Misplaced Pages

#398601

199-525: The reign of Titus was struck by multiple natural disasters, the most severe of which was the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79, which saw the surrounding cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum be completely buried under ash and lava . One year later, Rome was struck by fire and a plague . On the military front, the Flavian dynasty witnessed the siege and destruction of Jerusalem by Titus in AD 70, following

398-568: A Caledonian army, led by Calgacus , at the Battle of Mons Graupius . However, the Romans soon withdrew from northern Britain. After Hadrian's Wall was established as the northern border, tribes in the region repeatedly rebelled against Roman rule and forts continued to be maintained across northern Britain to protect against these attacks. In common with other regions on the edge of the empire, Britain had enjoyed diplomatic and trading links with

597-667: A centurion under Pompey during Caesar's Civil War . His military career ended in disgrace when he fled the battlefield at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC. Nevertheless, Petro managed to improve his status by marrying the extremely wealthy Tertulla, whose fortune guaranteed the upward mobility of Petro's son Titus Flavius Sabinus I . Sabinus himself amassed further wealth and possible equestrian status through his services as tax collector in Asia and banker in Helvetia (modern Switzerland). By marrying Vespasia Polla he allied himself to

796-651: A decisive battle ; he fled to the Roman client tribe of the Brigantes who occupied the Pennines . Their queen Cartimandua was unable or unwilling to protect him however, given her own accommodation with the Romans, and handed him over to the invaders. Ostorius died and was replaced by Aulus Didius Gallus who brought what are now the Welsh borders under control but did not move further north or west, probably because Claudius

995-484: A devaluation to the Neronian standard of 65, but this was still higher than the level which Vespasian and Titus had maintained during their reign, and Domitian's rigorous taxation policy ensured that this standard was sustained for the following eleven years. Coin types from this era display a highly consistent degree of quality, including meticulous attention to Domitian's titulature, and exceptionally refined artwork on

1194-542: A "reign of terror" late in Domitian's reign. According to Suetonius, some were convicted for corruption or treason, others on trivial charges, which Domitian justified through his suspicion. Since the reign of Tiberius, the rulers of the Julio-Claudian dynasty had legitimized their power through adopted-line descent from Augustus and Julius Caesar. Vespasian could no longer claim such a relation, however. Therefore,

1393-522: A cloud of stones , ash and volcanic gases to a height of 33 km (21 mi), erupting molten rock and pulverized pumice at the rate of 6 × 10 cubic metres (7.8 × 10  cu yd) per second. More than 1,000 people are thought to have died in the eruption, though the exact toll is unknown. The only surviving witness account consists of two letters by Pliny the Younger to the historian Tacitus . Vesuvius has erupted many times since. It

1592-589: A combination of force and diplomacy quieted discontent among the Britons who had been conquered previously, Agricola built forts in their territories in 79. In 80, he marched to the Firth of Tay (some historians hold that he stopped along the Firth of Forth in that year), not returning south until 81, at which time he consolidated his gains in the new lands that he had conquered, and in the rebellious lands that he had re-conquered. In 82, he sailed to either Kintyre or

1791-446: A detailed description of the AD 79 eruption, including his uncle's death. On occasion, eruptions from Vesuvius have been so large that the whole of southern Europe has been blanketed by ash; in 472 and 1631, Vesuvian ash fell on Constantinople ( Istanbul ), over 1,200 kilometres (750 mi) away. A few times since 1944, landslides in the crater have raised clouds of ash dust, raising false alarms of an eruption. Since 1750, seven of

1990-629: A fleet and pushed beyond the Forth into Caledonia. To aid the advance, an expansive legionary fortress was constructed at Inchtuthil . In the summer of 84, Agricola faced the armies of the Caledonians, led by Calgacus , at the Battle of Mons Graupius . Although the Romans inflicted heavy losses on the Caledonians, two-thirds of their army managed to escape and hide in the Scottish marshes and Highlands , ultimately preventing Agricola from bringing

2189-431: A former consul he may have been too senior, and perhaps accompanied Claudius later. The main invasion force under Aulus Plautius crossed in three divisions. The port of departure is usually taken to have been Bononia ( Boulogne ), and the main landing at Rutupiae ( Richborough , on the east coast of Kent ). Neither of these locations is certain. Dio does not mention the port of departure, and although Suetonius says that

SECTION 10

#1732766182399

2388-533: A high-altitude column from which ash and pumice began to fall, blanketing the area. Rescues and escapes occurred during this time. At some time in the night or early the next day, pyroclastic surges in the close vicinity of the volcano began. Lights were seen on the peak, interpreted as fires. People as far away as Misenum fled for their lives. The flows were rapid-moving, dense and very hot, knocking down, wholly or partly, all structures in their path, incinerating or suffocating all population remaining there and altering

2587-641: A highly favourable view towards Titus. His character has especially prospered in comparison with that of his brother Domitian. In contrast to the ideal portrayal of Titus in Roman histories, in Jewish memory "Titus the Wicked" is remembered as an evil oppressor and destroyer of the Temple. For example, one legend in the Babylonian Talmud describes Titus as having had sex with a whore on a Torah scroll inside

2786-604: A lavish parade containing treasures and captives from the war. Josephus describes a procession with large amounts of gold and silver carried along the route, followed by elaborate re-enactments of the war, Jewish prisoners, and finally the treasures taken from the Temple of Jerusalem, including the Menorah and the Torah . Leaders of the resistance were executed in the Forum , after which the procession closed with religious sacrifices at

2985-586: A long historic and literary tradition. It was considered a divinity of the Genius type at the time of the eruption of AD 79: it appears under the inscribed name Vesuvius as a serpent in the decorative frescos of many lararia , or household shrines, surviving from Pompeii . An inscription from Capua to IOVI VESVVIO indicates that he was worshipped as a power of Jupiter ; that is, Jupiter Vesuvius . The Romans regarded Mount Vesuvius as being devoted to Hercules . The historian Diodorus Siculus relates

3184-621: A long list of important public buildings that were destroyed, including Agrippa's Pantheon , the Temple of Jupiter , the Diribitorium , parts of Pompey's Theatre and the Saepta Julia among others. Once again, Titus personally compensated for the damaged regions. According to Suetonius, a plague similarly struck during the fire. The nature of the disease, however, as well as the death toll, are unknown. Suetonius claims that Vespasian

3383-452: A massive propaganda campaign was initiated to justify Flavian rule as having been predetermined through divine providence. At the same time, Flavian propaganda emphasised Vespasian's role as a bringer of peace following the crisis of 69. Nearly one-third of all coins minted in Rome under Vespasian celebrated military victory or peace, while the word vindex was removed from coins as to not remind

3582-584: A military enclosure of south-central Scotland (most of the Southern Uplands , Teviotdale , and western Tweeddale ). In contrast to Roman actions against the Selgovae, the territories of the Novantae , Damnonii , and Votadini were not planted with forts, and there is nothing to indicate that the Romans were at war with them. Agricola was recalled to Rome in 84. In 2019 a marching camp dating to

3781-429: A new ruler for their region, Cogidubnus , soon appeared as his heir and as king of a number of territories following the first stage of the conquest as a reward as a Roman ally. Vespasian took a force westwards, subduing tribes and capturing oppida settlements as he went. The force proceeded at least as far as Exeter , which became a base for the Roman legion, Legio II Augusta, from 55 until 75. Legio IX Hispana

3980-567: A phonolitic tephrite ). According to the Smithsonian Institution 's Global Volcanism Program , Vesuvius has had 54 confirmed eruptions during the Holocene Epoch (the last 11,700 years). A volcanic explosivity index (VEI) has been assigned to all but one of these eruptions. Scientific knowledge of the geologic history of Vesuvius comes from core samples taken from a 2,000 m (6,600 ft) plus borehole on

4179-400: A pro-Republic philosopher, was executed for his teachings. Titus and Domitian also revived the practice of the imperial cult , which had fallen somewhat out of use under Vespasian. Significantly, Domitian's first act as Emperor was the deification of his brother Titus. Upon their deaths, his infant son, and niece Julia Flavia , were likewise enrolled among the gods. To foster the worship of

SECTION 20

#1732766182399

4378-553: A result of battles with various tribes. Modifications to the Stanegate line, with the reduction in the size of the forts and the addition of fortlets and watchtowers between them, seem to have taken place from the mid-90s onwards. Apart from the Stanegate line, other forts existed along the Solway Coast at Beckfoot, Maryport , Burrow Walls (near the present town of Workington) and Moresby (near Whitehaven). Other forts in

4577-542: A road was constructed during the Trajanic period to Hardknott Roman Fort . A road between Ambleside to Old Penrith and/or Brougham, going over High Street , may also date from this period. Under Hadrian ( r.   117–138), Roman occupation was withdrawn to a defendable frontier in the River Tyne - Solway Firth frontier area by the construction of Hadrian's Wall from around 122. When Antoninus Pius rose to

4776-576: A sailing from Boulogne to the Solent , landing in the vicinity of Noviomagus ( Chichester ) or Southampton , in territory formerly ruled by Verica. British resistance was led by Togodumnus and Caratacus , sons of the late king of the Catuvellauni, Cunobeline . A substantial British force met the Romans at a river crossing thought to be near Rochester on the River Medway . The Battle of

