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68-586: The first sit-in happened in February 1960 when four black students from North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University sat down at a segregated Woolworth's lunch counter in Greensboro, North Carolina . The movement spread across the South, reaching Rock Hill on Feb. 12, when about 100 black students staged sit-ins at various downtown lunch counters. Over the next year, several sit-ins were held in

136-839: A Black subscription library also in the District), the City of Alexandria had long ago refused similar funds, though Andrew Carnegie had lived and worked in Alexandria during the American Civil War, before making his fortune. As a condition for their critical donation (which supplemented federal funds from the Public Works Administration and labor from the Works Progress Administration), the family of Kate Waller Barrett , insisted

204-584: A diorama made by Karen Collins to commemorate the 60th anniversary of the Greensboro sit-in. On April 12, 2022, the Guilford County Board of Education voted to rename The Middle College at N.C. A&T, a high school for boys on the N.C. A&T campus, "A&T Four Middle College at North Carolina A&T State University" effective July 1, 2022. Samuel Wilbert Tucker Samuel Wilbert Tucker (June 18, 1913 – October 19, 1990)

272-549: A fine, but the remaining nine — eight of whom were Friendship students —chose to take the sentence of 30 days hard labor at the York County Prison Farm. Their choosing jail over a fine or bail marked a first in the Civil Rights Movement since the 1960 Nashville sit-ins, and it sparked the "jail, no bail" strategy that came to be emulated in other places. A growing number of people participated in

340-604: A hotspot for sit-ins. The Greensboro Four (as they would soon be known) were Joseph McNeil , Franklin McCain , Ezell Blair Jr. , and David Richmond , all young black students at North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University in their freshman year who often met in their dorm rooms to discuss what they could do to stand against segregation. They were inspired by Martin Luther King Jr. and his practice of nonviolent protest, and specifically wanted to change

408-473: A meal at the counter. They were, quietly, the first to be served at a Woolworth lunch counter. Most stores were soon desegregated, though in Jackson, Tennessee , Woolworth's continued to be segregated until around 1965, despite multiple protests. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 mandated desegregation in public accommodations. The International Civil Rights Center & Museum in Greensboro has portions of

476-577: A new school, Samuel W. Tucker Elementary School, to Tucker in honor of his life's work in the service of desegregation and education. In 2014, the city's library began collecting donations for the Samuel W. Tucker Fund, to expand a collection relating to civil rights history. Also in 2000, the Richmond City Council voted to rename a bridge formerly named after Confederate General J. E. B. Stuart after Tucker, despite controversy. In 2001,

544-508: A new trial, where he was convicted again. Tucker also used a statistical argument in helping Martin A. Martin appeal the death sentences of the " Martinsville Seven". However, state and federal judges rejected the argument that since 1908 Virginia had executed 45 black men for raping white women, yet had executed no white man convicted of rape, so several clients were executed. As the Civil Rights Movement developed during

612-400: A run-in with the law because a white woman accused him and his brothers of refusing to yield his seat in a "whites only" part of the trolley. He was defended by a lawyer named Thomas Watson, who knew Tucker because he routinely ran errands for Watson and organized papers for him. Tucker was admitted to the state bar in 1934, ironically in the same courtroom where a jury had acquitted him of

680-670: A series of nonviolent protests in February to July 1960, primarily in the Woolworth store — now the International Civil Rights Center and Museum — in Greensboro, North Carolina , which led to the F. W. Woolworth Company department store chain removing its policy of racial segregation in the Southern United States . While not the first sit-in of the civil rights movement , the Greensboro sit-ins were an instrumental action, and also

748-574: A tombstone with his elder brother George. The Robert H. Robinson Library that opened in 1940 and closed in 1959 became home of the Alexandria Black History Museum . In 1998, Emporia, Virginia, dedicated a monument in Tucker's honor, with an inscription calling him "an effective, unrelenting advocate for freedom, equality and human dignity – principles he loved – things that matter." In 2000, Alexandria, Virginia dedicated

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816-782: A year later in Washington, D.C., before the Senate Judiciary Committee to oppose the nomination to the Supreme Court of Judge Clement Haynesworth , who had often upheld school segregation. In addition to bringing cases (and appearing before the Supreme Court four more times), Tucker was also active in the NAACP leadership, serving as chairman of the legal staff of the Virginia State Conference, as well as representing Virginia, Maryland and

