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101-634: Henry Flagler (1830–1913) was a principal in Rockefeller, Andrews & Flagler and later a founder of Standard Oil during the Gilded Age in the United States . The wealthy Flagler took an interest in Florida while seeking a warmer climate for his ailing first wife in the late 1870s. Returning to Florida in 1881, he became the builder and developer of resort hotels and railroads along

202-487: A caregiver for Mary. After their wedding, the couple traveled to Saint Augustine . Flagler found the city charming, but the hotel facilities and transportation systems inadequate. Franklin W. Smith had just finished building Villa Zorayda and Flagler offered to buy it for his honeymoon. Smith would not sell, but he planted the seed of St. Augustine's and Florida's future in Flagler's mind. Although Flagler remained on

303-480: A grain merchant . Equivalent to a 15% discount, they put Standard Oil in position to significantly undercut other oil refineries. By 1872, it led the American oil refining industry, producing 10,000 barrels per day (1,600 m /d). In 1877, Flagler and his family moved to New York City , which was becoming the center of commerce in the U.S.. In 1885, Standard Oil moved its corporate headquarters to New York City to

404-879: A 55-room beaux arts home designed by the New York-based firm of Carrère and Hastings , which also had designed the New York Public Library and the Pan-American Exposition . Built in 1902 as a wedding present to Mary Lily, Whitehall (now the Flagler Museum ) was a 60,000-square-foot (5,600 m ) winter retreat that established the Palm Beach "season" of about 8–12 weeks, for the wealthy of America's Gilded Age . By 1905, Flagler decided that his Florida East Coast Railway should be extended from Biscayne Bay to Key West ,

505-633: A commission agent with Hewitt and Tuttle for the Harkness Grain Company. By the mid-1860s, Cleveland had become the center of the oil refining industry in America and Rockefeller left the grain business to start his own oil refinery. Rockefeller worked in association with chemist and inventor Samuel Andrews . Needing capital for his new venture, Rockefeller approached Flagler in 1867. Flagler's stepbrother Stephen V. Harkness invested $ 100,000 (equivalent to $ 2.18 million in 2023 ) on

606-804: A deluxe parlor-observation car . It was a popular train for vacationers traveling to the various fishing camps in the Keys. The Caribbean Mail also operated over the line. Much of the Overseas Railroad in the Middle Keys was heavily damaged and partially destroyed in the Labor Day Hurricane of 1935 , a Category 5 hurricane which is often called "The Storm of the Century". The storm killed more than 400 people and devastated Long Key and adjacent areas. The FEC's Long Key Fishing Camp

707-454: A ground for divorce in Florida. It remains a ground today, but since Florida became a "no fault" divorce state in 1971, there is less need to use that ground to obtain a divorce (dissolution of marriage). On August 24, 1901, 10 days after his divorce, Flagler married Mary Lily at her family's plantation, Liberty Hall , and the couple soon moved into their new Palm Beach estate, Whitehall,

808-400: A high-volume shipper, which included not just steep rebates of up to 50% for their product but also rebates for the shipment of competing products. Part of this scheme was the announcement of sharply increased freight charges. This touched off a firestorm of protest from independent oil well owners, including boycotts and vandalism, which eventually led to the discovery of Standard Oil's part in

909-550: A leisurely four and a half hours to travel the distance between Key West and Miami: northbound, the Havana Special departed Key West at 6 p.m., for a 10:45 p.m. departure from Miami. Another train, the Over-Sea , operated locally between Miami and Key West during daylight hours, leaving Miami at 11:05 a.m. and arriving at Key West 4:35 p.m. During the winter months, the Over-Sea 's consist included

1010-542: A passenger train as the rearmost carriage, with windows or a platform on the rear of the car for passengers' viewing pleasure. The cars were nearly universally removed from service on American railroads beginning in the 1950s as a cost-cutting measure in order to eliminate the need to "turn" the trains when operating out of stub-end terminals. The push-pull mode of operation removes this limitation. In Europe, various trains are now fitted with observation cars at either or both ends. The main spotting feature of observation cars

1111-451: A personal secretary perhaps and the line's vice president, a locked china/silver/liquor cabinet along the final dividing wall facing a large open multipurpose salon. The salon was often fitted with fold down overhead bunks above a retractable dining/conference table over sub-deck storage, a conductor's desk with secured storage for train log, wine log, and merchant's account books along with relevant gauges such as air pressure and speedometer at

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1212-523: A point 128 miles (206 km) past the end of the Florida peninsula. At the time, Key West was Florida's most populous city, with a population of 20,000, and it was also the United States' deep water port closest to the canal that the U.S. government proposed to build in Panama . Flagler wanted to take advantage of additional trade with Cuba and Latin America as well as the increased trade with

1313-418: A policy of active silence with the press, they decided to make themselves more accessible and responded with conciliatory comments such as "capital and labor are both wild forces which require intelligent legislation to hold them in restriction." Flagler and Rockefeller continued to consolidate their oil interests as best they could until New Jersey, in 1909, changed its incorporation laws to effectively allow