4975-536: A series of efforts to consolidate his power and prevent future revolts. He offered gifts to the military and dismissed or punished those soldiers loyal to Vitellius. He also restructured the Senatorial and Equestrian orders, removing his enemies and adding his allies. Executive control was largely distributed among members of his family. Non-Flavians were virtually excluded from important public offices, even those who had been among Vespasian's earliest supporters during

5174-429: A stronghold of the druids , was attacked in AD 60 . This was interrupted by an uprising led by Boudica , in which the Britons destroyed Camulodunum , Verulamium and Londinium . The Romans put down the rebellion. The conquest of Wales lasted until c.  AD 77 . Roman general Gnaeus Julius Agricola conquered much of northern Britain during the following seven years. In AD 84, Agricola defeated

5373-425: A successful campaign across North Wales, famously killing many druids when he invaded the island of Anglesey in 60. Final occupation of Wales was postponed however when the rebellion of Boudica forced the Romans to return to the south east in 60 or 61. Following the successful suppression of Boudica 's uprising in 60 or 61, a number of new Roman governors continued the conquest by edging north. The leader of

5572-531: A tradition that Hercules, in the performance of his labors, passed through the country of nearby Cumae on his way to Sicily and found there a place called "the Phlegraean Plain" ( Φλεγραῖον πεδίον , "fiery"), "from the mountain which of old spouted forth a huge fire [...] the mountain is called Vesuvius." It was inhabited by giant bandits, "the sons of the Earth. With the gods' assistance, he pacified

5771-447: Is a "humpbacked" peak, consisting of a large cone ( Gran Cono ) partially encircled by the steep rim of a summit caldera caused by the collapse of an earlier (and originally much higher) structure called Mount Somma . The Gran Cono was produced during the A.D. 79 eruption. For this reason, the volcano is also called Somma-Vesuvius or Somma-Vesuvio . The caldera started forming during an eruption around 17,000–18,000 years ago and

5970-403: Is assumed that tephra accumulation exceeding 100 kilograms per square metre (20 lb/sq ft)—at which point people are at risk from collapsing roofs—may extend out as far as Avellino to the east or Salerno to the south-east. Near Naples, this tephra fall hazard is assumed to extend barely past the volcano's slopes to the northwest. The specific areas affected by the ash cloud depend upon

6169-558: Is best known for his public building program in Rome, and completing the construction of the Colosseum in 80, but also for his generosity in relieving the suffering caused by two disasters, the Mount Vesuvius eruption of 79 , and the fire of Rome of 80. Titus continued his father's efforts to promote the Flavian dynasty. He revived practice of the imperial cult , deified his father, and laid foundations for what would later become

Flavian dynasty - Misplaced Pages Continue

6368-589: Is evidence of a Cerialian foundation, and followed the line of the Lune and Eden river valleys through Low Borrow Bridge and Brougham ( Brocavum ). On the Cumbrian coast, Ravenglass and Blennerhasset were probably involved from evidence of one of the earliest Roman occupations in Cumbria. Beckfoot and Maryport may also have featured early on. At some point between 72 and 73, part of Cerialis's force moved across

6567-418: Is the first recorded utterance confidently attributable to a native of the area now known as Scotland. The emperor Septimius Severus died at York while planning to renew hostilities, and these plans were abandoned by his son Caracalla . Emperor Constantius came to Britain in 306, despite his poor health, with an army aiming to invade northern Britain, after the provincial defences had been rebuilt following

6766-430: Is the only volcano on Europe's mainland to have erupted in the last hundred years. It is regarded as one of the most dangerous volcanoes in the world because 3,000,000 people live near enough to be affected by an eruption, with at least 600,000 in the danger zone. This is the most densely populated volcanic region in the world. Eruptions tend to be violent and explosive; these are known as Plinian eruptions. Vesuvius has

6965-409: Is to increase the concentration of dissolved gases (mostly sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide ) in the remaining liquid magma, making the subsequent eruption more violent. As gas-rich magma approaches the surface during an eruption , the huge drop in internal pressure caused by the reduction in weight of the overlying rock (which drops to zero at the surface) causes the gases to come out of solution,

7164-534: The Arch of Titus . In order to further justify the divine nature of Flavian rule, Domitian also emphasized connections with the chief deity Jupiter , most significantly through the restoration of the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill . The Flavian dynasty is perhaps best known for its vast construction programme in the city of Rome, intended to restore the capital from the damage it had suffered during

7363-481: The Bay of Naples . A massive black cloud glistering with lightning obscured the early-morning light, a scene Pliny describes as sheet lightning . The cloud obscured Point Misenum near at hand and the island of Capraia ( Capri ) across the bay. Fearing for their lives, the population began to flee the shore along the road. An ash rain fell, causing Pliny to shake it off periodically to avoid being buried. Later that same day,

7562-425: The Bay of Naples . The cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum were buried under metres of stone and lava , killing thousands of citizens. Titus appointed two ex-consuls to organise and coordinate the relief effort , while personally donating large amounts of money from the imperial treasury to aid the victims of the volcano. Additionally, he visited Pompeii once after the eruption and again the following year. The city

7761-672: The Campi Flegrei area, another volcanic complex near Naples, but no eruption occurred. Roman conquest of Britain The Roman conquest of Britain was the Roman Empire 's conquest of most of the island of Britain , which was inhabited by the Celtic Britons . It began in earnest in AD 43 under Emperor Claudius , and was largely completed in the southern half of Britain (most of England and Wales ) by AD 87, when

7960-549: The Capitoline Games , a quadrennial contest comprising athletic displays , chariot races , and competitions for oratory , music and acting. Domitian himself supported the travels of competitors from the whole empire and attributed the prizes. Innovations were also introduced into the regular gladiatorial games, such as naval contests, night-time battles, and female and dwarf gladiator fights. Finally, he added two new factions, Gold and Purple, to chariot races, besides

8159-569: The Carausian Revolt . Little is known of his campaigns with scant archaeological evidence, but fragmentary historical sources suggest he reached the far north of Britain and won a major battle in early summer before returning south. His son Constantine (later Constantine the Great ) spent a year in northern Britain at his father's side, campaigning against the Picts beyond Hadrian's Wall in

Flavian dynasty - Misplaced Pages Continue

8358-826: The Chatti , and across the Danube frontier against the Suebi , the Sarmatians , and the Dacians . Led by King Decebalus , the Dacians invaded the province of Moesia around 84 or 85, wreaking considerable havoc and killing the Moesian governor, Oppius Sabinus . Domitian immediately launched a counteroffensive , which resulted in the destruction of a legion during an ill-fated expedition into Dacia. Their commander, Cornelius Fuscus ,

8557-600: The Julio-Claudian dynasty came to an end. Chaos ensued, leading to a year of brutal civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors , during which the four most influential generals in the Roman Empire — Galba , Otho , Vitellius and Vespasian —successively vied for the imperial power. News of Nero's death reached Vespasian as he was preparing to besiege the city of Jerusalem . Almost simultaneously

8756-491: The Mediterranean . Titus reportedly refused to accept a wreath of victory, and instead "disclaimed any such honor to himself, saying that it was not himself that had accomplished this exploit, but that he had merely lent his arms to God." Upon his return to Rome in 71, Titus was awarded a triumph . Accompanied by Vespasian and Domitian, he rode into the city, enthusiastically saluted by the Roman populace and preceded by

8955-579: The Scottish Highlands . The line of military communication and supply along southeastern Scotland and northeastern England (i.e., Dere Street ) was well-fortified. In southernmost Caledonia, the lands of the Selgovae (approximating to modern Dumfriesshire and the Stewartry of Kirkcudbright ) were heavily planted with forts, not only establishing effective control there, but also completing

9154-470: The Stanegate was established. The conquered territory became the Roman province of Britannia . Attempts to conquer northern Britain ( Caledonia ) in the following centuries were not successful. Following Julius Caesar's invasions of Britain in 54 BC, some southern British chiefdoms had become allies of the Romans . The exile of their ally Verica gave the Romans a pretext for invasion. The Roman army

9353-546: The Temple of Jupiter . The triumphal Arch of Titus , which stands at one entrance to the Forum, memorializes the victory of Titus. The conquest of Britain continued under command of Gnaeus Julius Agricola , who expanded the Roman Empire as far as Caledonia , or modern day Scotland , between 77 and 84. In 82 Agricola crossed an unidentified body of water and defeated peoples unknown to the Romans until then. He fortified

9552-556: The Temple of Vespasian and Titus , which was finished by Domitian. After barely two years in office, Titus unexpectedly died of a fever on 13 September 81, and was deified by the Roman Senate . Domitian was declared emperor by the Praetorian Guard the day after Titus' death, commencing a reign which lasted more than fifteen years—longer than any man who had governed Rome since Tiberius . Domitian strengthened

9751-637: The Tour d'Ordre , that provided a model for the one built soon after at Dubris (Dover). In 43, possibly by reassembling Caligula's troops from 40, Claudius mounted an invasion force under overall charge of Aulus Plautius , a distinguished senator. A pretext of the invasion was to reinstate Verica , the exiled king of the Atrebates . It is unclear how many legions were sent: only the Legio II Augusta , commanded by future emperor Vespasian ,

9950-400: The gold and silver mines of Dacia. Although his administration was marked by a relative absence of major military or political conflicts, Titus faced a number of major disasters during his brief reign. On 24 August 79, barely two months after his accession, Mount Vesuvius erupted , resulting in the almost complete destruction of life and property in the cities and resort communities around

