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73-661: Fra Mauro , O.S.B. Cam. , (c.1400–1464) was an Italian (Venetian) cartographer who lived in the Republic of Venice . He created the most detailed and accurate map of the world up until that time, the Fra Mauro map . Mauro was a monk of the Camaldolese Monastery of St. Michael , located on the island of Murano in the Venetian Lagoon . It was there that he maintained a cartography workshop. He also

146-537: A Jina . These austere practices are part of the monastic path in Jainism. The practice of body mortification is called kaya klesha in Jainism and is found in verse 9.19 of the Tattvartha Sutra by Umaswati , the most authoritative oldest surviving Jaina philosophical text. In Jain monastic practice, the monks and nuns take ascetic vows, after renouncing all relations and possessions. The vows include

219-401: A complete commitment to nonviolence ( Ahimsa ). They travel from city to city, often crossing forests and deserts, and always barefoot. Jain ascetics do not stay in a single place for more than two months to prevent attachment to any place. However, during the four months of monsoon (rainy season) known as chaturmaas , they stay at a single place to avoid killing life forms that thrive during

292-644: A diverse spectrum of ascetic practices. Asceticism-like practices are hinted in the Vedas , but these hymns have been variously interpreted as referring to early Yogis and loner renouncers. One such mention is in the Kesin hymn of the Rigveda , where Keśins ("long-haired" ascetics) and Munis ("silent ones") are described. These Kesins of the Vedic era, are described as follows by Karel Werner: The Keśin does not live

365-578: A meaning closer to asceticism in Hindu texts is Tapas , but it too spans a spectrum of meanings ranging from inner heat, to self-mortification and penance with austerities, to meditation and self-discipline. The 11th century literary work Yatidharmasamuccaya is a Vaishnava text that summarizes ascetic practices in Vaishnavism tradition of Hinduism. In Hindu traditions, as with other Indian religions, both men and women have historically participated in

438-508: A more moderated version, the " Middle Way ." According to Hajime Nakamura and other scholars, some early Buddhist texts suggest that asceticism was a part of Buddhist practice in its early days. Further, in practice, records from about the start of the common era through the 19th century suggest that asceticism has been a part of Buddhism, both in Theravada and Mahayana traditions. Textual evidence suggests that ascetic practices were

511-692: A mystical, somewhat hidden tradition in the mainstream Sunni and Shia denominations of Islam, state Eric Hanson and Karen Armstrong , likely in reaction to "the growing worldliness of Umayyad and Abbasid societies". Acceptance of asceticism emerged in Sufism slowly because it was contrary to the sunnah , states Nile Green , and early Sufis condemned "ascetic practices as unnecessary public displays of what amounted to false piety". The ascetic Sufis were hunted and persecuted both by Sunni and Shia rulers, in various centuries. Sufis were highly influential and greatly successful in spreading Islam between

584-474: A normal life of convention. His hair and beard grow longer, he spends long periods of time in absorption, musing and meditating and therefore he is called "sage" (muni). They wear clothes made of yellow rags fluttering in the wind, or perhaps more likely, they go naked, clad only in the yellow dust of the Indian soil. But their personalities are not bound to earth, for they follow the path of the mysterious wind when

657-820: A part of the Buddhist tradition in Sri Lanka by the third century BC, and this tradition continued through the medieval era in parallel to sangha style monastic tradition. In the Theravada tradition of Thailand , medieval texts report of ascetic monks who wander and dwell in the forest or crematory alone, do austere practices, and these came to be known as Thudong . Ascetic Buddhist monks have been and continue to be found in Myanmar , and as in Thailand, they are known to pursue their own version of Buddhism, resisting