1414-573: A re-creation of the trust in the form of a single holding company . Rockefeller retained his nominal title as president until 1911 and he kept his stock. At last in 1911, the Supreme Court of the United States found Standard Oil Company of New Jersey in violation of the Sherman Antitrust Act . By then the trust still had a 70% market share of the refined oil market but only 14% of the U.S. crude oil supply. The court ruled that

1515-473: A result, Flagler and Rockefeller and their associates owned dozens of separate corporations, each of which operated in just one state; the management of the whole enterprise was rather unwieldy. In 1882, Flagler and Rockefeller's lawyers created an innovative form of corporation to centralize their holdings, giving birth to the Standard Oil Trust. The " trust " was a corporation of corporations, and

1616-710: A royal family or film stars would use the open observation car end as a stage from which they would greet well-wishers and fans during public tours. In more recent years, presidents Jimmy Carter , George H. W. Bush , Bill Clinton , and Barack Obama have used a heavyweight observation car built by the Pullman Standard Company in 1930. This car is the Georgia 300 . While the cars manufactured by companies such as Pullman-Standard conformed to somewhat standard designs , some railroads created their own distinctive designs for observation ends. For example,

1717-538: A secondary role at Standard Oil. He served as a vice president through 1908 and was part of ownership until 1911. When Flagler's first wife Mary (née Harkness) fell sick, his physician recommended they travel to Jacksonville for the winter to escape the brutal conditions of the North. For the first time, Flagler was able to experience the warm, sunny atmosphere of Florida. Two years after his first wife died in 1881, he married again. Ida Alice (née Shourds) Flagler had been

1818-433: A self-sustaining/self-reliant car whether on the road or on a siding while making track orders. This variety of features is easy to spot with a variety of window placement and sizes, while observation car windows tend to be more uniform in size and placement. Among North American railroads, their observation cars often featured any of a variety of upcharge revenue seating, reserved sitting/drawing rooms or sleeper roomettes in

1919-539: A store in Republic, Ohio . He recruited Henry Flagler to join him, and the youth went to Ohio at age 14, where he started work in 1844 at a salary of US$ 5 per month plus room and board . By 1849, Flagler was promoted to the sales staff at a salary of $ 40 per month. He later joined Daniel in a grain business started with his uncle Lamon in Bellevue, Ohio , and made a small fortune distilling whiskey. He sold his stake in

2020-614: A subsidiary to buy and build oil refineries and pipelines. This subsidiary, the Empire Transportation Company , which Joseph D. Potts created in 1865 and also ran, owned other assets including a small fleet of ships on the Great Lakes . Standard countered and held back its shipments and, with the help of other railroads, started a price war that dramatically reduced freight payments and caused labor unrest as well. Flagler and Rockefeller eventually prevailed and

2121-556: A trading post on the Miami River . Such incentive led to the development of Miami, which was an unincorporated area at the time. Flagler encouraged fruit farming and settlement along his railway line and made many gifts to build hospitals, churches and schools in Florida. By 1896, Flagler's railroad, the Florida East Coast Railway, reached Biscayne Bay . Flagler dredged a channel, built streets, instituted

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2222-460: A valuable lesson: invest in a business only after thorough investigation. After the failure of his salt business in Saginaw, Flagler returned to Bellevue in 1866 and reentered the grain business as a commission merchant with the Harkness Grain Company. During this time he worked to pay back his stepbrother. Through this business, Flagler became acquainted with John D. Rockefeller , who worked as

2323-408: Is at the "B" end (tail) of the car; the walls of lightweight and streamlined cars usually round together to form a tapered U shape, smoothly or with a door, and larger panoramic windows were installed all around the end of the car. On older heavyweight cars, the rear end of the car consisted of an enlarged, canopied porch-like open vestibule platform area, with the door and enlarged windows set back into

2424-643: Is open to the public as the Henry Morrison Flagler Museum ; his private railcar No. 91 is preserved inside a Beaux Arts pavilion built to look like a 19th-century railway palace. On February 24, 2006, a statue of Flagler was unveiled in Key West near the spot where the Overseas Railroad once terminated. Also, on July 28, 2006, a statue of Flagler was unveiled on the southeast steps of Miami's Dade County Courthouse, located on Miami's Flagler Street . The Overseas Railroad , also known as

2525-576: Is the easiest place for many men to gain a living. I do not believe any one else would develop it if I do not..., but I do hope to live long enough to prove I am a good business man by getting a dividend on my investment." Flagler allegedly used convicts leased from Florida prison camps, the majority of them African-American, to clear land for the Royal Palm Hotel in Miami and to build the Florida East Coast Railway from West Palm Beach to Miami and