10149-484: The subduction process described above, which extends northwest along the length of Italy as far as Monte Amiata in Southern Tuscany . Vesuvius is the only one to have erupted in recent history, although some of the others have erupted within the last few hundred years. Many are either extinct or have not erupted for tens of thousands of years. Mount Vesuvius has erupted many times. Numerous others preceded

SECTION 50

#1732766182399

10348-535: The thermal energy released by the Hiroshima-Nagasaki bombings . The cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum were destroyed by pyroclastic surges and the ruins buried under tens of metres of tephra . The AD 79 eruption was preceded by a powerful earthquake in 62 , which caused widespread destruction around the Bay of Naples, and particularly to Pompeii. Some of the damage had still not been repaired when

10547-478: The 18th century (including 1779 and 1794), eight times in the 19th century (notably in 1872), and in 1906, 1929 and 1944. There have been no eruptions since 1944, and none of the eruptions after AD 79 were as large or destructive as the Pompeian one. The eruptions vary greatly in severity but are characterized by explosive outbursts of the kind dubbed Plinian after Pliny the Younger , a Roman writer who published

10746-475: The 1st century AD, used by Roman legions during the invasion of Agricola. Clay-domed ovens and 26 fire pits dated to AD 77–90 were found loaded with burn and charcoal contents. The fire pits were 30 m apart in two parallel lines. Archaeologists suggested that this site had been chosen as a strategic location for the Roman conquest of Ayrshire . Agricola's successors are not named in any surviving source, but it seems they were unable or unwilling to further subdue

10945-491: The 200 years preceding the AD 79 eruption describe the mountain as having had a volcanic nature, although Pliny the Elder did not depict the mountain in this way in his Natural History : In AD 79, Vesuvius erupted in one of the most catastrophic eruptions of all time. Historians have learned about the eruption from the eyewitness account of Pliny the Younger , a Roman administrator and poet. Several dates are given in

11144-519: The 5 km (3.1 mi) long valley of Atrio di Cavallo (the northern floor of Monte Somma's caldera). The volcano's slopes are scarred by lava flows, while the rest are heavily vegetated, with scrub and forests at higher altitudes and vineyards lower down. Vesuvius is a stratovolcano and was formed as a result of the collision of two tectonic plates , the African and the Eurasian . The former

11343-486: The Bay of Naples from the volcano, approximately 35 kilometres (22 mi), the elder Pliny launched a rescue fleet and went himself to the rescue of a personal friend. His nephew declined to join the party. One of the nephew's letters relates what he could discover from witnesses of his uncle's experiences. In a second letter, the younger Pliny details his own observations after the departure of his uncle. The two men saw an extraordinarily dense cloud rising rapidly above

11542-596: The Brigantes was queen Cartimandua . Her husband was Venutius ; one speculation is that he might have been a Carvetian and may therefore have been responsible for the incorporation of Cumbria into a Brigantian federation whose territory straddled Britain along the Solway - Tyne line. Cartimandua may have ruled the Brigantian peoples east of the Pennines (possibly with a centre at Stanwick , Yorkshire), while Venutius

11741-461: The Caledonians alone and only under de jure submission. With the decline of imperial ambitions in Scotland (and Ireland) by AD 87 (the withdrawal of the 20th legion), consolidation based on the line of the Stanegate road (between Carlisle and Corbridge) was settled upon. Carlisle was the seat of a centurio regionarius (or district commissioner). When the Stanegate became the new frontier it

11940-537: The Caledonians with hill forts . One such was Burnswark Hill which was strategically located commanding the western route north further into Caledonia and where significant evidence of the battle has been found. By 142 the Romans had pacified the entire area and had successfully moved the frontier north to the River Clyde - River Forth area when the Antonine Wall was constructed. After two decades this

12139-464: The Earth's surface, it broke through, thus forming the volcano. The volcano is one of several forming the Campanian volcanic arc . Others include Campi Flegrei , a large caldera a few kilometers to the north-west, Ischia , a volcanic island 20 kilometres (12 mi) to the west, and several undersea volcanoes to the south. The arc forms the southern end of a larger chain of volcanoes produced by

SECTION 60

#1732766182399

12338-581: The Egyptians before departing. By the end of 70, he finally returned to Rome, and was properly installed as Emperor. Little factual information survives about Vespasian's government during the ten years he was Emperor. Vespasian spent his first year as a ruler in Egypt, during which the administration of the empire was given to Mucianus , aided by Vespasian's son Domitian. Modern historians believe that Vespasian remained there in order to consolidate support from

12537-405: The Egyptians. In mid-70, Vespasian first came to Rome and immediately embarked on a widespread propaganda campaign to consolidate his power and promote the new dynasty. His reign is best known for financial reforms following the demise of the Julio-Claudian dynasty , such as the institution of the tax on urinals, and the numerous military campaigns fought during the 70s. The most significant of these

12736-453: The Elder died before Vespasian became emperor. Thereafter his mistress Caenis was his wife in all but name until she died in 74. The political career of Vespasian included the offices of quaestor , aedile and praetor , and culminated with a consulship in 51, the year Domitian was born. As a military commander, he gained early renown by participating in the Roman invasion of Britain in 43. Nevertheless, ancient sources allege poverty for

12935-422: The Emperor's status as a de facto monarch. The civil war of 69 had made it abundantly clear that real power in the Empire lay with control over the army. By the time Vespasian was proclaimed emperor in Rome, any hope of restoring the Republic had long dissipated. The Flavian approach to government was one of both implicit and explicit exclusion. When Vespasian returned to Rome in mid-70, he immediately embarked on

13134-411: The Empire's finances, while Domitian revalued the Roman coinage by increasing its silver content. A massive building programme was enacted by Titus, to celebrate the ascent of the Flavian dynasty, leaving multiple enduring landmarks in the city of Rome, the most spectacular of which was the Flavian Amphitheatre, better known as the Colosseum . Flavian rule came to an end on 18 September 96, when Domitian

13333-418: The Flavian dynasty came to an end. The same day, he was succeeded by his friend and advisor Nerva , who founded the long-lasting Nervan-Antonian dynasty . Domitian's memory was condemned to oblivion by the Roman Senate, with which he had a notoriously difficult relationship throughout his reign. Senatorial authors such as Tacitus, Pliny the Younger and Suetonius published histories after his death, propagating

13532-535: The Flavian family at the time of Domitian's upbringing, even claiming Vespasian had fallen into disrepute under the emperors Caligula (37–41) and Nero (54–68). Modern history has refuted these claims, suggesting these stories were later circulated under Flavian rule as part of a propaganda campaign to diminish success under the less reputable Emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, and maximize achievements under Emperor Claudius (41–54) and his son Britannicus . By all appearances, imperial favour for

13731-446: The Flavians was high throughout the 40s and 60s. While Titus received a court education in the company of Britannicus, Vespasian pursued a successful political and military career. Following a prolonged period of retirement during the 50s, he returned to public office under Nero, serving as proconsul of the Africa province in 63, and accompanying the emperor during an official tour of Greece in 66. From c.  57 to 59, Titus

13930-400: The Great Fire of 64, and the civil war of 69. Vespasian added the Temple of Peace and the Temple to the Deified Claudius. In 75 a colossal statue of Apollo , begun under Nero as a statue of himself , was finished on Vespasian's orders, and he also dedicated a stage of the theater of Marcellus. Construction of the Flavian Amphitheatre, presently better known as the Colosseum (probably after

14129-422: The Medway raged for two days. Gnaeus Hosidius Geta was almost captured, but recovered and turned the battle so decisively that he was awarded the Roman triumph . At least one division of auxiliary Batavian troops swam across the river as a separate force. The British were pushed back to the Thames . They were pursued by the Romans across the river, causing some Roman losses in the marshes of Essex . Whether

14328-666: The Ordovices who had destroyed a cavalry ala of Roman auxiliaries stationed in their territory. Knowing the terrain from his prior military service in Britain, he was able to move quickly to subdue them. He then invaded Anglesey , forcing the inhabitants to sue for peace. The following year he moved against the Brigantes of northern England and the Selgovae along the southern coast of Scotland, using overwhelming military power to establish Roman control. Tacitus says that after

14527-520: The Roman Empire prospered between 81 and 96, in a reign which Theodor Mommsen described as the sombre but intelligent despotism of Domitian. Mount Vesuvius Mount Vesuvius ( / v ɪ ˈ s uː v i ə s / viss- OO -vee-əs ) is a somma – stratovolcano located on the Gulf of Naples in Campania , Italy , about 9 km (5.6 mi) east of Naples and a short distance from

14726-561: The Roman fortress at Chester , indicate that construction there was probably under way by AD 74. Nevertheless, Gnaeus Julius Agricola played his part in the west as commander of the legion XX Valeria Victrix (71–73), while Cerialis led the IX Hispania in the east. In addition, the Legio II Adiutrix sailed from Chester up river estuaries to surprise the enemy. The western thrust was started from Lancaster , where there

14925-612: The Romans in the century since Julius Caesar 's expeditions in 55 and 54 BC , and Roman economic and cultural influence was a significant part of the British late pre-Roman Iron Age , especially in the south. Between 55 BC and the 40s AD, the status quo of tribute, hostages, and client states without direct military occupation, begun by Caesar's invasions of Britain , largely remained intact. Augustus prepared invasions in 34 BC, 27 BC and 25 BC. The first and third were called off due to revolts elsewhere in