730-584: A portion with other living beings, sprinkling the remainder with water he should eat it as if it were a medicine. Similarly, the Nirvana Upanishad asserts that the Hindu ascetic should hold, according to Patrick Olivelle , that "the sky is his belief, his knowledge is of the absolute, union is his initiation, compassion alone is his pastime, bliss is his garland, the cave of solitude is his fellowship", and so on, as he proceeds in his effort to gain self-knowledge (or soul-knowledge) and its identity with

803-438: A self-sufficient community, friars work among laypeople and are supported by donations or other charitable support. Monks or nuns make their vows and commit to a particular community in a particular place. Friars commit to a community spread across a wider geographical area known as a province and so they will typically move around, spending time in different houses of the community within their province. The English term friar

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876-568: A single meal a day. Neither group will beg for food, but a Jain ascetic may accept a meal from a householder, provided that the latter is pure of mind and body and offers the food of his own volition and in the prescribed manner. During such an encounter, the monk remains standing and eats only a measured amount. A routine feature of Jain asceticism are fasting periods, where adherents abstain from consuming food, and sometimes water, only during daylight hours, for up to 30 days. Some monks avoid (or limit) medicine and/or hospitalization out of disregard for

949-750: A spectrum of diverse practices, ranging from the mild self-discipline, self-imposed poverty and simple living typical of Buddhism and Hinduism , to more severe austerities and self-mortification practices of monks in Jainism and now extinct Ajivikas in the pursuit of salvation. Some ascetics live as hermits relying on whatever food they can find in the forests, then sleep and meditate in caves; others travel from one holy site to another while sustaining their body by begging for food; yet others live in monasteries as monks or nuns. Some ascetics live like priests and preachers, other ascetics are armed and militant, to resist any persecution—a phenomenon that emerged after

1022-496: A strong Advaita Vedanta outlook. Most of the Sannyasa Upanishads present a Yoga and nondualism ( Advaita ) Vedanta philosophy. The 12th-century Shatyayaniya Upanishad is a significant exception, which presents qualified dualistic and Vaishnavism ( Vishishtadvaita Vedanta) philosophy. These texts mention a simple, ethical lifestyle but do not mention self-torture or body mortification. For example: These are

1095-605: A tradition of asceticism, but its Sufi groups have cherished their own ascetic tradition for several centuries. Islamic literary sources and historians report that during the early Muslim conquests of the Middle East and North Africa (7th–10th centuries), some of the Muslim warriors guarding the frontier settlements were also ascetics; numerous historical accounts also report of some Christian monks that apostatized from Christianity , converted to Islam , and joined

1168-787: A year and a month wore clothes; after that time he walked about naked, and accepted the alms in the hollow of his hand. For more than twelve years the Venerable Ascetic Mahivira neglected his body and abandoned the care of it; he with equanimity bore, underwent, and suffered all pleasant or unpleasant occurrences arising from divine powers, men, or animals. Both Mahavira and his ancient Jaina followers are described in Jainism texts as practicing body mortification and being abused by animals as well as people, but never retaliating and never initiating harm or injury ( ahimsa ) to any other being. With such ascetic practices, he burnt off his past Karma , gained spiritual knowledge, and became

1241-679: Is a portolan chart in the Vatican Library , ( Codice Borgiano V ) published by Roberto Almagià in 1944. The other was recognized by Antonio Ratti as a copy signed by Giorgio Callapoda at Candia and dated 1541, of a lost chart by Fra Mauro, sold at auction in Milan in 1984 and now in a private collection, probably in France. The crater Fra Mauro and associated Fra Mauro formation of the Moon are named after him. The Apollo 13 lunar mission

1314-567: Is associated particularly with monks, nuns, and fakirs in Abrahamic religions, and bhikkhus , munis , sannyasis , vairagis, goswamis, and yogis in Indian religions. In the Baháʼí Faith , according to Shoghi Effendi , the maintenance of a high standard of moral conduct is neither to be associated or confused with any form of extreme asceticism, nor of excessive and bigoted puritanism. The religious standard set by Baháʼu'lláh , founder of