884-525: Is on display. In 1990, the street south of the site was renamed February One Place, in commemoration of the date of the first Greensboro sit-in. In 2002, the February One monument and sculpture by James Barnhill , depicting the Greensboro Four, was erected on North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University's campus. On February 1, 2020, Google showed a Google Doodle of

952-676: The Washington Post , the Chicago Defender ran the story on its front page accompanied by a photograph of the arrest, noting that the protest was being viewed as a "test case" in Virginia. Other African-American newspapers covered the legal action, reporting such developments as Tucker's cross-examination of the police, bringing forth an admission that had the men been white they would not have been arrested under similar circumstances. While Tucker succeeded in defending

1020-550: The A&;T Four or the Greensboro Four , had purchased toothpaste and other products from a desegregated counter at the store with no problems, but were then refused service at the store's lunch counter when they each asked for a cup of coffee and a donut with cream on the side. According to a witness, a white waitress told the boys "We don't serve Negroes here". Blair responded that he was just served 2 feet away, to which

1088-667: The Alexandria Black History Museum ). In 1942, the Congress of Racial Equality sponsored sit-ins in Chicago , as they did in St. Louis in 1949 and Baltimore in 1952. College students led a successful 1955 sit-in at Read's Drug Store in Baltimore , but the event received less widespread attention than the Greensboro sit-ins. The Dockum Drug Store sit-in in 1958 in Wichita, Kansas ,

1156-681: The Supreme Court of the United States , including Green v. County School Board of New Kent County which, according to The Encyclopedia of Civil Rights In America , "did more to advance school integration than any other Supreme Court decision since Brown ." Tucker was born in Alexandria, Virginia , on June 18, 1913. His father, Samuel A. Tucker, a real estate agent and NAACP member, and teacher mother saw to his formal and informal education. Tucker later said: "I got involved in

1224-415: The City of Alexandria commit to funding the library's operating expenses. Thus monies from Black taxpayers were used to fund the library, although Tucker had previously shown that the library refused cards to Black prospective patrons. On August 21, 1939, five young black men whom Tucker had recruited and instructed – William Evans, Otto L. Tucker, Edward Gaddis, Morris Murray, and Clarence Strange – entered

1292-481: The District of Columbia on the national board of directors. Tucker twice ran for U.S. Congress in the 4th District (17 southern Virginia counties including Greensville) against segregationist Watkins Abbitt , one of U.S. Senator Harry F. Byrd 's key allies—in 1964 as an Independent and in 1968 as a Republican. Though Tucker knew he would never win more than 30% of the vote against the powerful incumbent, he believed

1360-729: The Friendship Nine were living. "What made the Rock Hill action so timely ... was that it responded to a tactical dilemma that was arising in SNCC discussions across the South: how to avoid the crippling limitations of scarce bail money," wrote Taylor Branch in Parting the Waters , his Pulitzer Prize winning account of the Civil Rights Movement. "The obvious advantage of 'jail, no bail'

1428-470: The Klan, were present. The F.W. Woolworth national headquarters said that the company would "abide by local custom" and maintain its segregation policy. On February 4, 1960, more than 300 people took part. The group now included students from North Carolina A&T University, Bennett College, and Dudley High School, and they filled the entire seating area at the lunch counter. Three white female students from

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1496-574: The NAACP Legal Defense Fund). Tucker had returned to Alexandria but decided it had too many black lawyers, so he moved his law practice to Emporia, Virginia , in the heart of Southside Virginia . There, Tucker was the only black lawyer. There were neither black judges nor black jurors. The white legal establishment in Greensville County often did not appreciate Tucker's criminal defense tactics, which attacked not only

1564-543: The NAACP sent attorney Robert Ming from Chicago to defend Tucker before the state court in Emporia. The case was repeatedly dismissed without prejudice (allowing prosecutors to re-file), particularly after Commonwealth's attorney Harold Townsend asserted that Tucker had no right to confront or even identify his accusers because this was a bar proceeding. The NAACP rallied to Tucker's defense in fighting what it viewed as an attempt to derail legal desegregation in Virginia. It

1632-676: The Richard B. Harrison Auditorium on campus. They voted to continue the protests and went to the Woolworth store, filling up the store. More than 1,000 protesters and counter-protesters packed themselves into the store by noon. Around 1 pm, a bomb threat set for 1:30 pm was delivered by call to the store, causing the protesters to head to the Kress store, which immediately closed, along with the Woolworth store. On March 16, 1960, President Dwight D. Eisenhower expressed his concern for those who were fighting for their human and civil rights, saying that he