15124-591: The Romans made use of an existing bridge for this purpose or built a temporary one is uncertain. Togodumnus died shortly after the battle on the Thames. Plautius halted and sent word for Claudius to join him for the final push. Cassius Dio presents this as Plautius needing the emperor's assistance to defeat the resurgent British, who were determined to avenge Togodumnus. However, Claudius was no military man. The Praetorian cohorts accompanied Emperor Claudius to Britain in AD 43. The Arch of Claudius in Rome says he received

15323-465: The Romans prepared to move further west and north. The Romans established their new capital at Camulodunum and Claudius returned to Rome to celebrate his victory. Caratacus escaped with his family, retainers, and treasure, to continue his resistance further west. After the invasion, Verica may have been restored as king of the Atrebates although by this time he would have been very elderly. In any case

15522-670: The Senate had declared Galba, then governor of Hispania Tarraconensis (modern Spain), as Emperor of Rome. Rather than continue his campaign, Vespasian decided to await further orders and send Titus to greet the new Emperor. Before reaching Italy, however, Titus learnt that Galba had been murdered and replaced by Otho, the governor of Lusitania (modern Portugal). At the same time, Vitellius and his armies in Germania had risen in revolt, and prepared to march on Rome, intent on overthrowing Otho. Not wanting to risk being taken hostage by one side or

15721-403: The Senate, and a conclusive move away from princeps , or first citizen, and toward imperator , or emperor. Little factual information survives about Vespasian's government during the ten years he was emperor; his reign is best known for financial reforms following the demise of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Vespasian was noted for his mildness and for loyalty to the people. For example, much money

15920-600: The Stainmore Pass from Corbridge westwards to join Agricola, as evidenced by campaign camps (which may have been previously set up by Bolanus) at Rey Cross , Crackenthorpe, Kirkby Thore and Plumpton Head. Signal- or watch-towers are also in evidence across the Stainmore area: Maiden Castle, Bowes Moor and Roper Castle, for example. The two forces then moved up from the vicinity of Penrith to Carlisle, establishing

16119-464: The Temple during its destruction. Although contemporary historians vilified Domitian after his death, his administration provided the foundation for the peaceful empire of the 2nd century, and the culmination of the Pax Romana . His successors Nerva and Trajan were less restrictive, but, in reality, their policies differed little from Domitian's. Much more than a gloomy coda to the 1st century,

16318-493: The amount of magma expelled in an eruption increases roughly linearly with the interval since the previous one, and at a rate of around 0.001 cubic kilometres (0.00024 cu mi) for each year. This gives an approximate figure of 0.08 cubic kilometres (0.019 cu mi) for an eruption after 80 years of inactivity. Magma sitting in an underground chamber for many years will start to see higher melting point constituents such as olivine crystallizing out. The effect

16517-598: The area. The most notable later expedition was in 209 when the emperor Septimius Severus , claiming to be provoked by the belligerence of the Maeatae tribe, campaigned against the Caledonian Confederacy , a coalition of Brittonic Pictish tribes of the north of Britain. He used the three legions of the British garrison (augmented by the recently formed 2nd Parthica legion), 9000 imperial guards with cavalry support, and numerous auxiliaries supplied from

16716-440: The audience, inscribed with various prizes ( clothing , gold , or even slaves ), which could then be traded for the designated item. An estimated 135 million sestertii was spent on donativa , or congiaria , throughout Domitian's reign. He also revived the practice of public banquets , which had been reduced to a simple distribution of food under Nero, while he invested large sums on entertainment and games. In 86, he founded

16915-511: The centre of power to the imperial court , Domitian openly rendered the Senate's powers obsolete. He became personally involved in all branches of the administration: edicts were issued governing the smallest details of everyday life and law, while taxation and public morals were rigidly enforced. Nevertheless, Domitian did make concessions toward senatorial opinion. Whereas his father and brother had virtually excluded non-Flavians from public office, Domitian rarely favoured his own family members in

17114-446: The circumstances surrounding the eruption. The plan assumes between two weeks and 20 days notice of an eruption and foresees the emergency evacuation of 600,000 people, almost entirely comprising all those living in the zona rossa ("red zone"), i.e. at greatest risk from pyroclastic flows. The evacuation, by train, ferry, car, and bus, is planned to take about seven days, and the evacuees would mostly be sent to other parts of

17313-564: The city was the culmination of the Roman campaign in Judaea following the Jewish uprising of 66. The Second Temple was completely demolished, after which Titus's soldiers proclaimed him imperator in honor of the victory. Jerusalem was sacked and much of the population killed or dispersed. Josephus claims that 1,100,000 people were killed during the siege, of which a majority were Jewish. 97,000 were captured and enslaved, including Simon Bar Giora and John of Giscala . Many fled to areas around

17512-412: The city. The lowest temperatures were in rooms under collapsed roofs, at approximately 100 °C (212 °F). The only surviving eyewitness account of the event consists of two letters by Pliny the Younger to the historian Tacitus . Pliny the Younger describes, amongst other things, the last days in the life of his uncle, Pliny the Elder . Observing the first volcanic activity from Misenum across

17711-433: The civil war. Mucianus slowly disappears from the historical records during this time, and it is believed he died sometime between 75 and 77. That it was Vespasian's intention to found a long-lasting dynasty to govern the Roman Empire was most evident in the powers he conferred upon his eldest son Titus. Titus shared tribunician power with his father, received seven consulships , the censorship , and perhaps most remarkably,

17910-455: The coast facing Ireland, and Tacitus recalls that his father-in-law often claimed the island could be conquered with a single legion and a few auxiliaries . He had given refuge to an exiled Irish king whom he hoped he might use as the excuse for conquest. This conquest never happened, but some historians believe that the crossing referred to was in fact a small-scale exploratory or punitive expedition to Ireland. The following year Agricola raised

18109-428: The coast near the foot of the volcano, explaining that her party could only get away by sea and asking for rescue. Pliny ordered the immediate launching of the fleet galleys to the evacuation of the coast. He continued in his light ship to the rescue of Rectina's party. He set off across the bay but, in the shallows on the other side, encountered thick showers of hot cinders, lumps of pumice and pieces of rock. Advised by

18308-425: The column. The eruption alternated between Plinian and Peléan six times. Surges 3 and 4 are believed by the authors to have buried Pompeii. Surges are identified in the deposits by dune and cross-bedding formations, which are not produced by fallout. Another study used the magnetic characteristics of over 200 samples of roof-tile and plaster fragments collected around Pompeii to estimate the equilibrium temperature of

18507-453: The conquest of the north may have been achieved under the governorships of Vettius Bolanus (governor AD 69–71), and of Cerialis. From other sources, it seems that Bolanus had possibly dealt with Venutius and penetrated into Scotland, and evidence from the carbon-dating of the gateway timbers of the Roman fort at Carlisle ( Luguvalium ) suggest that they were felled in AD 72, during the governorship of Cerialis. Lead ingots from Deva Victrix ,

18706-493: The construction of a new public bath-house , which was to bear his name . Construction of this building was hastily finished to coincide with the completion of the Flavian Amphitheatre. The bulk of the Flavian construction projects were carried out during the reign of Domitian, who spent lavishly to restore and embellish the city of Rome. Much more than a renovation project, however, Domitian's building programme

18905-459: The construction of the wall to him. During the negotiations to purchase the truce necessary to secure the Roman retreat to the wall, Septimius Severus's wife, Julia Domna , criticised the sexual morals of the Caledonian women; the wife of Argentocoxos , a Caledonian chief, replied: "We consort openly with the best of men while you allow yourselves to be debauched in private by the worst". This

19104-423: The country, rather than to safe areas in the local Campania region, and may have to stay away for several months. However, the dilemma that would face those implementing the plan is when to start this massive evacuation: If it starts too late, thousands could be killed, whereas if it is started too early, the indicators of an eruption may turn out to be a false alarm . In 1984, 40,000 people were evacuated from

19303-411: The crater. Layers of lava , ash , scoria and pumice make up the volcanic peak. Their mineralogy is variable, but generally silica -undersaturated and rich in potassium , with phonolite produced in the more explosive eruptions (e.g. the eruption in 1631 displaying a complete stratigraphic and petrographic description: phonolite was firstly erupted, followed by a tephritic phonolite and finally

19502-485: The demise of the old aristocracy of Rome, which was gradually replaced in prominence by a new Italian nobility during the early part of the 1st century AD. One such family were the Flavians , or gens Flavia , which rose from relative obscurity to prominence in just four generations, acquiring wealth and status under the emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty . Vespasian's grandfather, Titus Flavius Petro , had served as

19701-572: The distribution of strategic posts, admitting a surprisingly large number of provincials and potential opponents to the consulship, and assigning men of the equestrian order to run the imperial bureaucracy. One of Vespasian's first acts as Emperor was to enforce a tax reform to restore the Empire's depleted treasury. After Vespasian arrived in Rome in mid-70, Mucianus continued to press Vespasian to collect as many taxes as possible, renewing old ones and instituting new ones. Mucianus and Vespasian increased

19900-477: The early Roman Empire . Its collateral forms were Vesaevus , Vesevus , Vesbius and Vesvius . Writers in ancient Greek used Οὐεσούιον or Οὐεσούιος . Many scholars since then have offered an etymology . Given that peoples of varying ethnicity and language occupied Campania during the Roman Iron Age , the etymology depends to a large degree on the presumption of what language