1387-413: Is called Sannyasa , and this is not the same as asceticism—which typically connotes severe self-denial and self-mortification. Sannyasa often involved a simple life, one with minimal or no material possessions, study, meditation and ethical living. Those who undertook this lifestyle were called Sannyasi , Sadhu , Yati , Bhiksu , Pravrajita/Pravrajitā and Parivrajaka in Hindu texts. The term with

1460-1001: Is derived from the Norman French word frere (brother), from the Latin frater (brother), which was widely used in the Latin New Testament to refer to members of the Christian community. Fray is sometimes used in Spain and former Spanish colonies such as the Philippines or the American Southwest as a title, such as in Fray Juan de Torquemada . In the Roman Catholic church, there are two classes of orders known as friars, or mendicant orders:

1533-420: Is unclear if self-immolation was limited primarily to Chinese asceticism tradition, and strong evidence of it being a part of a large scale, comprehensive ascetic program among Chinese Buddhists is lacking. Renunciation from the worldly life, and a pursuit of spiritual life either as a part of monastic community or a hermit, has been a historic tradition of Hinduism since ancient times. The renunciation tradition

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1606-555: The jihad , as well as of several Muslim warriors that repudiated Islam , converted to Christianity , and became Christian monks . Monasticism is forbidden in Islam. Scholars in the field of Islamic studies have argued that asceticism ( zuhd ) served as a precursor to the later doctrinal formations of Sufis that began to emerge in the tenth century through the works of individuals such as al-Junayd , al-Qushayrī , al-Sarrāj, al-Hujwīrī and others. Sufism emerged and grew as

1679-717: The Bhagavad Gita , verse 17.5 criticize a form of asceticism that diverges from scriptural guidance and is driven by pride, ego, or attachment, rather than for genuine spiritual growth. Verse 17.6 extends the criticism of such ascetic practices, noting that they are considered harmful to both the practitioner's body and the divine within. With these two verses, Krishna emphasizes that true ascetic practices should align with scriptural teachings and aim towards higher spiritual goals. Some people who undertake acts of austerity perform ferocious deeds not sanctioned by scripture. They are motivated by hypocrisy and egotism, and are beset by

1752-572: The Biblical texts within a highly asceticized religious environment. Scriptural examples of asceticism could be found in the lives of John the Baptist , Jesus Christ , the twelve apostles , and Paul the Apostle . The Dead Sea Scrolls revealed ascetic practices of the ancient Jewish sect of Essenes who took vows of abstinence to prepare for a holy war. An emphasis on an ascetic religious life

1825-563: The Essenes . According to Allan Nadler, two most significant examples of medieval Jewish asceticism have been Havoth ha-Levavoth and Hasidei Ashkenaz. Pious self-deprivation was a part of the dualism and mysticism in these ascetic groups. This voluntary separation from the world was called Perishuth , and the Jewish society widely accepted this tradition in late medieval era. Extreme forms of ascetic practices have been opposed or controversial in

1898-619: The Gnostikos ( Ancient Greek : γνωστικός , gnōstikos , "learned", from γνῶσις, gnōsis , "knowledge"), also known as The Gnostic: To the One Made Worthy of Gnosis . The Gnostikos is the second volume of a trilogy containing the Praktikos , intended for young monks to achieve apatheia , i.e., "a state of calm which is the prerequisite for love and knowledge", in order to purify their intellect and make it impassible, to reveal

1971-652: The Mourning of Muharram . Asceticism has not been a dominant theme within Judaism , but minor to significant ascetic traditions have been a part of Jewish spirituality. The history of Jewish asceticism is traceable to first millennium BCE era with the references of the Nazirite (or Nazorean, Nazarene, Naziruta, Nazir), whose rules of practice are found in Book of Numbers 6:1–21. The ascetic practices included not cutting

