–1229)

29295-424: The transfer of imperial property, or by a marriage policy that was supposed to strengthen partisanship or promote a change of party. In an aristocratic society both rivals for the German throne this had regard for the rank and reputation of the great, on their honor take. In the next few years of the controversy for the throne, the acts of representation of power were of immense importance, because in them not only

29484-411: The transfer of the body. Bamberg was possibly avoided by the later Hohenstaufen rulers because of Philip's murder. At Christmas 1213 Philip's mortal remains were re-interred in Speyer Cathedral , which was considered a memorial of the Salian-Staufen dynasty and was the most important burial place of the Roman-German kingship. By transferring there his uncle Philip's remains, Frederick II was able to gain

29673-516: The trust of the Hohenstaufen partisans and strengthened his position against his opponents. From the mid-13th century, the death anniversary of Philip was celebrated in Speyer in a way similar to that of the Salian Emperor Henry IV . Philip is the last Roman-German king who is listed in both medieval dead books of the Speyer Cathedral. The Bamberg Horseman , a figure carved in stone on Bamberg Cathedral around 1235, has repeatedly been referred to as Philip; so historian Hans Martin Schaller sees in him

29862-463: The various lesser-known crusades interspersed. The later crusades in the Levant through the 16th century are then listed. This is followed by lists of the crusades against the Byzantine empire, crusades that may have been pilgrimages, popular crusades, crusades against heretics and schismatics, political crusades, the Northern Crusades, crusades in the Iberian peninsula, Italian crusades and planned crusades that were never executed. Comprehensive studies of

30051-410: The walls. In this way the Archbishop publicly recognized Philip as monarch. On 6 January 1205, Philip was crowned again with great ceremony at the traditional coronation site in Aachen by the correct coronator (" Königskröner "), the Archbishop of Cologne. With this measure Philip took the honor of the Archbishop into consideration and, by safeguarding his coronation right in Aachen, made submission to

30240-406: Was Dayfa Khatun , al-Adil's daughter. Saladin's eldest son, al-Afdal , emerged to make a bid for Aleppo, enlisting the help of Kaykaus I, who also had designs on the region. In 1218, al-Afdal and Kaykaus invaded Aleppo and advanced on the capital. The situation was resolved when al-Ashraf , al-Adil's third son, routed the Seljuk army, which remained a menace until the death of Kaykaus in 1220. Given

30429-441: Was a member of either the Comital family of Egisheim–Dagsburg or the obscure Schlettstadt family). A few years ago it was assumed that the Schlettstadt property did not belong to Hildegard but to her husband himself and the Hohenstaufen were therefore not a Swabian but an Alsatian family. It wasn't until around 1100 that the family under Duke Frederick I of Swabia located into the East Swabian Rems valley. Much more important for

30618-470: Was a member of the House of Hohenstaufen and King of Germany from 1198 until his assassination. The death of Philip's older brother Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor , in 1197 meant that the Hohenstaufen rule (which reached as far as the Kingdom of Sicily ) collapsed in imperial Italy and created a power vacuum to the north of the Alps . Reservations about the kingship of Henry's underage son, Frederick , led to two royal elections in 1198, which resulted in

30807-436: Was a naval success and Smyrna was taken. Zeno was killed by Umur Bey's forces in an ambush while he and other crusaderswere attempting to celebrate mass in the no-man's-land between the battle lines. Smyrna Crusade. The Smyrna Crusade (1344) was the first of the Smyrniote Crusades (1343–1351). The Smyrna Crusade began in 1344 with the naval victory of the battle of Pallene and ended with an assault on Smyrna, capturing

30996-401: Was able to flee with his followers. Bishop Ekbert of Bamberg and his brother, Margrave Henry II of Istria , were suspected of having known about the plans. Other medieval historians expressed doubts about complicity or ignored other possible perpetrators. For the first time since the end of the Merovingian dynasty a king had been murdered. Besides Albert I of Habsburg (1308), Philip is

31185-465: Was agreed. Philip's murderer Otto VIII of Wittelsbach (now condemned as vogelfrei ) was found in March 1209 by Reichsmarschall Henry of Kalden in a granary on the Danube near Regensburg and beheaded. The Andechs brothers, however, were politically rehabilitated three years later. However, Otto IV soon entered into conflict with Pope Innocent III when he tried to conquer the Kingdom of Sicily in 1210, which led to his excommunication . The Welf lost

31374-425: Was also known as the Crusade of 1197 or the German Crusade. A crusade led by Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI as a follow-up to the Third Crusade. Although Henry died before the crusade began, it was modestly successful with the recapture of Beirut. Thomas Fuller referred to it as Voyage 6 of the Holy Warre. Fourth Crusade. The Fourth Crusade (1202–1204) was also known as the Unholy Crusade. A major component of