20099-549: The economy by revaluing the Roman coinage , expanded the border defenses of the Empire, and initiated a massive building programme to restore the damaged city of Rome. In Britain, Gnaeus Julius Agricola expanded the Roman Empire as far as modern day Scotland , but in Dacia , Domitian was unable to procure a decisive victory in the war against the Dacians . On 18 September 96, Domitian was assassinated by court officials, and with him

20298-406: The empire, the second because the Britons seemed ready to come to terms. According to Augustus's Res Gestae , two British kings, Dubnovellaunus and Tincomarus , fled to Rome as supplicants during his reign, and Strabo 's Geographica , written during this period, says Britain paid more in customs and duties than could be raised by taxation if the island were conquered. By the 40s AD,

20497-489: The entire city garrison of Rome. Tensions among the Flavian troops ran high, but as long as Galba and Otho remained in power, Vespasian refused to take action. When Otho was defeated by Vitellius at the First Battle of Bedriacum , however, the armies in Judaea and Egypt took matters into their own hands and declared Vespasian emperor on 1 July 69. Vespasian accepted, and entered an alliance with Gaius Licinius Mucianus ,

20696-699: The entire British island under his control. The military campaigns undertaken during Domitian's reign were usually defensive in nature, as the Emperor rejected the idea of expansionist warfare. His most significant military contribution was the development of the Limes Germanicus , which encompassed a vast network of roads, forts and watchtowers constructed along the Rhine river to defend the Empire. Nevertheless, several important wars were fought in Gaul , against

20895-486: The entire kingdom some time after AD 40 and Verica was expelled from Britain. Caligula may have planned a campaign against the Britons in AD 40, but its execution was unclear: according to Suetonius ' The Twelve Caesars , he drew up his troops in battle formation facing the English Channel and, once his forces had become quite confused, ordered them to gather seashells , referring to them as "plunder from

21094-423: The eruption becoming more frequent over the next four days, but the warnings were not recognized. Reconstructions of the eruption and its effects vary considerably in the details but have the same overall features. The eruption lasted two days. The morning of the first day was perceived as normal by the only eyewitness to leave a surviving document, Pliny the Younger. In the middle of the day, an explosion threw up

21293-548: The eruption in AD 79 in prehistory, including at least three significantly larger; an example is the Avellino eruption around 1800 BC, which engulfed several Bronze Age settlements. Since AD 79, the volcano has also erupted repeatedly, in 172, 203, 222, possibly in 303, 379, 472, 512, 536, 685, 787, around 860, around 900, 968, 991, 999, 1006, 1037, 1049, around 1073, 1139, 1150, and there may have been eruptions in 1270, 1347, and 1500. The volcano erupted again in 1631, six times in

21492-415: The eruptions of Vesuvius have had durations of more than five years; only Mount Etna has had as many long-duration eruptions in the last 270 years. The two most recent eruptions of Vesuvius (1875–1906 and 1913–1944) each lasted more than 30 years. Vesuvius is still regarded as an active volcano, although its current activity produces little more than sulfur-rich steam from vents at the bottom and walls of

21691-561: The fabric control surfaces, the engines, the Plexiglas windscreens and the gun turrets of the 340th's B-25 Mitchell medium bombers. Estimates ranged from 78 to 88 aircraft destroyed. The eruption could be seen from Naples. Different perspectives and the damage caused to the local villages were recorded by USAAF photographers and other personnel based nearer to the volcano. Large Vesuvian eruptions which emit volcanic material in quantities of about 1 cubic kilometre (0.24 cu mi),

21890-562: The failed Jewish rebellion of 66. Substantial conquests were made in Great Britain under the command of Gnaeus Julius Agricola between AD 77 and 83, while Domitian was unable to procure a decisive victory against King Decebalus in the war against the Dacians . In addition, the Empire strengthened its border defenses by expanding the fortifications along the Limes Germanicus . The Flavians also initiated economic and cultural reforms. Under Vespasian, new taxes were devised to restore

22089-457: The failed Pisonian conspiracy of 65. Some modern historians theorize that Titus divorced his wife because of her family's connection to the conspiracy. He never remarried. Titus appears to have had multiple daughters, at least one of them by Marcia Furnilla. The only one known to have survived to adulthood was Julia Flavia , perhaps Titus's child by Arrecina, whose mother was also named Julia. During this period Titus also practiced law and attained

22288-599: The fall of the Republic , the authority of the Roman Senate had largely eroded under the quasi-monarchical system of government established by Augustus , known as the Principate . The Principate allowed the existence of a de facto dictatorial regime, while maintaining the formal framework of the Roman Republic. Most Emperors upheld the public facade of democracy, and in return the Senate implicitly acknowledged

22487-537: The far north. The fortress at Inchtuthil was dismantled before its completion and the other fortifications of the Gask Ridge in Perthshire , erected to consolidate the Roman presence in Scotland in the aftermath of Mons Graupius , were abandoned within the space of a few years. It is equally likely that the costs of a drawn-out war outweighed any economic or political benefit and it was more profitable to leave

22686-440: The fields with pillows tied to their heads to protect them from the raining debris. They approached the beach again, but the wind prevented the ships from leaving. Pliny sat down on a sail that had been spread for him and could not rise even with assistance when his friends departed. Though Pliny the Elder died, his friends ultimately escaped by land. In the first letter to Tacitus, Pliny the Younger suggested that his uncle's death

22885-509: The flanks of the volcano, extending into Mesozoic rock. Cores were dated by potassium–argon and argon–argon dating . The area has been subject to volcanic activity for at least 400,000 years; the lowest layer of eruption material from the Somma caldera lies on top of the 40,000-year‑old Campanian ignimbrite produced by the Campi Flegrei complex. The volcanic complex stands on a large, sedimentary plain. Several surviving works written over

23084-499: The following years, it again became covered with gardens and vineyards as old. Even the inside of the crater was moderately filled with shrubbery. In March 1944, the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) 340th Bombardment Group was based at Pompeii Airfield near Terzigno , Italy, just a few kilometres from the eastern base of the volcano. The tephra and hot ash from multiple days of the eruption damaged

23283-418: The former seashore by the first surge died of thermal shock. The rest were concentrated in arched chambers at a density of as high as three persons per square metre. As only 85 metres (279 ft) of the coast have been excavated, further casualties may be discovered. Since the eruption of AD 79, Vesuvius has erupted around three dozen times. The volcano became quiescent at the end of the 13th century, and in

23482-406: The fort at Pumsaint in west Wales , largely to exploit the gold deposits at Dolaucothi . He left the post in 78, and was later appointed water commissioner in Rome. The new governor was Agricola, returning to Britain, and made famous through the highly laudatory biography of him written by his son-in-law, Tacitus. Arriving in mid-summer of 78, Agricola completed the conquest of Wales in defeating

23681-547: The fort there in AD 72–73. Frontinus was sent into Roman Britain in 74 to succeed Cerialis as governor . He returned to the conquest of Wales interrupted years before and with steady and successful progress finally subdued the Silures (around 76) and other hostile tribes, establishing a new base at Caerleon for Legio II Augusta ( Isca Augusta ) in 75 and a network of smaller forts 15–20 kilometres apart for his auxiliary units. During his tenure, he probably established

23880-681: The frontier further north. Lollius Urbicus moved three legions into position initially establishing his supply routes from Coria and Bremenium and moved three legions, the Legio II Augusta from Caerleon , the Legio VI Victrix from Eboracum , and the Legio XX Valeria Victrix from Deva Victrix into the theatre between 139 and 140 AD, and thereafter moved his army, a force of at least 16,500 men, north of Hadrian's Wall. The Selgovae , having settled in

24079-477: The games. Domitian appears to have met with several conspiracies during his reign, one of which led to his eventual assassination in 96. The first significant revolt arose on 1 January 89, when the governor of Germania Superior , Lucius Antonius Saturninus , and his two legions at Mainz , Legio XIV Gemina and Legio XXI Rapax , rebelled against the Roman Empire with the aid of the Chatti. The precise cause for

24278-528: The glens that provided access to and from the Scottish Highlands , and also throughout the Scottish Lowlands in northeastern Scotland. Agricola built a network of military roads and forts to secure the Roman occupation. Existing forts were strengthened and new ones planted in northeastern Scotland along the Highland Line , consolidating control of the glens that provided access to and from

24477-461: The governor of Syria, against Vitellius. A strong force drawn from the Judaean and Syrian legions marched on Rome under the command of Mucianus, while Vespasian himself traveled to Alexandria , leaving Titus in charge of ending the Jewish rebellion. In Rome, meanwhile, Domitian was placed under house arrest by Vitellius, as a safeguard against future Flavian aggression. Support for the old emperor

24676-490: The helmsman to turn back, he stated, "Fortune favors the brave" and ordered him to continue to Stabiae (about 4.5 km from Pompeii). Pliny the Elder and his party saw what they believed to be flames coming from several parts of the crater. After staying overnight, the party was driven from the building by an accumulation of material, presumably tephra, which threatened to block all egress. They woke Pliny, who had been napping and emitting loud snoring. They elected to take to

24875-521: The imperial family, Domitian erected a dynastic mausoleum on the site of Vespasian's former house on the Quirinal , and completed the Temple of Vespasian and Titus , a shrine dedicated to the worship of his deified father and brother. To memorialize the military triumphs of the Flavian family, he ordered the construction of the Templum Divorum and the Temple of Fortuna Redux , and completed