2044-752: The Order of Lutheran Franciscans , the Order of Ecumenical Franciscans and the Order of Lesser Sisters and Brothers. In the Anglican Communion there are also a number of mendicant groups such as the Anglican Friars Preachers , the Society of Saint Francis and the Order of St Francis. Several high schools , as well as Providence College , use friars as their school mascot . The Major League Baseball team San Diego Padres have

2117-463: The Swinging Friar ("padre" is also a Spanish word for the priestly title "father"; in 1769 San Diego was founded by Spanish Franciscan friars under Junípero Serra ). The University of Michigan 's oldest a cappella group is a male octet known as The Friars. The University of Pennsylvania has a senior honor society known as Friars. Sports teams at Father Dueñas Memorial School on

2190-717: The 10th and 19th centuries, particularly to the furthest outposts of the Muslim world in the Middle East and North Africa , the Balkans and Caucasus , the Indian subcontinent , and finally Central , Eastern , and Southeast Asia . Some scholars have argued that Sufi Muslim ascetics and mystics played a decisive role in converting the Turkic peoples to Islam between the 10th and 12th centuries and Mongol invaders in Persia during

2263-920: The 13th and 14th centuries, mainly because of the similarities between the extreme, ascetic Sufis ( fakirs and dervishes ) and the Shamans of the traditional Turco-Mongol religion . Sufism was adopted and then grew particularly in the frontier areas of Islamic states , where the asceticism of its fakirs and dervishes appealed to populations already used to the monastic traditions of Hinduism , Buddhism , and medieval Christianity . Ascetic practices of Sufi fakirs have included celibacy , fasting , and self-mortification . Sufi ascetics also participated in mobilizing Muslim warriors for holy wars , helping travelers, dispensing blessings through their perceived magical powers , and in helping settle disputes. Ritual ascetic practices, such as self-flagellation ( Tatbir ), have been practiced by Shia Muslims annually at

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2336-504: The Baháʼí Faith, seeks under no circumstances to deny anyone the legitimate right and privilege to derive the fullest advantage and benefit from the manifold joys, beauties, and pleasures with which the world has been so plentifully enriched by God , which Baháʼís regard as an all-loving creator. Notable Christian authors of Late Antiquity such as Origen , St Jerome , John Chrysostom , and Augustine of Hippo , interpreted meanings of

2409-521: The Hasidic movement. The Ashkenazi Hasidim ( Hebrew : חסידי אשכנז , romanized :  Chassidei Ashkenaz ) were a Jewish mystical, ascetic movement in the German Rhineland whose practices are documented in the texts of the 12th and 13th centuries. Peter Meister states that this Jewish asceticism emerged in the tenth century, grew much wider with prevalence in southern Europe and

2482-566: The Hindu metaphysical concept of Brahman . Other behavioral characteristics of the Sannyasi include: ahimsa (non-violence), akrodha (not become angry even if you are abused by others), disarmament (no weapons), chastity, bachelorhood (no marriage), avyati (non-desirous), amati (poverty), self-restraint, truthfulness, sarvabhutahita (kindness to all creatures), asteya (non-stealing), aparigraha (non-acceptance of gifts, non-possessiveness) and shaucha (purity of body speech and mind). In

2555-951: The Jataka tales wherein the Buddha in his earlier lives immolates himself to assist other living beings, or by the Bhaiṣajyaguruvaiḍūryaprabhārāja -related teachings in the Lotus Sutra . Historical records suggest that the self-immolation practices were observed by nuns in Chinese Buddhism as well. The Chinese Buddhist asceticism practices, states James Benn, were not an adaptation or import of Indian ascetic practices, but an invention of Chinese Buddhists, based on their unique interpretations of Saddharmapuṇḍarīka or Lotus Sūtra . It may be an adoption of more ancient pre-Buddhist Chinese practices, or from Taoism . It