1700-580: The South. As the sit-ins continued, tensions started growing in Greensboro. Students began a far-reaching boycott of stores with segregated lunch counters. Sales at the boycotted stores dropped by a third, leading their owners to abandon segregation policies. On Monday, July 25, 1960, after nearly $ 200,000 in losses ($ 2.1 million in 2023 dollars), and a reduction in salary for not meeting sales goals, store manager Clarence Harris asked four black employees, Geneva Tisdale, Susie Morrison, Anetha Jones, and Charles Bess, to change out of their work clothes and order

1768-607: The Virginia Commission on Women and Minorities in the Legal System, Tucker alluded to that prosecution and noted that he was now being honored "for the very thing for which I'm being recognized today". Meanwhile, in the early 1960s, Tucker formed the firm of Tucker and Marsh with Henry L. Marsh III in Richmond (which Hill would join in 1966). They and the NAACP participated in the long legal struggle to reopen

1836-609: The Virginia State Bar to prosecute them. The Boatwright Committee specifically accused Tucker of soliciting "not less than 10 cases involving litigation" and claimed that some of his plaintiffs were signed up under false pretenses or had not realized they were becoming involved in litigation. Tucker became the only NAACP attorney that the Virginia State Bar attempted to prosecute and disbar for these expanded offenses. That prosecution began in February 1960, and

1904-672: The Virginia bar exam based on his studies in Watson's law office, but had to wait until June 1934, when he reached age 21, to begin practicing law. After two years with the Civilian Conservation Corps , Tucker and his friend George Wilson (a retired army sergeant) began in earnest dismantling segregation in Alexandria, first at the public library opened just 2 blocks from his home in August 1937, but which refused to issue cards to black residents. At 14-years old, he had had

1972-532: The Woman's College of the University of North Carolina (now University of North Carolina at Greensboro ), Genie Seaman, Marilyn Lott, and Ann Dearsley, also joined the protest. Organizers agreed to expand the sit-in protests to include the lunch counter at Greensboro's S. H. Kress & Co. store that day. Students, college administrators, and representatives from F.W. Woolworth and Kress met to discuss, but with

2040-657: The army and served in the 366th Infantry , which saw combat in Italy. Tucker rose to the rank of major. As World War II ended, the Virginia State Conference of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People had W. Lester Banks as executive secretary, Dr. Jesse M. Tinsley of Richmond and later E. B. Henderson of Falls Church as president, and Oliver W. Hill , Martin A. Martin and Spottswood Robinson as attorneys (the latter as liaison to

2108-505: The autobiography of Anne Moody , a participant. In Coming of Age in Mississippi , Moody describes their treatment from whites who were at the counter when they sat down, the formation of the mob in the store and how they managed finally to leave. The sit-ins spread to other forms of public accommodation, including transport facilities, swimming pools, lunch counters, libraries, art galleries, parks and beaches and museums, primarily in

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2176-507: The battles important to register the protests as well as aspirations of black voters in the district. In 1976, the NAACP honored Tucker by awarding him the William Robert Ming Advocacy Award for the spirit of financial and personal sacrifice displayed in his legal work. Tucker died on October 19, 1990, survived by his wife Julia. They had no children. He is buried at Arlington National Cemetery , sharing

2244-569: The best-known sit-ins of the civil rights movement. They are considered a catalyst to the subsequent sit-in movement , in which 70,000 people participated. This sit-in was a contributing factor in the formation of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC). In August 1939, African-American attorney Samuel Wilbert Tucker organized the Alexandria Library sit-in in Virginia (now

2312-477: The city. On Jan. 31, 1961, students from Friendship Junior College and others picketed McCrorys's on Main Street in Rock Hill to protest the segregated lunch counters at the business. They walked in, took seats at the counter and ordered hamburgers, soft drinks and coffee. The next day, 10 were convicted of trespassing and breach of the peace and sentenced to serve 30 days in jail or to pay a $ 100 fine. One man paid

2380-486: The civil rights movement on June 18, 1913, in Alexandria. I was born black." Although Alexandria was less segregated than Richmond and Norfolk , it provided no high school for black children, so after graduating from 8th grade, he had to "bootleg" a high school education across the Potomac River in Washington, D.C., at Armstrong High School . Black Virginia children commuted by streetcar. In June 1927, when Tucker