2626-508: The New York World , Standard Oil was "the most cruel, impudent, pitiless, and grasping monopoly that ever fastened upon a country." To the critics Flagler and Rockefeller replied, "In a business so large as ours... some things are likely to be done which we cannot approve. We correct them as soon as they come to our knowledge." At that time, many legislatures had made it difficult to incorporate in one state and operate in another. As

2727-666: The Chesapeake and Ohio Railway for the Chessie which never went into service. The C&O cars were sold to the Denver & Rio Grande and ran on the Royal Gorge . As described above, the observation car on scheduled passenger trains has largely fallen victim to increased operational costs. An outstanding exception is Via Rail 's Canadian , which still operates on every triweekly trip between Toronto and Vancouver with

2828-796: The Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad , the Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad , and the Western Pacific Railroad for use on their joint California Zephyr , and the Canadian Pacific Railway for The Canadian and The Dominion . The WP touted this combination car type as "the best of both worlds" in passenger amenities. Budd also built observation cars for the Wabash Railroad for their Blue Bird trains between Chicago and St. Louis, and for

2929-749: The Florida East Coast Railway . He is also known as a co-founder and major investor of the cities of Miami and Palm Beach, Florida . Flagler was born in Hopewell, New York . His father was Isaac Flagler, a Presbyterian minister and great-grandson of Zacharra Flegler, whose family had emigrated from the German Palatinate region to Holland in 1688. Zacharra worked in England for several years before moving to Dutchess County, New York , in 1710. His grandson Solomon changed

3030-701: The Florida Keys Overseas Heritage Trail . It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1979 as Overseas Highway and Railway Bridges . Henry Flagler Henry Morrison Flagler (January 2, 1830 – May 20, 1913) was an American industrialist and a founder of Standard Oil , which was first based in Ohio. He was also a key figure in the development of the Atlantic coast of Florida and founder of

3131-517: The Great Depression hit, passenger traffic consisted of both local and long distance trains. In 1929, the Havana Special was the premier train, providing year-round coach and sleeping car service between New York and Key West, daily except Sundays, with connecting ferry service beyond to the Cuban capital. With speed restricted to 15 miles per hour (24 km/h) on the long bridges, it took

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3232-479: The Milwaukee Road ’s passenger trains were often rounded out with either a " Skytop Lounge " or a finned " Beavertail observation " the latter due to noted industrial designer Otto Kuhler . The Milwaukee's observations were easily recognizable as the observation end of the cars were not only rounded, but also slanted toward the front of the car, often with windows extending up from the normal window height to

3333-538: The 1980s, when the Bingham family sold the newspaper in the midst of great acrimony. Control of the Flagler fortune largely passed into the hands of Mary Lily Kenan's family of sisters and brother, who survived into the 1960s. Observation car An observation car/carriage/coach (in US English, often abbreviated to simply observation or obs ) is a type of railroad passenger car , generally operated in

3434-454: The A end;) the normally locked center communicating door to a corridor along one side, leading to the salon with doors to a pantry and small galley which was often convertible to a dormitory for the chef and porter/steward at night with cutting board covering a sink, a combination oven/stove/hot-water-tank/steam-heating-boiler and diminished side door for loading supplies, then a private restroom/bathing-room, one or two deluxe private rooms for

3535-607: The Flagler-owned The Florida Times-Union and other Florida newspapers depending on the Times-Union for material or owned by Flagler published articles to "influence juries and public opinion." The judge instructed the jury to find them not guilty because the "prosecution had failed to prove 'an agreement of minds with evil intent to conspire'." A congressional investigation in 1909 concluded that "there had been little immigrant peonage in

3636-629: The Key West Extension of the Florida East Coast Railway, was heavily damaged and partially destroyed in the Labor Day Hurricane of 1935 . The railroad was financially unable to rebuild the destroyed sections, so the roadbed and remaining bridges were sold to the State of Florida, which built the Overseas Highway to Key West, using much of the remaining railway infrastructure . Flagler's third wife, Mary Lily Kenan Flagler Bingham

3737-560: The Overseas Railroad required many engineering innovations as well as vast amounts of labor and monetary resources. Once the decision was made to move forward with the project, Flagler sent his engineer William J. Krome to survey potential routes for the railroad. The initially favored route extended the railroad from Homestead southwest through the Everglades to Cape Sable, where it would then cross 25 miles (40 km) of open water to Big Pine Key and then continue to Key West. However, it

3838-481: The Sherman Antitrust Act and coaxed reforms out of Congress. In 1901, U.S. Steel , now controlled by J. Pierpont Morgan , having bought Andrew Carnegie 's steel assets, offered to buy Standard's iron interests as well. A deal brokered by Henry Clay Frick exchanged Standard's iron interests for U.S. Steel stock and gave Rockefeller and his son membership on the company's board of directors. One of

3939-463: The South and none in the ... [railway camps] camps in the Keys. Congress concluded that newspapers in Florida and across the South spread the deceitful news against Flagler." According to historian Joe Knetsch, reformers and muckrakers exaggerated charges of peonage regarding construction of the Florida East Coast Railway in 1893 to 1909. Flager and his lawyers defeated all legal challenges and neither