2628-616: The Jews returned from the Babylonian exile and the Mosaic institution was done away with, a different form of asceticism arose when Antiochus IV Epiphanes threatened the Jewish religion in 167 BCE. The Essene tradition of the second Temple period is described as one of the movements within historic Jewish asceticism between second century BCE and first century CE. Ascetic Jewish sects existed in ancient and medieval era times, most notably

2701-400: The Middle East through the Jewish pietistic movement. According to Shimon Shokek, these ascetic practices were the result of an influence of medieval Christianity on Ashkenazi Hasidism. The Jewish faithful of this Hasidic tradition practiced the punishment of body, self-torture by starvation, sitting in the open in freezing snow, or in the sun with fleas in summer, all with the goal of purifying

2774-679: The Middle East were at one time inhabited by thousands of male and female Christian ascetics, hermits and anchorites , including St. Anthony the Great (otherwise known as St. Anthony of the Desert), St. Mary of Egypt , and St. Simeon Stylites , collectively known as the Desert Fathers and Desert Mothers . In 963 an association of monasteries called Lavra was formed on Mount Athos , in Eastern Orthodox tradition. This became

2847-629: The Prophet . Ascetic practices were linked to the Christian concepts of sin and redemption . The Proto-Protestant Waldensian sect originated as an ascetic group within medieval Western Christianity , persecuted by the Roman Catholic Church . Evagrius Ponticus , also called Evagrius the Solitary (345–399 CE ), was a highly educated monastic teacher who produced a large theological body of work, mainly ascetic, including

2920-577: The ability to resist potentially destructive temptations. Asceticism is seen in some ancient theologies as a journey towards spiritual transformation, where the simple is sufficient, the bliss is within, the frugal is plenty. Inversely, several ancient religious traditions, such as Zoroastrianism , Ancient Egyptian religion , the Dionysian Mysteries , vāmācāra , and the modern Western occult left-hand path traditions, abstain from ascetic practices and focus on various types of good deeds in

2993-605: The arrival of Islam in India. Self-torture is relatively uncommon practice but one that attracts public attention. In Indian traditions such as Buddhism and Hinduism, self-mortification is typically criticized. However, Indian mythologies also describe numerous ascetic gods or demons who pursued harsh austerities for decades or centuries that helped each gain special powers. The historical Siddhartha Gautama adopted an extreme ascetic life in search of enlightenment. However, after enlightenment he rejected extreme asceticism in favor of

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3066-538: The ascetic thoughts in Christianity nevertheless, Finn states, have roots in Greek moral thought. Virtuous living is not possible when an individual is craving bodily pleasures with desire and passion. Morality is not seen in the ancient theology as a balancing act between right and wrong, but a form of spiritual transformation, where the simple is sufficient, the bliss is within, the frugal is plenty. The deserts of

3139-502: The extreme ascetic practices of eating only pine needles, resins, seeds and ultimately self-mummification, while alive, or Sokushinbutsu ( miira ) in Japan. In Chinese Buddhism self-mummification ascetic practices were less common but recorded in the Ch'an (Zen Buddhism) tradition there. More ancient Chinese Buddhist asceticism, somewhat similar to Sokushinbutsu are also known, such as

3212-542: The flesh and guarding the flesh (avoiding anything that is a source of temptation). Inner austerities include expiation, confession, respecting and assisting mendicants, studying, meditation and ignoring bodily wants in order to abandon the body. The Jain text of Kalpa Sūtra describes Mahavira's asceticism in detail, whose life is a source of guidance on most of the ascetic practices in Jainism: The Venerable Ascetic Mahavira for

3285-444: The floor without blankets, and sit on wooden platforms. Other austerities include meditation in seated or standing posture near riverbanks in the cold wind, or meditation atop hills and mountains, especially at noon when the sun is at its fiercest. Such austerities are undertaken according to the physical and mental limits of the individual ascetic. When death is imminent from an advanced age or terminal disease, many Jain ascetics take