2448-785: The convictions of the nine, stating: "We cannot rewrite history, but we can right history." At the same occasion, Prosecutor Kevin Brackett apologized to the eight men still living, who were in court. The men were represented at the hearing by Ernest A. Finney, Jr. , the same lawyer who had defended them originally, who subsequently went on to become the first African-American Chief Justice of the South Carolina Supreme Court since Reconstruction . Greensboro sit-ins Students Woolworth KKK member City of Greensboro City of Monroe City of New Bern Other localities The Greensboro sit-ins were

2516-501: The definitions of the common law legal ethics offenses of barratry , champerty and maintenance . Legislative committees led by James M. Thomson and John B. Boatwright attempted to use those new laws against the NAACP and cooperating attorneys. The Boatwright Committee subpoenaed NAACP membership lists, and issued reports in November 1957 and November 1958 accusing NAACP attorneys (including Tucker) of violating these laws and urging

2584-542: The evidence against his poor black clients, but racial imbalance in the system itself. For example, Tucker defended Jodie Bailey who, after drinking, stabbed the popular white proprietor of an automobile repair business during a charge dispute, and the man died. With NAACP help, Tucker established that in the previous three decades, no trial jury in Greensville County had included any black jurors. The Virginia Supreme Court overturned Bailey's conviction, but ordered

2652-474: The hundreds of counters in your stores. Our money was accepted without rancor or discrimination, and with politeness towards us, when at a long counter just three feet away our money is not acceptable because of the colour of our skins...... We are asking your company to take a firm stand to eliminate discrimination. We firmly believe that God will give you courage and guidance in solving the problem. Sincerely Yours, Student Executive Committee. On February 3, 1960,

2720-485: The library by uniformed police has itself become a learning aid in Alexandria. Periodically, the city has commemorated the sit-in and used it as a teaching opportunity about the Jim Crow segregation era, with students from Samuel W. Tucker Elementary donning similar attire, acting out the sit-in events and posing in recreations of the photograph. World War II interrupted his fledgling legal practice. Tucker entered

2788-406: The library one by one, requested applications for library cards and, when refused, each one took a book off the shelf and sat down in the reading room until they were removed by the police. Tucker had instructed the men to dress well, speak politely and offer no resistance to the police so as to minimize the chance of the men being found guilty of disorderly conduct or resisting arrest. Tucker defended

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2856-680: The lunch counter, and donated part of their lunch counter to the Smithsonian's African American Museum National Museum of African American History and Culture in 2016. A four-seat portion of the lunch counter acquired by the Smithsonian Institution in 1993, is displayed in the National Museum of American History and a six-seat portion was donated to the Greensboro History Museum in 1993

2924-404: The men in the ensuing legal actions, which resulted in the disorderly conduct charges against the protestors being dropped by city attorney Armistead Boothe (who would later become a key figure in desegregating Virginia schools), and in a branch library being established for blacks. While the sit-in received a four-paragraph story in the local Alexandria Gazette newspaper and brief mention in

2992-525: The number grew to over 60, including students from Dudley High School. An estimated one third of the protesters were women, many of them students from Bennett College , a historically black women's college in Greensboro. White customers heckled the black students, who read books and studied, while the lunch counter staff continued to refuse service. North Carolina's official chaplain of the Ku Klux Klan ( Kludd ), George Dorsett, as well as other members of

3060-776: The plan was no more than segregation by another name, 14 years after Brown . Then in May 1968, the Court ruled that the freedom-of-choice plan was an inadequate remedy and also decided that school boards had an "affirmative duty" to desegregate their schools, as the procedures improperly put a burden upon schoolchildren and their parents that Brown II had placed squarely on the School Board". Patience for "mere deliberate speed" had run out. The next day, Tucker appeared before U.S. District Judge Robert Merhige Jr. in Richmond with 40 files of desegregation cases he wanted reopened. He also appeared

3128-450: The postwar era, Tucker came to have a central role in its legal battles in Virginia. He ultimately filed suits in nearly 50 counties, including Alexandria and neighboring Arlington and Fairfax . By the time Brown v. Board of Education was decided in 1954 and 1955, the NAACP state legal staff had grown to a dozen cooperating attorneys (including Tucker), and had filed fifteen petitions requesting desegregation with local school boards by

