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111-917: [REDACTED] Look up fuyu in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Fuyu may refer to: Fuyu Kyrgyz language , the easternmost Turkic language Koguryoic languages , also called the Buyeo languages, a group of Koreanic languages spoken in Korea and Manchuria mentioned in ancient Chinese sources Buyeo , an ancient kingdom in Manchuria, also rendered as Fuyu based on Hanyu Pinyin romanization China [ edit ] Fuyu, Jilin (扶余), city in Jilin Fuyu County, Heilongjiang (富裕县) Fuyu Town (富裕镇), seat of Fuyu County Xueting Fuyu (雪庭福裕),

222-442: A war lasting several years to pacify the country. Manchukuo was proclaimed a monarchy on 1 March 1934, with Puyi assuming the throne with the era name of Kangde. He was nominally assisted in his executive duties by a Privy Council and a General Affairs State Council . This State Council was the center of political power, and consisted of several cabinet ministers, each assisted by a Japanese vice-minister. The commander-in-chief of

333-651: A "capitalist" economy. The American historian Joshua Fogel wrote about the young servants of Manchukuo: "Tremendous debates transpired on such things as the nature of the Chinese economy, and the lingua franca of these debates was always Marxism". To resolve this debate, various research teams of five or six young civil servants, guarded by detachments from the Kwantung Army of about 20 or 30 men, went out to do field research in Manchukuo, gathering material about

444-541: A Japanese population 240,000 strong, later growing to 837,000. In Xinjing, they made up 25% of the population. Accordingly, to the census of 1936, of the Japanese population of Manchukuo, 22% were civil servants and their families; 18% were working for the South Manchurian Railroad company; 25% had come to Manchukuo to establish a business, and 21% had come to work in industry. The Japanese working in

555-591: A Shaolin Temple abbot of the 13th century Mount Fuyu , a former name of Bozhong Mountain in Shaanxi, the source of the Han River Fuyu–Nenjiang railway single-track railroad in northeastern China People Li Fuyu (李富玉), Chinese road bicycle racer Yang Fuyu Chinese biochemist, biophysicist, and writer Wang Fuyu (王富玉), Chinese politician Japan [ edit ] Fuyu persimmon,

666-433: A Soviet labor camp. The Japanese Ueda Kyōsuke labeled all 30 million people in Manchuria as "Manchus", including Han Chinese, despite the fact that most of them were not ethnic Manchu, and the Japanese written, "Great Manchukuo" built upon Ueda's argument to claim that all 30 million "Manchus" in Manchukuo had the right to independence to justify splitting Manchukuo from China. In 1942 the Japanese wrote "Ten Year History of

777-786: A base of operations for the People's Liberation Army against the National Revolutionary Army in the Chinese Civil War . The Chinese Communists used Manchuria as a staging ground until the final Nationalist retreat to Taiwan in 1949. Many Manchukuo army and Japanese Kantōgun personnel served with the communist troops during the Chinese Civil War against the Nationalist forces. Most of the 1.5 million Japanese who had been left in Manchukuo at

888-468: A branch line from Harbin to Port Arthur , now known as Dalian . Under the terms of the Treaty of Portsmouth, the Kwantung Army had the right to occupy southern Manchuria while the region fell into the Japanese economic sphere of influence. The Japanese-owned South Manchurian Railroad company had a market capitalization of 200 million yen, making it Asia's largest corporation, which went beyond just running

999-674: A combined Soviet–Mongolian force defeated a Kwantung Army with limited Manchukuoan support. On 8 August 1945, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan, in accordance with the agreement at the Yalta Conference , and invaded Manchukuo from Outer Manchuria and Outer Mongolia. During the Soviet offensive, the Manchukuo Imperial Army , on paper a 200,000-man force, performed poorly and whole units surrendered to

1110-685: A matter of culture as of race. Around the same time the Soviet Union was advocating the Siberian Jewish Autonomous Oblast across the Manchukuo-Soviet border, some Japanese officials investigated a plan (known as the Fugu Plan ) to attract Jewish refugees to Manchukuo as part of their colonisation effort, which was never adopted as official policy. The Jewish community in Manchukuo was not subjected to

1221-716: A new crackdown on the left. In November 1941, the Social Research Unit of the South Manchurian Railroad Company, which was well known as a hotbed of Marxism since the early 1930s, was raided by the Kenpeitai , who arrested 50 of those working in the Social Research Unit. At least 44 of those working in the Social Research Unit were convicted of violating the Peace Preservation Law, which made thinking about "altering

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1332-944: A phonemic difference between the stop set /p, t, k/ and /b, d, ɡ/ ; these stops can also be aspirated to [pʰ, tʰ, kʰ] in Chinese loanwords. A song in the Fuyu Kyrgyz language: dax diben šabim am, dabendar baarsen γaxen jap, γairen jaxse buurul adim (in), γaaneng dibes dabim am? γap diben šabim am, γapxandar baarsen γaxen jap, γairen jaxse buurul adim (in), γaaneng dibes dabim am? ib diben šabim am, ečikter baarsen γaxen jap, γairen jaxse buurul adim (in), γaaneng dibes dabim am? say diben šabim am, sanderdar baarsen γaxen jap, γairen jaxse buurul adim (in), γaaneng dibes dabim am? bulux diben šabim am, belterdar baarsen γaxen jap, γairen jaxse buurul adim (in), γaaneng dibes dabim am? γer diben šabim am, γergestar baarsen γaxen jap, γaren jaxse buurul adim (in), γaaneng dibes dabim am? In 1980, Fuyu Girgis

1443-505: A process of brainwashing by the police of left-wing activists to make them accept that the Emperor was a god after all, whom they were best to serve. Tenko was a very successful process that turned young Japanese who once had been ardent liberals or leftists who rejected the idea that the Emperor was a god into fanatical rightists, who made up for their previous doubts about the divinity of the Emperor with militant enthusiasm. One tenkosha