25074-515: The landscape, including the coastline. Additional light tremors accompanied these and a mild tsunami in the Bay of Naples. By late afternoon of the second day, the eruption was over, leaving only haze in the atmosphere through which the sun shone weakly. The latest scientific studies of the ash produced by Vesuvius reveal a multi-phase eruption. The initial major explosion produced a column of ash and pumice ranging between 15 and 30 kilometres (49,000 and 98,000 ft) high, which rained on Pompeii to

25273-413: The more prestigious patrician gens Vespasia , ensuring the elevation of his sons Titus Flavius Sabinus II and Vespasian to the senatorial rank. Around 38 AD, Vespasian married Domitilla the Elder , the daughter of an equestrian from Ferentium . They had two sons, Titus Flavius Vespasianus (born in 39) and Titus Flavius Domitianus (born in 51), and a daughter, Domitilla (born in 45). Domitilla

25472-474: The most popular tourist attractions of Italy and a UNESCO World Heritage Site . On-going excavations reveal new insights into Roman history and culture. During Titus' second visit to the disaster area, a fire struck Rome which lasted for three days. Although the extent of the damage was not as disastrous as during the Great Fire of 64 , crucially sparing the many districts of insulae , Cassius Dio records

25671-452: The most recent of which overwhelmed Pompeii and Herculaneum, have happened after periods of inactivity of a few thousand years. Sub-Plinian eruptions producing about 0.1 cubic kilometres (0.024 cu mi), such as those of 472 and 1631, have been more frequent with a few hundred years between them. From the 1631 eruption until 1944, there was a comparatively small eruption every few years, emitting 0.001–0.01 km of magma. For Vesuvius,

25870-471: The multitude dispersed when Vitellian cohorts clashed with the armed escort of Sabinus, who was forced to retreat to the Capitoline Hill . During the night, he was joined by his relatives, including Domitian. The armies of Mucianus were nearing Rome, but the besieged Flavian party did not hold out for longer than a day. On 19 December, Vitellianists burst onto the Capitol, and in the resulting skirmish, Sabinus

26069-513: The nearby statue), was begun in 70 under Vespasian and finally completed in 80 under Titus. In addition to providing spectacular entertainments to the Roman populace, the building was conceived as a gigantic triumphal monument to commemorate the military achievements of the Flavians during the Jewish wars . Adjacent to the amphitheatre, within the precinct of Nero's Golden House , Titus also ordered

26268-432: The newly constructed Colosseum, the Flavians provided for spectacular entertainments. The Inaugural games of the Flavian Amphitheatre lasted for a hundred days and were said to be extremely elaborate, including gladiatorial combat , fights between wild animals ( elephants and cranes ), mock naval battles for which the theatre was flooded, horse races and chariot races . During the games, wooden balls were dropped into

26467-555: The ocean due to the Capitol and the Palace ". Alternatively, he may have actually told them to gather "huts", since the word musculi was also soldier's slang for engineers' huts and Caligula himself was very familiar with the Empire's soldiers. In any case this readied the troops and facilities that would make Claudius' invasion possible three years later. For example, Caligula built a lighthouse at Bononia (modern Boulogne-sur-Mer ),

26666-491: The opposition tied to Mucianus, with the mutinous address found on Caecina's body a forgery by Titus. When faced with real conspiracies however, Vespasian and Titus treated their enemies with lenience. "I will not kill a dog that barks at me," were words expressing the temper of Vespasian, while Titus once demonstrated his generosity as Emperor by inviting men who were suspected of aspiring to the throne to dinner, rewarding them with gifts and allowing them to be seated next to him at

26865-474: The other, Titus abandoned the journey to Rome and rejoined his father in Judaea. Otho and Vitellius realised the potential threat posed by the Flavian faction. With four legions at his disposal, Vespasian commanded a strength of nearly 80,000 soldiers. His position in Judaea further granted him the advantage of being nearest to the vital province of Egypt , which controlled the grain supply to Rome . His brother, Titus Flavius Sabinus II, as city prefect, commanded

27064-427: The peak. This cloud and a request by a messenger for an evacuation by sea prompted the elder Pliny to order rescue operations in which he sailed away to participate. His nephew attempted to resume a normal life, but that night a tremor awoke him and his mother, prompting them to abandon the house for the courtyard. Further tremors near dawn caused the population to abandon the village and caused disastrous wave action in

27263-546: The period such as Tacitus , Suetonius , Josephus and Pliny the Elder speak suspiciously well of Vespasian while condemning the emperors that came before him. Tacitus admits that his status was elevated by Vespasian, Josephus identifies Vespasian as a patron and savior, and Pliny dedicated his Natural History to Vespasian's son, Titus. Those that spoke against Vespasian were punished. A number of Stoic philosophers were accused of corrupting students with inappropriate teachings and were expelled from Rome. Helvidius Priscus ,

27462-515: The political situation within Britain was in ferment. The Catuvellauni had displaced the Trinovantes as the most powerful kingdom in south-eastern Britain, taking over the former Trinovantian capital of Camulodunum ( Colchester ). The Atrebates tribe whose capital was at Calleva Atrebatum ( Silchester ) had friendly trade and diplomatic links with Rome and Verica was recognised by Rome as their king, but Caratacus ' Catuvellauni conquered

27661-446: The public of rebellious Vindex . Construction projects bore inscriptions praising Vespasian and condemning previous emperors, and a Temple of Peace was constructed in the forum. The Flavians also controlled public opinion through literature. Vespasian approved histories written under his reign, assuring biases against him were removed, while also giving financial rewards to contemporary writers. The ancient historians that lived through

27860-459: The pumice and ash stopped falling, and the sun shone weakly through the cloud, encouraging Pliny and his mother to return to their home and wait for news of Pliny the Elder. Pliny's uncle, Pliny the Elder, was in command of the Roman fleet at Misenum and had meanwhile decided to investigate the phenomenon at close hand in a light vessel. As the ship was preparing to leave the area, a messenger came from his friend Rectina (wife of Tascius ) living on

28059-735: The pyroclastic flow. The magnetic study revealed that on the first day of the eruption a fall of white pumice containing clastic fragments of up to 3 centimetres (1.2 in) fell for several hours. It heated the roof tiles up to 140 °C (284 °F). This period would have been the last opportunity to escape. The collapse of the Plinian columns on the second day caused pyroclastic density currents (PDCs) that devastated Herculaneum and Pompeii. The depositional temperature of these pyroclastic surges reached up to 300 °C (572 °F). Any population remaining in structural refuges could not have escaped, as gases of incinerating temperatures surrounded

28258-517: The rank of quaestor. In 66, the Jews of the Judaea Province revolted against the Roman Empire . Cestius Gallus , the legate of Syria , was forced to retreat from Jerusalem and defeated at the battle of Beth-Horon . The pro-Roman king Agrippa II and his sister Berenice fled the city to Galilee where they later gave themselves up to the Romans. Nero appointed Vespasian to put down

28457-493: The rebellion is uncertain, although it appears to have been planned well in advance. The senatorial officers may have disapproved of Domitian's military strategies, such as his decision to fortify the German frontier rather than attack, his recent retreat from Britain, and finally the disgraceful policy of appeasement towards Decebalus. At any rate, the uprising was strictly confined to Saturninus' province, and quickly detected once

28656-825: The rebellion was crushed, and its leaders at Mainz savagely punished. The mutinous legions were sent to the front in Illyricum , while those who had assisted in their defeat were duly rewarded. Both Tacitus and Suetonius speak of escalating persecutions toward the end of Domitian's reign, identifying a point of sharp increase around 93, or sometime after the failed revolt of Saturninus in 89. At least twenty senatorial opponents were executed, including Domitia Longina's former husband Lucius Aelius Lamia Plautius Aelianus and three of Domitian's own family members, Titus Flavius Sabinus IV , Titus Flavius Clemens and Marcus Arrecinus Clemens . Some of these men were executed as early as 83 or 85, however, lending little credit to Tacitus' notion of

28855-471: The rebellion, and dispatched him to the region at once with the fifth and tenth legions . He was later joined by Titus at Ptolemais , bringing with him the fifteenth legion . With a strength of 60,000 professional soldiers, the Romans quickly swept across Galilee, and by 68 marched on Jerusalem. On 9 June 68, amidst the growing opposition of the Senate and the army, Nero committed suicide , and with him

29054-416: The region and continued. The facts behind the tradition, if any, remain unknown, as does whether Herculaneum was named after it. An epigram by the poet Martial in 88 AD suggests that both Venus , patroness of Pompeii, and Hercules were worshipped in the region devastated by the eruption of 79. Vesuvius was a name of the volcano in frequent use by the authors of the late Roman Republic and

29253-478: The region were built to consolidate Roman presence (Beckfoot for example may date from the late 1st century). A fort at Troutbeck may have been established from the period of Emperor Trajan ( r.   98–117) onwards. Other forts that may have been established during this period include Ambleside ( Galava ), positioned to take advantage of ship-borne supply to the forts of the Lake District . From here,

29452-458: The regions of present-day Kirkcudbrightshire and Dumfriesshire immediately northwest of Hadrian's Wall, were amongst the first of the Caledonian tribes to face Lollius Urbicus's legions together with the Otadini . The Romans, who were well versed in warfare on hilly terrain since their founding, moved quickly to occupy strategic points and high ground, some of which had already been fortified by