4040-421: The State of Florida, which built the Overseas Highway to Key West, using much of the remaining railway infrastructure. Many of the original bridges were replaced during the 1980s. The Overseas Highway ( U.S. 1 , which runs from Key West to Fort Kent, Maine) continues to provide a highway link to Key West. Many old concrete bridges of the Overseas Railroad remain in use as fishing piers and pedestrian paths called

4141-571: The U.S., then into gasoline for automobiles, which until then had been considered a waste product. Standard Oil moved its headquarters to New York City, at 26 Broadway, and Flagler and Rockefeller became central figures in the city's business community. In 1887, Congress created the Interstate Commerce Commission , which was tasked with enforcing equal rates for all railroad freight, but by then Standard depended more on pipeline transport. More threatening to Standard's power

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4242-516: The United States such as United States Railcar No. 1, the Ferdinand Magellan . On a whistle stop train tour the candidate's train would pull into town and stop with the observation end at the station, then the candidate would appear on the observation platform to deliver his " stump speech ". The observation platform made a perfect temporary stage for just such an event. Like political candidates, famous personalities such as members of

4343-514: The abundant and cheaper Russian oil fields, including the region's first pipeline and the world's first oil tanker. The Paris Rothschilds jumped into the fray providing financing. Additional fields were discovered in Burma and Java. Even more critical, the invention of the light bulb gradually began to erode the dominance of kerosene for illumination. But Standard Oil adapted, developing its own European presence, expanding into natural gas production in

4444-507: The board of directors of Standard Oil, he gave up his day-to-day involvement in the corporation to pursue his interests in Florida. He returned to St. Augustine in 1885 and made Smith an offer. If Smith could raise $ 50,000, Flagler would invest $ 150,000 and they would build a hotel together. Perhaps fortunately for Smith, he couldn't come up with the funds, so Flagler began construction of the 540-room Ponce de Leon Hotel by himself, but spent several times his original estimate. Smith helped train

4545-428: The books so they could see what they were up against and make them a decent offer. If they refused the offer, Flagler and Rockefeller told them they would run them into bankruptcy and then cheaply buy up their assets at auction. Flagler and Rockefeller saw themselves as the industry's saviors, "an angel of mercy" absorbing the weak and making the industry as a whole stronger, more efficient, and more competitive. Standard

4646-753: The business in 1858. In 1862, Flagler and his wife's brother-in-law Barney Hamlin York (1833–1884) founded the Flagler and York Salt Company, a salt mining and production business in Saginaw, Michigan . He found that salt mining required more technical knowledge than he had and struggled in the industry during the Civil War. The company collapsed when the war undercut commercial demand for salt. Flagler returned to Bellevue having lost his initial $ 50,000 investment and an additional $ 50,000 he had borrowed from his father-in-law and Daniel. Flagler believed that he had learned

4747-448: The car, giving wind-wing shelter from the draft. Whether old or new there was frequently a large open lounge in the B end where passengers could enjoy the view as they watched the track recede into the distance, and usually (but not always) equipped as a club car with a bar or buffet where soft drinks, cocktails and snacks could be purchased. This differs from non-revenue business cars or private varnish, which may have featured (starting with

4848-543: The company or its employees were ever convicted in court. However, there were many reports of harsh working conditions and forced indebtedness to the company, and malfeasance by labor agents who hired men for the railway. Knetsch concludes that "Flagler in fact provided health care for his employees and was a far better employer than the press alleged." In March 1913, Flagler fell down a flight of marble stairs at Whitehall. He never recovered and died in Palm Beach of his injuries on May 20, 1913, at 83 years of age. At 3 p.m. on

4949-417: The complaints of local merchants that were not involved in the oil trade in order to investigate railroad rebate practices. The committee ultimately discovered the previously unknown scope of Standard Oil's business interests. Standard Oil gradually gained almost complete control of oil refining and marketing in the United States through horizontal integration . In the kerosene industry, Standard Oil replaced

5050-524: The condition that Flagler be made a partner. The Rockefeller, Andrews & Flagler partnership was formed with Flagler in control of Harkness' interest. The partnership eventually grew into the Standard Oil Corporation. It was Flagler's idea to use the rebate system to strengthen the firm's position against competitors and the transporting enterprises alike. Flagler was in a special position to make those deals due to his connections as

5151-578: The construction of the Panama Canal , Flagler became particularly interested in linking Key West to the mainland. Key West, the United States' closest deep-water port to the Canal, could not only take advantage of Cuban and Latin American trade, but the opening of the Canal would allow significant trade possibilities with the West Coast. Initially called "Flagler's Folly", the construction of