3358-642: The four great orders and the so-called lesser orders. The four great orders were mentioned by the Second Council of Lyons (1274): Some of the lesser orders are: In the Sovereign Military Order of Malta the term Fra' (an abbreviation for the Latin word "frater" meaning "brother") is used when addressing the professed Knights of Justice who have taken vows. Orders of friars (and sisters) exist in other Christian traditions, including

3431-400: The geographic knowledge of his time. The map is known today as the " Fra Mauro map ". The Fra Mauro world map, or mappa mundi , was a major cartographical work that compiled much of the geographical knowledge of the time. The map covers over five square meters. The map is extremely detailed and contains many thousands of texts and illustrations. The world map took several years to complete and

3504-431: The gods enter them. He is someone lost in thoughts: he is miles away. The Vedic and Upanishadic texts of Hinduism, states Mariasusai Dhavamony, do not discuss self-inflicted pain, but do discuss self-restraint and self-control. The monastic tradition of Hinduism is evidenced in first millennium BCE, particularly in its Advaita Vedanta tradition. This is evidenced by the oldest Sannyasa Upanishads, because all of them have

3577-427: The hair, abstaining from eating meat or grapes, abstention from wine, or fasting and hermit style living conditions for a period of time. Literary evidence suggests that this tradition continued for a long time, well into the common era, and both Jewish men and women could follow the ascetic path, with examples such as the ascetic practices for fourteen years by Queen Helena of Adiabene , and by Miriam of Tadmor. After

3650-831: The hierarchical institutionalized sangha structure of monasteries in Buddhism. In the Mahayana tradition asceticism with esoteric and mystical meanings became an accepted practice, such as in the Tendai and Shingon schools of Japanese Buddhism. These Japanese practices included penance, austerities, ablutions under a waterfall, and rituals to purify oneself. Japanese records from the 12th century record stories of monks undertaking severe asceticism, while records suggest that 19th century Nichiren Buddhist monks woke up at midnight or 2:00 am daily, and performed ascetic water purification rituals under cold waterfalls. Other practices include

3723-532: The island of Guam are known as the Friars. Asceticism Asceticism is a lifestyle characterized by abstinence from worldly pleasures, often for the purpose of pursuing spiritual goals. Ascetics may withdraw from the world for their practices or continue to be part of their society, but typically adopt a frugal lifestyle, characterised by the renunciation of material possessions and physical pleasures, and also spend time fasting while concentrating on

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3796-518: The map was a letter from the Doge of Venice . It was intended for Prince Henry the Navigator , Afonso V's uncle. It encouraged the prince to continue funding exploratory journeys. Fra Mauro died the following year, while he was making a copy of the map for the Signoria of Venice. The copy was completed by Andrea Bianco. A commemorative medal of the period struck in honor of his cartographic work describes Fra Mauro as "chosmographus incomparabilis". Two copies of maps by Fra Mauro are known to survive. One

3869-457: The monastery his main job was recorded as collecting the monastery's rents, but from the 1450s he is also mentioned as the creator of a series of world maps. Although he was no longer free to travel, due to his religious status, he would frequently consult with merchants of the city upon their return from overseas voyages. By 1450 he composed a great mappa mundi – a world map – with surprising accuracy, including extensive written comments reflecting

3942-702: The most important center of orthodox Christian ascetic groups in the centuries that followed. In the modern era, Mount Athos and Meteora have remained a significant center. Sexual abstinence such as those of the Encratites sect of Christians was only one aspect of ascetic renunciation, and both natural and unnatural asceticism have been part of Christian asceticism. The natural ascetic practices have included simple living, begging, fasting and ethical practices such as humility, compassion, meditation , patience and prayer . Evidence of extreme asceticism in Christianity appear in second century texts and thereafter, in both Eastern & Western Christian traditions, such as