3196-623: The public schools in Prince Edward County, Virginia , which that county closed in 1959 to avoid desegregation, and which only reopened pursuant to court order in 1964. Tucker also continued to fight against racial discrimination in jury selection . In 1966, the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund named Tucker "lawyer of the year". In 1967, for example, Tucker had about 150 civil rights cases before state and federal courts. Tucker's greatest legal achievement

3264-677: The segregational policies of F. W. Woolworth Company in Greensboro, North Carolina. During Christmas vacation of 1959, McNeil attempted to buy a hot dog at the Greensboro Greyhound Lines bus station, but was refused service. Shortly thereafter, the four men decided that it was time to take action against segregation. They came up with a simple plan: they would occupy seats at the local F. W. Woolworth Company store, ask to be served, and when they were inevitably denied service, they would not leave. They would repeat this process every day for as long as it would take. Their goal

3332-531: The sit-in participants, he was not satisfied with the separate but equal resolution of creating a new branch library, the Robert H. Robinson Library , for blacks. In a 1940 letter to the librarian of the whites-only library, Tucker stated that he would refuse to accept a card to the new blacks-only branch library in lieu of a card to be used at the existing library. The photograph of the sit-in participants in jackets and ties calmly but resolutely being escorted from

3400-428: The sit-in process when Greensboro occurred. The Nashville sit-ins attained desegregation of the downtown department store lunch counters in May 1960. Most of these protests were peaceful, but there were instances of violence. In Chattanooga, Tennessee , tensions rose between blacks and whites and fights broke out. In Jackson, Mississippi , students from Tougaloo College staged a sit-in on May 28, 1960, recounted in

3468-399: The sit-ins and marches that continued in Rock Hill through the spring and into the summer. Since these protestors chose prison instead of bail, they were sent to a work camp, where twice they refused to work, were put on bread and water as punishment. In 2007 the city of Rock Hill unveiled an historic marker honoring the Friendship Nine at a reception honoring the men. At that time, eight of

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3536-470: The sit-ins, the president of the college, Warmoth T. Gibbs , remarked that Woolworth's "did not have the reputation for fine food". The students wrote the following letter to the president of Woolworth's: Dear Mr. President: We the undersigned are students at the Negro college in the city of Greensboro . Time and time again we have gone into Woolworth stores in Greensboro. We have bought thousands of items at

3604-525: The spring of 1956. However, U.S. Senator Harry F. Byrd had vowed Massive Resistance to school desegregation, and that fall a special session of the Virginia General Assembly adopted (and Governor Thomas B. Stanley signed) a package of new laws to maintain segregation and close desegregating schools, which came to be known as the " Stanley Plan ." That collection of bills also contained seven relating to NAACP activities, and expanded

3672-468: The store closed at 5:30 pm. Another meeting between students, college officials, and store representatives took place, and again there was no resolution. The store representatives were frustrated that only certain segregated stores were being protested, and asked for intervention by the college administrators, while some administrators suggested a temporary closure of the counters. On Saturday, February 6, 1960, over 1,400 North Carolina A&T students met in

3740-449: The stores' refusal to integrate, the meeting was not resolved. On February 5, 1960, a high tension environment at the Woolworth counter emerged when 50 white men sat at the counter, in opposition to the protesters, which now included white college students. Again, more than 300 were at the store by 3:00 pm, at which time the police removed two young white customers for swearing and yelling, and then police arrested three white patrons before

3808-553: The students to stay and did not call police to evict them. The four freshmen stayed until the store closed that night, and then went back to the North Carolina A&;T University campus, where they recruited more students to join them the next morning. The next day, on February 2, 1960, more than twenty black students (including four women), recruited from other campus groups, joined the sit-in. This group sat with school work to stay busy from 11 a.m. to 3 p.m. The group

3876-536: The trolley car incident which occurred in 1927, and began practicing in Alexandria. In 1939, Tucker organized a sit-in at Alexandria Library, which refused to issue library cards to black residents. It had opened two years previously, replacing a previous whites-only subscription library that had been housed in a former home for Confederate veterans. Also, while the District of Columbia had built an integrated public library decades earlier with funds donated by Andrew Carnegie (and which Tucker had often visited, as he did