29651-428: The regular White, Red, Green and Blue teams. The Flavians, although a relatively short-lived dynasty, helped restore stability to an empire on its knees. Although all three have been criticised, especially based on their more centralised style of rule, they issued reforms that created a stable enough empire to last well into the 3rd century. However, their background as a military dynasty led to further marginalisation of

29850-457: The representative of the Flavian family in the Senate. Upon receiving the tidings of his rival's defeat and death at Alexandria , the new Emperor at once forwarded supplies of urgently needed grain to Rome, along with an edict or a declaration of policy, in which he gave assurance of an entire reversal of the laws of Nero, especially those relating to treason . In early 70, Vespasian was still in Egypt, however, continuing to consolidate support from

30049-471: The reverse portraits. Jones estimates Domitian's annual income at more than 1,200 million sestertii , of which over one-third would presumably have been spent on maintaining the Roman army. The other major area of expenditure encompassed the vast reconstruction programme carried out on the city of Rome itself. The most significant military campaign undertaken during the Flavian period was the siege and destruction of Jerusalem in 70 by Titus. The destruction of

30248-550: The rumour spread across the neighbouring provinces. The governor of Germania Inferior , Lappius Maximus , moved to the region at once, assisted by the procurator of Rhaetia , Titus Flavius Norbanus . From Spain, Trajan was summoned, whilst Domitian himself came from Rome with the Praetorian Guard. By a stroke of luck, a thaw prevented the Chatti from crossing the Rhine and coming to Saturninus' aid. Within twenty-four days

30447-442: The scattered bones of another 100. The remains of about 332 bodies have been found at Herculaneum (300 in arched vaults discovered in 1980). What percentage these numbers are of the total dead or the percentage of the dead to the total number at risk remain unknown. Thirty-eight percent of the 1,044 were found in the ash fall deposits, the majority inside buildings. These are thought to have been killed mainly by roof collapses, with

30646-487: The sea by the British fleet, the Rhine fleet and two fleets transferred from the Danube for the purpose. According to Dio Cassius , he inflicted genocidal depredations on the natives and incurred the loss of 50,000 of his own men to the attrition of guerrilla tactics before having to withdraw to Hadrian's Wall. He repaired and reinforced the wall with a degree of thoroughness that led most subsequent Roman authors to attribute

30845-405: The secondary force under Claudius sailed from Boulogne it does not necessarily follow that the entire invasion force did. Richborough had a large natural harbour, which would have been suitable, and archaeology shows Roman military occupation at about the right time. However Dio says the Romans sailed east to west, and a journey from Boulogne to Richborough is south to north. Some historians suggest

31044-411: The shore. It is one of several volcanoes forming the Campanian volcanic arc . Vesuvius consists of a large cone partially encircled by the steep rim of a summit caldera , resulting from the collapse of an earlier, much higher structure. The eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD destroyed the Roman cities of Pompeii , Herculaneum , Oplontis , Stabiae and other settlements. The eruption ejected

31243-411: The shores of Argyll , or to both. In 83 and 84, he moved north along Scotland's eastern and northern coasts using both land and naval forces, campaigning successfully against the inhabitants and winning a significant victory over the northern British peoples led by Calgacus at the Battle of Mons Graupius . Archaeology has shown the Romans built military camps in the north along Gask Ridge , controlling

31442-445: The smaller number of victims found outside of buildings probably being killed by falling roof slates or by larger rocks thrown out by the volcano. The remaining 62% of remains found at Pompeii were in the pyroclastic surge deposits, and thus were probably killed by them – probably from a combination of suffocation from inhaling ashes and blast and debris thrown around. Examination of cloth, frescoes and skeletons shows that, in contrast to

31641-461: The soldiers of the Praetorian Guard —the imperial bodyguard —considered such a resignation disgraceful, and prevented Vitellius from carrying out the treaty. On the morning of 18 December, the emperor appeared to deposit the imperial insignia at the Temple of Concord , but at the last minute retraced his steps to the imperial palace. In the confusion, the leading men of the state gathered at Sabinus' house, proclaiming Vespasian Emperor, but

31840-489: The sources to have been involved in the invasion. Cassius Dio mentions Gnaeus Hosidius Geta , who probably led the IX Hispana , and Vespasian's brother Titus Flavius Sabinus the Younger . He wrote that Sabinus was Vespasian's lieutenant, but as Sabinus was the older brother and preceded Vespasian into public life, he could hardly have been a military tribune . Eutropius mentions Gnaeus Sentius Saturninus , although as

32039-478: The southeast but not on Herculaneum upwind. The chief energy supporting the column came from the escape of steam superheated by the magma, created from seawater seeping over time into the deep faults of the region, which interacted with magma. Subsequently, the cloud collapsed as the gases expanded and lost their capability to support their solid contents, releasing it as a pyroclastic surge, which first reached Herculaneum but not Pompeii. Additional blasts reinstituted

32238-464: The summer and autumn. Later excursions into Scotland by the Romans were generally limited to the scouting expeditions of exploratores in the buffer zone that developed between the walls, trading contacts, bribes to purchase truces from the natives, and eventually the spread of Christianity. The degree to which the Romans interacted with the Goidelic -speaking island of Hibernia (modern Ireland )

32437-518: The surrender of eleven British kings with no losses, and Suetonius' The Twelve Caesars says that Claudius received the surrender of the Britons without battle or bloodshed. It is likely that the Catuvellauni were already as good as beaten, allowing the emperor to appear as conqueror on the final march on Camulodunum. Cassius Dio relates that he brought war elephants and heavy armaments which would have overawed any remaining native resistance. Eleven tribes of South East Britain surrendered to Claudius and

32636-414: The surviving copies of the letters. The latest evidence supports earlier findings and indicates that the eruption occurred after 17 October. The volcano ejected a cloud of stones , ashes and volcanic gases to a height of 33 km (21 mi), spewing molten rock and pulverized pumice at the rate of 6 × 10 cubic metres (7.8 × 10  cu yd) per second, ultimately releasing 100,000 times

32835-541: The throne, he moved quickly to reverse the empire limit system put in place by his predecessor. Following his defeat of the Brigantes in 139 AD, Quintus Lollius Urbicus , the Roman Governor of Britannia , was ordered by Antoninus Pius to march north of Hadrian's Wall to conquer the Caledonian Lowlands which were settled by the Otadini , Selgovae , Damnonii and the Novantae , and to push

33034-420: The title of Caesar , and the mass of troops conducted him to his father's house. The following day, 21 December, the Senate proclaimed Vespasian emperor of the Roman Empire. Although the war had officially ended, a state of anarchy and lawlessness pervaded in the first days following the demise of Vitellius. Order was properly restored by Mucianus in early 70, who headed an interim government with Domitian as

33233-415: The tribute of the provinces, and kept a watchful eye upon the treasury officials. The Latin proverb " Pecunia non olet " ("Money does not smell") may have been created when he had introduced a urine tax on public toilets. Upon his accession, Domitian revalued the Roman coinage to the standard of Augustus, increasing the silver content of the denarius by 12%. An imminent crisis in 85, however, forced

33432-399: The victims found at Herculaneum, it is unlikely that high temperatures were a significant cause of the destruction at Pompeii. Herculaneum, much closer to the crater, was saved from tephra falls by the wind direction but was buried under 23 metres (75 ft) of material deposited by pyroclastic surges. Likely, most of the known victims in this town were killed by the surges. People caught on

33631-414: The view of Domitian as a cruel and paranoid tyrant. Modern history has rejected these views, instead characterising Domitian as a ruthless but efficient autocrat, whose cultural, economic and political programme provided the foundation for the Principate of the peaceful 2nd century. His successors Nerva and Trajan were less restrictive, but in reality their policies differed little from Domitian's. Since

33830-485: The volcano erupted. The deaths of 600 sheep from "tainted air" in the vicinity of Pompeii indicates that the earthquake of AD 62 may have been related to new activity by Vesuvius. The Romans grew accustomed to minor earth tremors in the region; the writer Pliny the Younger even wrote that they "were not particularly alarming because they are frequent in Campania". Small earthquakes started taking place four days before

34029-407: The volume of gas increasing explosively from nothing to perhaps many times that of the accompanying magma. Additionally, the removal of the higher melting point material will raise the concentration of felsic components such as silicates , potentially making the magma more viscous , adding to the explosive nature of the eruption. The government emergency plan for an eruption therefore assumes that

34228-429: The worst case will be an eruption of similar size and type to the 1631 VEI 4 eruption. In this scenario, the volcano's slopes, extending out to about 7 kilometres (4.3 mi) from the vent, may be exposed to pyroclastic surges sweeping down them, whilst much of the surrounding area could suffer from tephra falls. Because of prevailing winds , towns and cities south and east of the volcano are most at risk from this. It

34427-468: Was assassinated . He was succeeded by the longtime Flavian supporter and advisor Marcus Cocceius Nerva , who founded the long-lived Nerva–Antonine dynasty . The Flavian dynasty was unique among the four dynasties of the Principate Era, in that it was only one man and his two sons, without any extended or adopted family. Decades of civil war during the 1st century BC had contributed greatly to

34626-463: Was subducted at a convergent boundary beneath the latter, deeper into the earth. As the water-saturated sediments of the African oceanic plate were pushed to hotter depths inside the planet, the water boiled off and lowered the melting point of the upper mantle enough to partially melt the rocks. Because magma is less dense than the solid rock around it, it was pushed upward. Finding a weak spot at