4015-427: The other micro organisms around the root. Fresh fruits and vegetables should be plucked only when ripe and ready to fall off, or ideally after they have fallen off the plant. In case they are plucked from the plants, only as much as required should be procured and consumed without waste. The monks of Śvetāmbara sub-tradition within Jainism do not cook food but solicit alms from householders. Digambara monks have only

4088-437: The perfect spiritual way of life. According to Clement of Alexandria , philosophy and Scriptures can be seen as "double expressions of one pattern of knowledge". According to Evagrius, "body and the soul are there to help the intellect and not to hinder it". The Arabic term for "asceticism" is zuhd . The Islamic prophet Muhammad and his followers practiced asceticism. However, contemporary mainstream Islam has not had

4161-423: The physical body. Śvētāmbara monks and nuns wear only unstitched white robes (an upper and lower garment), and own one bowl they use for eating and collecting alms. Male Digambara sect monks do not wear any clothes, carry nothing with them except a soft broom made of shed peacock feathers ( pinchi ) to gently remove any insect or living creature in their way or bowl, and they eat with their hands. They sleep on

4234-453: The power of desire and passion. Asceticism in one of its most intense forms can be found in Jainism . Ascetic life may include nakedness symbolizing non-possession of even clothes, fasting, body mortification, penance and other austerities, in order to burn away past karma and stop producing new karma, both of which are believed in Jainism to be essential for reaching siddha and moksha (liberation from rebirths, salvation). In Jainism,

4307-719: The practice of religion , prayer , and/or meditation . Some individuals have also attempted an ascetic lifestyle to free themselves from addictions to things such as alcohol , tobacco , drugs , entertainment , sex , food , etc. Asceticism has been historically observed in many religious and philosophic traditions, most notably among Ancient Greek philosophical schools ( Epicureanism , Gymnosophism , Stoicism , and Pythagoreanism ), Indian religions ( Buddhism , Hinduism , Jainism ), Abrahamic religions ( Christianity , Judaism , Islam ), and contemporary practices continue amongst some of their followers. Practitioners abandon sensual pleasures and lead an abstinent lifestyle, in

4380-416: The practice of chaining the body to rocks, eating only grass, praying seated on a pillar in the elements for decades such as by the monk Simeon Stylites , solitary confinement inside a cell, abandoning personal hygiene and adopting lifestyle of a beast, self-inflicted pain and voluntary suffering, however they were often rejected as beyond measure by other ascetics such as Barsanuphius of Gaza and John

4453-414: The public self-immolation (self-cremation, as shaoshen 燒身 or zifen 自焚) practice, aimed at abandoning the impermanent body. The earliest-documented ascetic Buddhist monk biography is of Fayu (法羽) in 396 CE, followed by more than fifty documented cases in the centuries that followed including that of monk Daodu (道度). This was considered as evidence of a renunciant bodhisattva , and may have been inspired by

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4526-499: The pursuit of redemption , salvation , and/or spirituality . Many ascetics believe the action of purifying the body helps to purify the soul, and that in doing so, they will obtain a greater connection with the Divine or find inner peace. This may take the form of rituals, the renunciation of pleasure, and/or self-mortification . However, ascetics maintain that self-imposed constraints bring them greater freedom in various areas of their lives, such as increased clarity of thought and

4599-401: The rains. Jain monks and nuns practice complete celibacy. They do not touch or share a sitting platform with a person of the opposite sex. Jain ascetics follow a strict vegetarian diet without root vegetables. Prof. Pushpendra K. Jain explains: Clearly enough, to procure such vegetables and fruits, one must pull out the plant from the root, thus destroying the entire plant, and with it all

4672-402: The soul and turning one's attention away from the body unto the soul. Another significant school of Jewish asceticism appeared in the 16th century led from Safed . These mystics engaged in radical material abstentions and self-mortification with the belief that this helps them transcend the created material world, reach and exist in the mystical spiritual world. A studied example of this group