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5252-638: The day of the funeral, May 23, 1913, every engine on the Florida East Coast Railway stopped wherever it was for ten minutes as a tribute to Flagler. It was reported that people along the railway line waited all night for the passing of the funeral train as it traveled from Palm Beach to St. Augustine. Flagler was entombed in the Flagler family mausoleum at Memorial Presbyterian Church in St. Augustine alongside his first wife, Mary Harkness; daughter, Jennie Louise (née Flagler) Benedict; and granddaughter, Margery [Benedict]. Only his son Harry Harkness Flagler survived of

5353-453: The deal. A major New York refiner, Charles Pratt and Company , headed by Charles Pratt and Henry H. Rogers , led the opposition to this plan, and railroads soon backed off. Pennsylvania revoked the cartel's charter, and non-preferential rates were restored for the time being. Undeterred, though vilified for the first time by the press, Flagler and Rockefeller continued with their self-reinforcing cycle of buying competing refiners, improving

5454-491: The early 1880s, Flagler and Rockefeller created one of their most important innovations. Rather than try to influence the price of crude oil directly, Standard Oil had been exercising indirect control by altering oil storage charges to suit market conditions. Flagler and Rockefeller then decided to issue certificates against oil stored in Standard Oil's pipelines. These certificates became traded by speculators, thus creating

5555-500: The east coast of Florida. Beginning with St. Augustine , he moved progressively south. Flagler helped develop Ormond Beach , Daytona Beach , and Palm Beach , and became known as the Father of Miami, Florida . Flagler's rail network became known as the Florida East Coast Railway (FEC). By 1904, the FEC had reached Homestead , south of Miami. After the United States announced in 1905

5656-403: The efficiency of operations, pressing for discounts on oil shipments, undercutting competition, making secret deals, raising investment pools, and buying rivals out. In less than four months in 1872, in what was later known as "The Cleveland Conquest" or "The Cleveland Massacre", Standard Oil had absorbed 22 of its 26 Cleveland competitors. Eventually, even former antagonists Pratt and Rogers saw

5757-525: The end of the 1870s, Standard was refining over 90% of the oil in the U.S. In 1877, Standard clashed with Thomas A. Scott the president of the Pennsylvania Railroad , its chief hauler. Flagler and Rockefeller had envisioned the use of pipelines as an alternative transport system for oil and began a campaign to build and acquire them. The railroad, seeing Standard's incursion into the transportation and pipeline fields, struck back and formed

5858-432: The entity's size and wealth drew much attention. Nine trustees, including Rockefeller, ran the 41 companies in the trust. The public and the press were immediately suspicious of this new legal entity, and other businesses seized upon the idea and emulated it, further inflaming public sentiment. Standard Oil had gained an aura of invincibility, always prevailing against competitors, critics, and political enemies. It had become

5959-510: The exclusive Royal Palm Hotel on the north bank of the Miami River where it overlooked Biscayne Bay. He became known as the Father of Miami, Florida . Flagler's second wife, the former Ida Alice Shourds, was declared insane by Flagler's friend Dr. Anderson in 1896 and was institutionalized on and off starting that year. At the same time, he began to have an affair with Mary Lily Kenan ; by 1899, newspapers began to openly question whether

6060-534: The first oil-futures market which effectively set spot market prices from then on. The National Petroleum Exchange opened in Manhattan in late 1882 to facilitate the oil futures trading . Even though 85% of world crude production was still coming from Pennsylvania wells in the 1880s, overseas drilling in Russia and Asia began to reach the world market. Robert Nobel had established his own refining enterprise in

6161-482: The first water and power systems, and financed the city's first newspaper, The Metropolis . When the city was incorporated in 1896, its citizens wanted to honor the man responsible for its growth by naming it "Flagler". He declined the honor, persuading them to use an old Indian name, " Mayaimi ". Instead, an artificial island was constructed in Biscayne Bay called Flagler Monument Island . In 1897, Flagler opened

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6262-452: The formation of the trust and its perceived immunity from all competition, by the 1880s Standard Oil had passed its peak of power over the world oil market. Flagler and Rockefeller finally gave up their dream of controlling all the world's oil refining. Rockefeller admitted later, "We realized that public sentiment would be against us if we actually refined all the oil." Over time foreign competition and new finds abroad eroded his dominance. In

6363-401: The forward section, in the form of reclining coach seats, plush parlor car chairs near side tables or bedrooms and the occasional crew dormitory, such configurations varying greatly between railroads. A lighted drumhead adornment, usually indicating the name of the train or the name/logo of the railroad would invariably (except on the Milwaukee Road , see below) be hung from the tail end of

6464-460: The futility of continuing to compete against Standard Oil: in 1874, they made a secret agreement with their old nemesis to be acquired. Pratt and Rogers became Flagler and Rockefeller's partners. Rogers, in particular, became one of Flagler and Rockefeller's key men in the formation of the Standard Oil Trust. Pratt's son, Charles Millard Pratt , became Secretary of Standard Oil. For many of the competitors, Flagler and Rockefeller had merely to show them