31563-402: Was an act of treason and also felt that his social status was threatened; he swore revenge on the German King, whom he blame for both spurned betrothals, culminating in the murder at Bamberg. Since historian Eduard Winkelmann 's careful analysis in the 19th century, research has assumed that Otto VIII of Wittelsbach acted as a lone perpetrator. In contrast, historian Bernd Ulrich Hucker made

31752-419: Was an expedition of Odo, Count of Nevers , who led 50 knights to protect Acre from Mamluk sultan Baibars . Crusade of 1267. The Crusade of 1267 was an expedition from the Upper Rhine to counter the threat posed by Baibars. Crusade of Charles of Anjou. The Crusade of Charles of Anjou against Lucera (1268) refers to the attack made by Charles I of Anjou on the Muslims at Lucera in conjunction with

31941-411: Was certainly in common use by the 18th century as seen in Voltaire's Histoire des Croisades (1750–1751) and Edward Gibbon's History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776–1789). Thomas Asbridge's The First Crusade: A New History (2004) is among the standard references used today. People's Crusade. The People's Crusade (1096) was a prelude to the First Crusade led by Peter

32130-405: Was completely dependent on his ministeriales , whereby the imperial princes would have lost their influence on the king. He no longer saw the regicide of Bamberg as a private vengeance, but as a “coup d'état” by important imperial elites. This hypothesis sparked controversial discussions, but did not prevail. Since 2002 the edition of the diplomas of Philip of Swabia has been prepared on behalf of

32319-405: Was consecrated as pope the next week. The Crusade dominated the early part of his papacy. The next year, he crowned Peter II of Courtenay as Latin Emperor, who was captured on his eastward journey in Epirus and died in confinement. Robert of Courçon was sent as spiritual advisor to the French fleet, but subordinate to newly-chosen papal delegate Pelagius of Albano . Bishop Walter II of Autun ,

32508-484: Was established, with the emperor Baldwin I essentially elected by the Venetians. (The imperial crown was at first offered to doge Enrico Dandolo , who refused it.) The first Latin Patriarch of Constantinople , the Venetian Thomas Morosini , was contested by the pope as uncanonical. The ongoing situation in Europe was chaotic. Philip of Swabia was locked in a dispute of the throne in Germany with Otto of Brunswick . Innocent III's attempts to reconcile their differences

32697-477: Was exercised in an empire without a capital through outpatient rulership practice. Philip had to go through the kingdom and thereby give his rule validity and authority. The greats of the empire gathered for deliberations on the court days. For Philip's reign, 28 Hoftag are known, of which only 12 took place within the Hohenstaufen sphere of influence. Somewhat more than 630 people can be found at Philip's court between 1198 and 1208, of whom around 100 belonged to

32886-419: Was here that Alexius convinced Boniface, and later the Venetians, to divert the Crusade to Constantinople and restore Isaac II to the throne, as he had recently been deposed by his brother Alexius III , Alexius and Irene-Maria's uncle. In contrast to his father Frederick Barbarossa, marriage projects with foreign royal families were out of the question for Philip; his marriage policy was exclusively related to

33075-419: Was limited to a few years, was never undisputed, and he was never crowned Holy Roman Emperor. In addition, he hadn't fought a major conflict with the Pope, in which the alleged failure of the medieval central authority could have been exemplified. In addition, his name cannot be associated with any extraordinary conception of power. Furthermore, his murder could not be instrumentalized for sectarian disputes or for

33264-423: Was lying on the ground for so long" about his "disloyalty and stupidity". Only after the intercession of those present was he lifted from the floor and received the peace kiss from the King. Hermann had initially supported Otto, switched to Philip in 1199 and then again joined Otto in 1203/04. The Landgrave was able to retain his title and property after his submission and stayed in the Hohenstaufen side until Philip

33453-418: Was murdered. In November 1204 Archbishop Adolph of Cologne and Duke Henry I of Brabant also switched to Philip's side in Koblenz . The Duke of Brabant received Maastricht and Duisburg and the Archbishop of Cologne was able to retain his position in the election and ordination of a King and was rewarded with 5,000 marks for sided with Philip. The growing money traffic in the High Middle Ages influenced

33642-446: Was not named with the title of king until Philip was murdered. Despite great physical strength, the Welf lacked all the important virtues of rulership; for Burchard, he was “haughty and stupid, but brave and tall” ( superbus et stultus, sed fortis videbatur viribus et statura procerus ). The chronicler Arnold of Lübeck , despite being loyal to the Welf dynasty, called Philip an "ornament of virtues". Arnold portrayed Otto IV's rule through