34825-455: Was a military tribune in Germania , and later served in Britannia . His first wife, Arrecina Tertulla, died two years after their marriage, in 65. Titus then took a new wife of a more distinguished family, Marcia Furnilla. However, Marcia's family was closely linked to the opposition to Emperor Nero. Her uncle Barea Soranus and his daughter Servilia were among those who were killed after

35024-455: Was abandoned in 162 and only subsequently re-occupied on an occasional basis. Meanwhile, the Romans retreated to the earlier and stronger Hadrian's Wall. Roman troops, however, penetrated far into the north of modern Scotland several more times. Indeed, there is a greater density of Roman marching camps in Scotland than anywhere else in Europe as a result of at least four major attempts to subdue

35223-473: Was augmented by large forts as at Vindolanda and additional forts at half-day marching intervals were built at Newbrough , Magnis (Carvoran) and Brampton Old Church . The years 87–117 were of consolidation and only a few sites north of the Stanegate line were maintained, while the signs are that an orderly withdrawal to the Solway-Tyne line was made. There does not seem to have been any rout caused as

35422-414: Was captured and executed. Domitian himself managed to escape by disguising himself as a worshipper of Isis , and spent the night in safety with one of his father's supporters. By the afternoon of 20 December, Vitellius was dead, his armies having been defeated by the Flavian legions. With nothing more to be feared from the enemy, Domitian came forward to meet the invading forces; he was universally saluted by

35621-409: Was continuously met with conspiracies against him. Only one conspiracy is known specifically. In 78 or 79, Eprius Marcellus and Aulus Caecina Alienus attempted to incite the Praetorian Guard to mutiny against Vespasian, but the conspiracy was thwarted by Titus. According to the historian John Crook, however, the alleged conspiracy was in fact a calculated plot by the Flavian faction to remove members of

35820-637: Was directly attested to have taken part. The IX Hispana , the XIV Gemina (later styled Martia Victrix ) and the XX (later styled Valeria Victrix ) are known to have served during the Boudican revolt of 60–61, and were probably there since the initial invasion, but the Roman army was flexible, with cohorts and auxiliary units being moved around whenever necessary. Three other men of appropriate rank to command legions are known from

36019-399: Was due to the reaction of his weak lungs to a cloud of poisonous, sulphurous gas that wafted over the group. However, Stabiae was 16 km from the vent (roughly where the modern town of Castellammare di Stabia is situated), and his companions were unaffected by the volcanic gases. It is more likely that the corpulent Pliny died from another cause, such as a stroke or heart attack. His body

36218-492: Was enlarged by later paroxysmal eruptions, ending in the one of AD 79. This structure has given its name to the term " somma volcano ", which describes any volcano with a summit caldera surrounding a newer cone. The cliffs forming the northern ridge of Monte Somma's caldera rim reach a maximum height of 1,132 m (3,714 ft) at Punta Nasone. The summit of the main cone of Vesuvius is 1,281 m (4,203 ft) above sea level and more than 400 m (1,300 ft) above

36417-475: Was fixed with modern precision during this period. Late in 47 the new governor of Britain, Publius Ostorius Scapula , began a campaign against the tribes of modern-day Wales , and the Cheshire Gap . The Silures of southeast Wales caused considerable problems to Ostorius and fiercely defended their border country. Caratacus himself led this guerilla campaign but was defeated when he finally chose to offer

36616-491: Was found with no apparent injuries the next day, after dispersal of the plume. Along with Pliny the Elder, the only other noble casualties of the eruption to be known by name were Agrippa (a son of the Herodian Jewish princess Drusilla and the procurator Antonius Felix ) and his wife. By 2003, around 1,044 casts made from impressions of bodies in the ash deposits had been recovered in and around Pompeii, with

36815-508: Was given command of the Praetorian Guard . Because Titus effectively acted as co-emperor with his father, no abrupt change in Flavian policy occurred during his brief reign from 79 until 81. Domitian's approach to government was less subtle than his father and brother. Once Emperor, he quickly dispensed with the Republican facade and transformed his government more or less formally into the divine monarchy he believed it to be. By moving

37014-470: Was immediately succeeded by his eldest son Titus. The ancient historians that lived through the period such as Tacitus , Suetonius , Josephus and Pliny the Elder speak well of Vespasian while condemning the emperors that came before him. Despite initial concerns over his character, Titus ruled to great acclaim following the death of Vespasian on 23 June 79, and was considered a good emperor by Suetonius and other contemporary historians. In this role he

37213-585: Was intended to be the crowning achievement of an Empire-wide cultural renaissance. Around fifty structures were erected, restored or completed, a number second only to the amount erected under Augustus. Among the most important new structures were an Odeum , a Stadium , and an expansive palace on the Palatine Hill , known as the Flavian Palace , which was designed by Domitian's master architect Rabirius . The most important building Domitian restored

37412-406: Was keen to avoid what he considered a difficult and drawn-out war for little material gain in the mountainous terrain of upland Britain. When Nero became emperor in 54, he seems to have decided to continue the invasion and appointed Quintus Veranius as governor, a man experienced in dealing with the troublesome hill tribes of Anatolia . Veranius and his successor Gaius Suetonius Paulinus mounted

37611-425: Was killed, and the battle standard of the Praetorian Guard lost. In 87, the Romans invaded Dacia once more, this time under command of Tettius Julianus , and finally managed to defeat Decebalus late in 88, at the same site where Fuscus had previously been killed. An attack on Dacia's capital was abandoned, however, when a crisis arose on the German frontier, forcing Domitian to sign a peace treaty with Decebalus which

37810-509: Was lost for nearly 1700 years before its accidental rediscovery in 1748. Since then, its excavation has provided an extraordinarily detailed insight into the life of a city at the height of the Roman Empire, frozen at the moment it was buried. The Forum , the baths , many houses, and some out-of-town villas like the Villa of the Mysteries remain surprisingly well preserved. Today, it is one of

38009-629: Was recruited in Italia , Hispania , and Gaul and used the newly-formed fleet Classis Britannica . Under their general Aulus Plautius , the Romans pushed inland from the southeast, defeating the Britons in the Battle of the Medway . By AD 47, the Romans held the lands southeast of the Fosse Way . British resistance was led by the chieftain Caratacus until his defeat in AD 50. The isle of Mona ,

38208-531: Was sent north towards Lincoln ( Latin : Lindum Colonia ) and by 47 it is likely that an area south of a line from the Humber to the Severn Estuary was under Roman control. That this line is followed by the Roman road of the Fosse Way has led many historians to debate the route's role as a convenient frontier during the early occupation. It is unlikely that the border between Roman and Iron Age Britain

38407-453: Was severely criticized by contemporary authors. For the remainder of Domitian's reign Dacia remained a relatively peaceful client kingdom , but Decebalus used the Roman money to fortify his defenses, and continued to defy Rome. It was not until the reign of Trajan , in 106, that a decisive victory against Decebalus was procured. Again, the Roman army sustained heavy losses, but Trajan succeeded in capturing Sarmizegetusa and, importantly, annexed

38606-408: Was spent on public works and the restoration and beautification of Rome: a new forum, the Temple of Peace, the public baths and the Colosseum. Titus's record among ancient historians stands as one of the most exemplary of any emperor. All the surviving accounts from this period, many of them written by his own contemporaries such as Suetonius Tranquillus , Cassius Dio , and Pliny the Elder , present

38805-430: Was spoken there at the time. Naples was settled by Greeks, as the name Nea-polis , "New City", testifies. The Oscans , an Italic people, lived in the countryside. The Latins also competed for the occupation of Campania. Etruscan settlements were in the vicinity. Other peoples of unknown provenance are said to have been there at some time by various ancient authors. Some theories about its origin are: Vesuvius

39004-584: Was the First Jewish-Roman War , which ended in the destruction of the city of Jerusalem by Titus. In addition, Vespasian faced several uprisings in Egypt, Gaul and Germania, and reportedly survived several conspiracies against him. Vespasian helped rebuild Rome after the civil war, adding a temple to peace and beginning construction of the Flavian Amphitheatre, better known as the Colosseum . Vespasian died of natural causes on 23 June 79, and

39203-414: Was the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill , which was said to have been covered with a gilded roof. Among those he completed were the Temple of Vespasian and Titus , the Arch of Titus , and the Colosseum, to which he added a fourth level and finished the interior seating area. Both Titus and Domitian were fond of gladiatorial games, and realised its importance to appease the citizens of Rome. In

39402-494: Was the chief of the Brigantes (or Carvetii) west of the Pennines in Cumbria (with a possible centre based at Clifton Dykes .) Cartimandua was forced to ask for Roman aid following a rebellion by Venutius in 69. The Romans evacuated Cartimandua leaving Venutius in power. Tacitus says that in 71 Quintus Petillius Cerialis (governor AD 71–74) waged a successful war against the Brigantes . Tacitus praises both Cerialis and his successor, Julius Frontinus (governor 75–78). Much of

39601-474: Was waning, however, as more legions throughout the empire pledged their allegiance to Vespasian. On 24 October 69 the forces of Vitellius and Vespasian clashed at the Second Battle of Bedriacum , which ended in a crushing defeat for the armies of Vitellius. In despair, he attempted to negotiate a surrender. Terms of peace, including a voluntary abdication, were agreed upon with Titus Flavius Sabinus II, but

#398601