6565-491: The highest capitalization, totaling $ 26,000,000 (equivalent to $ 882 million in 2023). Although Standard Oil was a partnership, Flagler was credited as the brain behind the booming oil refining business. "When John D. Rockefeller was asked if the Standard Oil company was the result of his thinking, he answered, 'No, sir. I wish I had the brains to think of it. It was Henry M. Flagler.'" Flagler served as an active part of Standard Oil until 1882, when he stepped back to take

6666-587: The iconic 26 Broadway location. By the end of the American Civil War , Cleveland was one of the five main refining centers in the U.S. (besides Pittsburgh , New York City, Philadelphia , and the region in northwestern Pennsylvania where most of the oil originated). By 1869, there was three times more kerosene refining capacity than needed to supply the market, and the capacity remained in excess for many years. In June 1870, Flagler and Rockefeller formed Standard Oil of Ohio, which rapidly became

6767-404: The life of the company), Standard Oil's business practices created intense controversy. Standard's most potent weapons against competitors were underselling, differential pricing, and secret transportation rebates. The firm was attacked by journalists and politicians throughout its existence, in part for these monopolistic methods, giving momentum to the antitrust movement. By 1880, according to

6868-561: The masons on the mixing and pouring techniques he used on Zorayda. Realizing the need for a sound transportation system to support his hotel ventures, Flagler purchased short line railroads in what would later become known as the Florida East Coast Railway. He used convict leasing — "a method undertaken by the Southern States to replace the economic setup of slavery" — to modernize the existing railroads, allowing them to accommodate heavier loads and more traffic. His next project

6969-579: The most effective attacks on Flagler and Rockefeller and their firm was the 1905 publication of The History of the Standard Oil Company , by Ida Tarbell , a leading muckraker . She documented the company's espionage, price wars, heavy-handed marketing tactics, and courtroom evasions. Although her work prompted a huge backlash against the company, Tarbell claims to have been surprised at its magnitude. "I never had an animus against their size and wealth, never objected to their corporate form. I

7070-482: The most profitable refiner in Ohio. Standard Oil grew to become one of the largest shippers of oil and kerosene in the country. The railroads were fighting fiercely for traffic and, in an attempt to create a cartel to control freight rates, formed the South Improvement Company in collusion with Standard and other oil men outside the main oil centers. The cartel received preferential treatment as

7171-542: The nation. According to Allan Nevins, in John D. Rockefeller (p 292), "Standard Oil was born as a big enterprise, it had cut its teeth as a partnership and was now ready to plunge forward into a period of greater expansion and development. It soon was doing one tenth of all the petroleum business in the United States. Besides its two refineries and a barrel plant in Cleveland, it possessed a fleet of tank cars and warehouses in

7272-470: The observation car. Some early trains offered two observation cars: a traditional enclosed type for its compartment or "first class" passengers and an open type resembling a flat car for its tourist class riders. When passenger trains were still the preferred mode of intercity transportation in America, observations often were used by those campaigning for public office, especially for the Presidency of

7373-880: The oil industry, he and Rockefeller started building their fortune in refining oil in Cleveland, Ohio. Cleveland became very well known for oil refining, as, "More and more crude oil was shipped from the oil regions to Cleveland for the refining process because of transportation facilities and the aggressiveness of the refiners there. It was due largely to the efforts of Henry M. Flagler and John D. Rockefeller." Flagler and Rockefeller worked hard for their company to achieve such prominence. Henry explained: "We worked night and day, making good oil as cheaply as possible and selling it for all we could get." Not only did Flagler and Rockefeller's Standard Oil company become well known in Ohio , they expanded to other states, as well as gained additional capital in purchasing smaller oil refining companies across

7474-547: The oil regions as well as warehouses and tanks in New York." By 1892, Standard Oil had a monopoly over all oil refineries in the United States. In an overall calculation of America's oil refineries' assets and capital, Standard Oil surpassed all. Standard Oil's combined assets equalled approximately $ 42,882,650 (equivalent to $ 1.45 billion in 2023 ) in Indiana, Kentucky, New Jersey, New York and Ohio. Standard Oil also had

7575-408: The old distribution system with its own vertical system. It supplied kerosene by tank cars that brought the fuel to local markets, and tank wagons then delivered to retail customers, thus bypassing the existing network of wholesale jobbers. Despite improving the quality and availability of kerosene products while greatly reducing their cost to the public (the price of kerosene dropped by nearly 80% over

7676-477: The project. The project cost was more than $ 50 million. Despite the hardships, the final link of the Florida East Coast Railway to Trumbo Point in Key West was completed in 1912. In that year, a proud Henry Flagler rode the first train into Key West aboard his private railcar, marking the completion of the railroad's oversea connection to Key West and the linkage by railway of the entire east coast of Florida. It