33831-418: Was not only an honorable distinction, as research has long assumed, but according to historian Gerd Althoff was also a sign of demonstrative subordination. In such event, personal ties were emphasized, because Bernard himself had intended in 1197 to fight for royal dignity. In addition, Bernard saw himself best protected against the possible expropriation of his Duchy of Saxony by the Welf through his support of

34020-428: Was only elected on 9 June 1198 in Cologne by Archbishop Adolph (who had bought the votes of the absent archbishops). Only the Bishop of Paderborn , Bishop Thietmar of Minden , and three Prince-Provosts took part in the election of the Welf. After his election, Philip failed to make up for the coronation quickly. Rather, he moved to Worms next to his confidant, Bishop Luitpold. The hesitant behavior of Philip gave Otto

34209-523: Was placed at the Premonstratensian Monastery in Adelberg for his further education. From April 1189 to July 1193 Philip was provost at the collegiate church of Aachen Cathedral , while his father left Germany for the Third Crusade in 1189, but he drowned in the Göksu (Saleph) River in Anatolia the next year. In 1190 or 1191 Philip was elected Prince-bishop of Würzburg , though without being consecrated, probably due to intervention of his brother Henry VI. In 1186 Henry VI married with Constance ,

34398-442: Was put aside due to his youth, and Philip himself was in the eyes of the Pope as "the son of a race of persecutors" of the church ( genus persecutorum ) because his father Frederick Barbarossa had fought against the Papacy for years. In contrast, Otto's ancestors were always loyal followers of the church. Otto had also sworn extensive concessions to the Holy See in the Neuss oath on 8 June 1201, assuring him that he would not strive for

34587-454: Was regarded as a "dependent, weak personality with a smooth form and graceful appearance, but without nobility of disposition." The decisive factor for this judgment was that Philip didn't fight energetically enough for his kingship and, through the alliance with the French king, granted " the Erbfeind " influence over the Holy Roman Empire. In addition, he had allowed to an arrogant Pope and selfish princes to make too many concessions. Since

34776-401: Was rendered moot with Philip's assassination on 21 June 1208. Otto was crowned Holy Roman Emperor and fought against the pope, resulting in his excommunication. France was heavily invested in the Albigensian Crusade and was quarreling with John Lackland , resulting in the Anglo-French war of 1213–1214. Sicily was ruled by the child-king Henry II and Spain was occupied in their crusade against

34965-440: Was reputed to have designs on becoming Latin emperor, mortgaged his estates to finance the Crusade. In July 1217, Andrew departed from Zagreb , accompanied by Leopold VI of Austria and Otto I, Duke of Merania . King Andrew's army was so large—at least 20,000 mounted soldiers and even much more "uncountable" infantrymen—that most of it stayed behind when Andrew and his men embarked in Split two months later. They were transported by

35154-421: Was solidified by the Peace of Caltabellotta in 1302, after which the crusaders were unable to dislodge him. Crusade against the Colonna Cardinals. The Crusade against the Colonna Cardinals (1298) was a crusade of Boniface VIII against the Colonna family . Expedition of the Almogavars. The Expedition of the Almogavars (1301–1311) consisted of campaigns of the Catalan Company , formed by veterans of

35343-704: Was the most important process for establishing order in the Middle Ages . In the controversy for the German throne, one of the rivals was only able to prevail in the long term if the other side was offered noticeable compensation. With inferior opponent a balance had to be found of him to abandon the kingship while preserving his honor easier. In the first few months after his election as king, Philip failed to issue documents and thereby assert his kingship. His first surviving royal document, issued to Bishop Bertram of Metz , dated from Worms on 27 June 1198. Two days later, Philip forged an alliance with King Philip II of France . In Mainz Cathedral on 8 September 1198, it wasn't

35532-409: Was the noble House of Hohenstaufen , the name given to the dynasty by historians since the 15th century. The origins of the family are still unclear today; the ancestors on the paternal side were minor nobles and their names have not been preserved. All that is known about Barbarossa's great-grandfather Frederick of Büren is that he married a woman named Hildegard (whose own parentage was disputed: she

35721-545: Was why the marriage negotiations with the Pope failed. In contrast to Otto, Philip was ready to honor the achievements of his loyal followers. The Hohenstaufen was able to attract high-ranking Welf supporters to his side through gifts and rewards. Rewarding the faithful was one of the most important duties of the ruler. Duke Ottokar I of Bohemia received the royal dignity in 1198 for his support. Philip rewarded Count Wilhelm II of Jülich with valuable gifts for his expressed will to win over all of Otto's important supporters for

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