4745-439: The truth hidden in every being. The third book, Kephalaia Gnostika , was meant for meditation by advanced monks. Those writings made him one of the most recognized ascetic teachers and scriptural interpreters of his time, which include Clement of Alexandria and Origen . The ascetic literature of early Christianity was influenced by pre-Christian Greek philosophical traditions , especially Plato and Aristotle , looking for

4818-725: The ultimate goal of life is to achieve the liberation of soul from endless cycle of rebirths (moksha from samsara ), which requires ethical living and asceticism. Most of the austerities and ascetic practices can be traced back to Mahavira , the twenty-fourth Tirthankara who practiced 12 years of asceticism before reaching enlightenment. Jain texts such as Tattvartha Sutra and Uttaradhyayana Sutra discuss ascetic austerities to great lengths and formulations. Six outer and six inner practices are most common, and oft repeated in later Jain texts. According to John Cort, outer austerities include complete fasting, eating limited amounts, eating restricted items, abstaining from tasty foods, mortifying

4891-450: The vows a Sannyasi must keep: Abstention from injuring living beings, truthfulness, abstention from appropriating the property of others, abstention from sex, liberality (kindness, gentleness) are the major vows. There are five minor vows: abstention from anger, obedience towards the guru, avoidance of rashness, cleanliness, and purity in eating. He should beg (for food) without annoying others, any food he gets he must compassionately share

4964-663: The world and the importance of family life. The adjective "ascetic" derives from the ancient Greek term áskēsis , which means "training" or "exercise". The original usage did not refer to self-denial, but to the physical training required for athletic events. Its usage later extended to rigorous practices used in many major religious traditions, in varying degrees, to attain redemption and higher spirituality . Dom Cuthbert Butler classified asceticism into natural and unnatural forms: Self-discipline and abstinence in some form and degree are parts of religious practice within many religious and spiritual traditions. Ascetic lifestyle

5037-447: Was Hayyim ben Joseph Vital , and their rules of ascetic lifestyle ( Hanhagoth ) are documented. Asceticism is found in both non-theistic and theistic traditions within Indian religions . The origins of the practice are ancient, and a heritage shared by the major Indian religions: Buddhism , Hinduism , and Jainism . They are referred by many names such as Sadhu, Pravrajita, Bhikshu, Yati etc. Asceticism in Indian religions includes

5110-399: Was employed by some very powerful men like Prince Henry the Navigator . Fra Mauro was born before or around the year 1400. In his youth, Mauro had traveled extensively as a merchant and a soldier. He was familiar with the Middle East. He is recorded in the records of the Monastery of St. Michael from 1409. As a lay member of the monastery, Mauro was employed as mapmaker . In the records of

5183-460: Was evident in both early Christian writings ( see : Philokalia ) and practices ( see : Hesychasm ). Other Christian practitioners of asceticism include saints such as Paul the Hermit , Simeon Stylites , David of Wales , John of Damascus , Peter Waldo , Tamar of Georgia , and Francis of Assisi . According to Richard Finn , much of early Christian asceticism has been traced to Judaism, but not to traditions within Greek asceticism. Some of

5256-776: Was intended to explore the Fra Mauro formation, but – due to the explosion aboard the spacecraft – Apollo 13's crew had to return to Earth without landing on the Moon. The formation was instead explored by astronauts Alan Shepard and Edgar Mitchell of the Apollo 14 mission in February 1971. Fra Friars are different from monks in that they are called to the great evangelical counsels (vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience) in service to society, rather than through cloistered asceticism and devotion. Whereas monks live in

5329-438: Was the most detailed and accurate world map that had been produced up until that time. Fra Mauro created the map under a commission by King Afonso V of Portugal . Andrea Bianco , a sailor-cartographer, is recorded as having collaborated with Fra Mauro in creating the map, as payments made to him between 1448 and 1459 testify. The map was completed on 24 April 1459, and sent to Portugal , but that copy did not survive. Along with

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