3944-592: The waitress replied "Negroes eat at the other end". An African-American girl who was cleaning behind the counter called them "stupid, ignorant, rabble-rousers, troublemakers". Another African-American told them, "You're just hurting race relations by sitting there". However, an elderly white woman told them, "I am just so proud of you. My only regret is that you didn't do this ten or fifteen years ago". Store manager Clarence Harris asked them to leave, and, when they would not budge, called his supervisor, who told him, "They'll soon give up, leave and be forgotten". Harris allowed

4012-575: The young men not guilty. Tucker began drafting deeds to help his father at an early age, and also began reading the law books of Tom Watson, a lawyer who shared an office with the senior Tucker. Samuel attended Howard University whose chaplain Howard Thurman had become an outspoken proponent of Mahatma Gandhi 's nonviolent resistance strategy and where Charles Houston established the nation's first program in civil rights law. He earned his undergraduate degree in 1933. Tucker soon qualified for

4080-597: Was "deeply sympathetic with the efforts of any group to enjoy the rights of equality that they are guaranteed by the Constitution." The sit-in movement then spread to other Southern cities, including Winston-Salem , Durham , Raleigh , Charlotte , Richmond, Virginia , and Lexington, Kentucky . In Nashville, Tennessee , students of the Nashville Student Movement were trained by civil rights activist James Lawson and had already started

4148-556: Was 14, he, 2 brothers and a friend refused to leave their seats after a streetcar crossed the river into Alexandria, despite the request of a white woman who believed one of the seats was designated only for whites. She swore out a warrant charging them with disorderly conduct and abusive language, and the police levied no fine upon the 11 year old Otto Tucker, but fined Samuel Tucker $ 5 plus court costs and his older brother George $ 50 plus court costs, claiming that as eldest he should have known better. However, on appeal, an all-white jury found

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4216-533: Was again refused service, and were harassed by the white customers at the Woolworth store. However, the sit-ins made local news on the second day, with reporters, a TV cameraman and police officers present throughout the day. Back on campus that night, the Student Executive Committee for Justice was organized, and the committee sent a letter asking the president of F.W. Woolworth to "take a firm stand to eliminate discrimination." Upon hearing of

4284-426: Was an American lawyer and a cooperating attorney with the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). His civil rights career began as he organized a 1939 sit-in at the then-segregated Alexandria, Virginia public library. A partner in the Richmond, Virginia , firm of Hill, Tucker and Marsh (formerly Hill , Martin and Robinson ), Tucker argued and won several civil rights cases before

4352-401: Was probably Green v. County School Board of New Kent County , which challenged a freedom-of-choice plan the school board had enacted supposedly to desegregate the county schools on a voluntary basis, and which allowed white children to attend segregation academies at public expense. The case went to the Supreme Court of the United States , which heard statistical arguments from Tucker that

4420-399: Was successful in ending segregation at every Dockum Drug Store in Kansas and the Katz Drug Store sit-in in Oklahoma City the same year led the Katz Drug Stores to end its segregation policy. Like the Greensboro sit-ins, the participants in the two 1958 sit-ins employed a similar strategy and sought to desegregate store lunch counters. Between 1958 and 1964, Oklahoma City would serve as

4488-485: Was that it reversed the financial burden of the protest, costing the demonstrators no cash while obligating the white authorities to pay for jail space and food. The obvious disadvantage was that staying in jail represented a quantum leap in commitment above the old barrier of arrest, lock-up, and bail-out." In 2015, Judge John C. Hayes III (nephew of the original judge who sentenced the Friendship Nine to 30 days jail time at York County, SC chain-gang) of Rock Hill overturned

4556-421: Was to attract widespread media attention to the issue, forcing Woolworth to implement desegregation . On February 1, 1960, at 4:30 pm ET , the four sat down at the 66-seat L-shaped stainless steel lunch counter inside the F. W. Woolworth Company store at 132 South Elm Street in Greensboro, North Carolina. The men, Ezell Blair Jr., David Richmond, Franklin McCain and Joseph McNeil, who would become known as

4624-420: Was transferred to Sussex County and finally dismissed in early 1962, although the judges orally reprimanded Tucker for his handling of an estate case. In January 1963 in NAACP v. Button , the NAACP won other cases it had filed to stop enforcement of the last of the newly expanded laws. Furthermore, when in 1987, both Tucker and Oliver Hill received awards from Supreme Court Justice Lewis Powell on behalf of

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