7777-513: The rail extension to Key West. He also used labor agencies to bring around 4,000 new immigrants to Florida who contracted to work until their transportation costs had been paid off. Due to the harsh working and living conditions in the railway construction camps, many workers became victims of debt slavery . When the Department of Justice prosecuted four Flagler employment agents in 1908 for "conspiracy to hold workmen in peonage and slavery,"

7878-497: The railroad sold all its oil interests to Standard. But in the aftermath of that battle, in 1879 the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania indicted Flagler and Rockefeller on charges of monopolizing the oil trade, starting an avalanche of similar court proceedings in other states and making a national issue of Standard Oil's business practices. The New York State Legislature 's Hepburn Committee in 1879 conducted hearings in response to

7979-425: The richest, biggest, most feared business in the world, seemingly immune to the boom and bust of the business cycle, consistently racking up profits year after year. Its vast American empire included 20,000 domestic wells, 4,000 miles of pipeline, 5,000 tank cars, and over 100,000 employees. Its share of world oil refining topped out above 90% but slowly dropped to about 80% for the rest of the century. In spite of

8080-569: The roofline. The Milwaukee's observations, including the Skytops, lacked a drumhead, whose place was taken by a large oscillating rear light; instead, each tapered side carried the generic Milwaukee script name "Hiawatha" embossed on stainless steel trim flanking this light. The Milwaukee's Skytops—four parlor cars built in the railroad's own shops and six sleepers built by Pullman-Standard—were designed by noted industrial designer Brooks Stevens . Six railroads bought dome -observation cars from Budd —

8181-486: The same dome observation-lounge cars in use on the train since 1955. On several long distance Amtrak routes outside the Northeast Corridor where most trains are equipped with Superliner cars, there are Sightseer Lounge cars. These combine extra window exposure on an upper observation level with a lounge area and dormitory facilities on lower levels of the trains, though are generally placed mid-way through

8282-794: The southern half of the state and purchased the Hotel Ormond, just north of Daytona . He also built the Alcazar Hotel as an overflow hotel for the Ponce de Leon Hotel. The Alcazar is today the Lightner Museum , next to the Casa Monica Hotel in St. Augustine that Flagler bought from Franklin W. Smith . His personal dedication to the state of Florida was demonstrated when he began construction on his private residence, Kirkside, in St. Augustine. An immense engineering effort

8383-479: The spelling of the surname to Flagler and passed it on to his 11 children. Flagler's mother was Elizabeth Caldwell Harkness Flagler, Isaac's third wife and a widow who had a stepson, Stephen V. Harkness , and a son, Daniel M. Harkness , from her marriage to deceased widower David Harkness of Milan, Ohio . Flagler attended local schools through eighth grade. His half-brother Daniel had left Hopewell to live and work with his paternal uncle Lamon G. Harkness, who had

8484-407: The three children by his first marriage in 1853 to Mary Harkness. A large portion of his estate was designated for a "niece" who was said actually to be a child born out of wedlock. When looking back at Flagler's life, after Flagler's death, George W. Perkins, of J.P. Morgan & Co. , reflected, "But that any man could have the genius to see of what this wilderness of waterless sand and underbrush

8585-425: The track inspection viewing window recessed behind the expanded observation platform, which was fenced with opulent railing supporting an (optional) illuminated drumhead at the B end. Fresh drinking water, grey water , kerosene/fuel and other tanks crowded beneath the floor sill competed for space with heating/cooling, axle powered mechanical equipment, shore-power batteries and equipment/tool storage bins to support

8686-560: The train's consist. Some modern European trains, typically operating in the push-pull mode, are fitted with observation cars on one or both ends. The driver is located in a cabin on the side of the passengers, or above them like in the Swiss GoldenPass . The German ICE control cars feature a see-through driver cabin, with passenger seats behind the driver. In Italy the Settebello , in service between 1952 and 1992, and

8787-638: The trust originated in illegal monopoly practices and ordered it to be broken up into 34 new companies. These included, among many others, Continental Oil, which became Conoco , now part of ConocoPhillips ; Pennzoil , now part of Shell ; Standard of Indiana, which became Amoco , now part of BP ; Standard of California, which became Chevron , still a separate company; Standard of New Jersey, which became Esso (and later, Exxon ), now part of ExxonMobil ; Standard of New York, which became Mobil , now part of ExxonMobil; and Standard of Ohio, which became Sohio , now part of BP. When Flagler envisioned successes in

8888-515: The two were having an affair. That year he reportedly gave her more than $ 1 million in jewelry. In 1901, Flagler bribed the Florida Legislature and Governor to pass a law that made incurable insanity grounds for divorce, opening the way for Flagler to remarry. Flagler was the only person to be divorced under the law before it was repealed in 1905. It was not until 1969 that a spouse's incurable insanity (mental incapacity) again became

8989-567: The west that the Panama Canal would bring. In 1912, the Florida Overseas Railroad was completed to Key West. Over 30 years, Flagler had invested about $ 50 million in railroad, home and hotel construction and had made donations to suffering farmers after the freeze in 1894. When asked by the president of Rollins College in Winter Park about his philanthropic efforts, Flagler reportedly replied, "I believe this state

9090-549: Was at the time the largest wooden structure in the world. Two years later, Flagler built the Palm Beach Inn (renamed The Breakers in 1901), overlooking the Atlantic Ocean in Palm Beach. Flagler originally intended West Palm Beach to be the terminus of his railroad system, but in 1894 and 1895, severe freezes hit the area, causing Flagler to reconsider. Sixty miles (97 km) south, the area today known as Miami

9191-725: Was born in North Carolina . The top-ranked Kenan-Flagler Business School at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill is named for Flagler and his wife, who was an early benefactor of UNC along with her family and descendants. After Flagler's death, she married an old friend, Robert Worth Bingham , who used an inheritance from her to buy the Louisville Courier-Journal . The Bingham-Flagler marriage (and questions about her death or possible murder) figured prominently in several books that appeared in

9292-764: Was capable and then have the nerve to build a railroad here, is more marvelous than similar development anywhere else in the world." Miami's main east–west street is named Flagler Street and is the main shopping street in Downtown Miami . Flagler Avenue is a main route through Key West. There is also a monument to him on Flagler Monument Island in Biscayne Bay in Miami ; Flagler College and Flagler Hospital are named after him in St. Augustine. Flagler County, Florida , Flagler Beach, Florida , and Flagler, Colorado , are also named for him. Whitehall, Palm Beach,

9393-448: Was destroyed, as was an FEC rescue train which, with the exception of steam locomotive 447, was overturned by the storm surge at Islamorada . Over 40 miles (64 km) of track were washed away by the hurricane, two miles of which ended up washing ashore on the mainland at Cape Sable . Already bankrupt, the Florida East Coast Railway was financially unable to rebuild the destroyed sections. The roadbed and remaining bridges were sold to

9494-399: Was growing horizontally and vertically . It added its own pipelines, tank cars, and home delivery network. It kept oil prices low to stave off competitors, made its products affordable to the average household, and, to increase market penetration, sometimes sold below cost if necessary. It developed over 300 oil-based products from tar to paint to Vaseline petroleum jelly to chewing gum. By

9595-591: Was quickly determined that it was more feasible to run the railroad south to Key Largo and follow the islands of the Florida Keys . Krome then surveyed routes to Key Largo, including one over Card Point (which would become the first roadway to the Keys) and Jewfish Creek, which was the selected route. At one time during construction, four thousand men were employed. During the seven year construction, three hurricanes —one in 1906 , 1909 , and 1910 —threatened to halt

9696-587: Was reportedly unharmed by the freeze. To further convince Flagler to continue the railroad to Miami, he was offered land in exchange for laying rail tracks from private landowners, the Florida East Coast Canal and Transportation Company, and the Boston and Florida Atlantic Coast Land Company. The land owners were Julia Tuttle , whom he had met in Cleveland, Ohio , and William Brickell , who ran

9797-456: Was required to cut through the wilderness and marsh from St. Augustine to Palm Beach. The state provided incentive in the form of 3,840 acres (15.5 km ) for every mile (1.6 km) of track constructed. Flagler completed the 1,100-room Royal Poinciana Hotel on the shores of Lake Worth in Palm Beach and extended his railroad to its service town, West Palm Beach , by 1894, founding Palm Beach and West Palm Beach. The Royal Poinciana Hotel

9898-436: Was the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890, originally used to control unions, but later central to the breakup of the Standard Oil trust. Ohio was especially vigorous in applying its state anti-trust laws, and finally forced a separation of Standard Oil of Ohio from the rest of the company in 1892, the first step in the dissolution of the trust. Upon his ascent to the presidency, Theodore Roosevelt initiated dozens of suits under

9999-477: Was the Ponce de Leon Hotel, now part of Flagler College . He invested with the guidance of Dr. Andrew Anderson, a native of St. Augustine. After many years of work, it opened on January 10, 1888, and was an instant success. This project sparked Flagler's interest in creating a new "American Riviera." Two years later, he expanded his Florida holdings. He built a railroad bridge across the St. Johns River to gain access to

10100-549: Was widely known as the "Eighth Wonder of the World". During its years of operation, freight traffic volume on the single-track overseas extension was disappointing, as the anticipated growth in Panama Canal cargo shipping through Key West failed to materialize. Local Key West and online freight consisted of coal, fruit, and building materials. Trains of tank cars brought potable water to Key West from mainland Florida. Before

10201-444: Was willing that they should combine and grow as big and wealthy as they could, but only by legitimate means. But they had never played fair, and that ruined their greatness for me." Tarbell's father had been driven out of the oil business during the South Improvement Company affair. Flagler and Rockefeller began a publicity campaign to put the company and themselves in a better light. Though Flagler and Rockefeller had long maintained

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