1554-457: A state-guided economy where corporations made their investments on government orders later served as the model for Japan's post-1945 development, albeit not with same level of brutal exploitation as in Manchukuo. By the 1930s, Manchukuo's industrial system was among the most advanced making it one of the industrial powerhouses in the region. Manchukuo's steel production exceeded Japan's in the late 1930s. Many Manchurian cities were modernized during

1665-497: A type of Japanese persimmon or Diospyros kaki Iha Fuyū ( 伊波 普猷 , 1876–1947) , Japanese scholar who had a profound impact on the study of Okinawa Fuyu Yoshida ( 吉田 冬優 , born 1997) , Japanese swimmer Taiwan [ edit ] Fuyu Oriental Crown (富宇東方之冠), a residential skyscraper in Taichung Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with

1776-519: A very strongly state-directed economy to achieve his goal of vastly increased industrial production while at the same time displaying utter indifference to the exploited Chinese workers toiling in Manchukuo's factories; the American historian Mark Driscoll described Kishi's system as a "necropolitical" system where the Chinese workers were literally treated as dehumanized cogs within a vast industrial machine. The system that Kishi pioneered in Manchuria of

1887-439: A whole has 1,400 Fuyu Kyrgyz people. Although a complete phonemic analysis of Girgis has not been done, Hu and Imart have made numerous observations about the sound system in their tentative description of the language. They describe Girgis as having the short vowels noted as "a, ï, i, o, ö, u, ü" which correspond roughly to IPA [a, ə, ɪ, ɔ, œ, ʊ, ʉ] , with minimal rounding and tendency towards centralization. Vowel length

1998-462: Is controversial". Professor Mariko Asano Tamanoi remarked that she would "use the term in quotation marks". Herbert Giles wrote that the name was unknown to the Manchu people themselves as a geographical designation. In 2012, Professor Chad D. Garcia noted that usage of the term was out of favor in "current scholarly practice", instead preferring "the northeast [of China]". The name of the country

2109-655: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Fuyu Kyrgyz language In 1761, after the Dzungars were defeated by the Qing, a group of Yenisei Kirghiz were deported (along with some Öelet or Oirat -speaking Dzungars) to the Nonni (Nen) river basin in Manchuria / Northeast China . The Kyrgyz in Manchuria became known as the Fuyu Kyrgyz, but many have become merged into

2220-474: Is phonemic and occurs as a result of consonant-deletion (Girgis /pʉːn/ vs. Kyrgyz /byɡyn/ 'today'). Each short vowel has an equivalent long vowel, with the addition of /e/ . Girgis displays vowel harmony as well as consonant harmony . The consonant sounds in Girgis, including allophone variants, are [p, b, ɸ, β, t, d, ð, k, q, ɡ, h, ʁ, ɣ, s, ʃ, z, ʒ, dʒ, tʃ, m, n, ŋ, l, r, j] . Girgis does not display

2331-599: The Amur River outright, now known collectively as Outer Manchuria As the Qing continued to weaken, Russia made further efforts to take control of the rest of Manchuria. By the 1890s, the region was under strong Russian influence, symbolized by the Russian-built Chinese Eastern Railway that ran from Harbin to Vladivostok . The Japanese ultra-nationalist Black Dragon Society initially supported Sun Yat-sen 's activities against

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2442-718: The Chinese Eastern Railway , a Russian concession which was still owned by the Soviet Union inside Manchukuo. The Soviet Union sold the Chinese Eastern Railway to Japanese Manchukuo in 1935, giving Japan and Manchukuo full control over the railroads of Manchuria. The Japanese built an efficient railway system that still functions well today. Known as the South Manchuria Railway or Mantetsu , this large corporation came to own large stakes in many industrial projects throughout

2553-555: The Imperial House of Japan . He disclosed that Manchukuo was not intended "to benefit China or to help the Chinese people form a unified state. Instead, it should be viewed as a kind of makeshift trick prompted by a desire to cover up Japan’s policy of aggression.” The Legislative Council was largely a ceremonial body, existing to rubber-stamp decisions issued by the State Council. The only authorized political party

2664-598: The Kwantung Army also served as the official Japanese ambassador to the state. He functioned in a manner similar to resident officers in European colonial empires, with the added ability to veto decisions by the emperor. The Kwantung Army leadership placed Japanese vice ministers in his cabinet, while all Chinese advisors gradually resigned or were dismissed. Zheng Xiaoxu served as Manchukuo's first prime minister until 1935, when Zhang Jinghui succeeded him. Puyi

2775-405: The Kwantung Army . By the end of World War II, the South Manchuria Railway owned 70 companies and employed about 340,000 people in Manchukuo and occupied China. In 1908, the number of residents was 15,834,000, which rose to 30,000,000 in 1931 and 43,000,000 for the Manchukuo state. The population balance remained 123 men to 100 women and the total number in 1941 was 50,000,000. In early 1934,

2886-628: The Manchuria March whose verses proclaimed that the seizing of Manchuria in 1931–32 was a continuation of what Japan had fought for against Russia in 1904–05, and the ghosts of the Japanese soldiers killed in the Russo-Japanese war could now rest at ease as their sacrifices had not been in vain. In 1935, Manchukuo purchased the Chinese Eastern Railway from the Soviet Union. During the Second Sino-Japanese War ,

2997-793: The Mukden Incident . On 16 February 1932, the Imperial Army hosted the "Founding Conference" or "Big Four Conference" with Liaoning governor Zang Shiyi , Heilongjiang governor Zhang Jinghui , commander of the Kirin Provincial Army Xi Qia , and general Ma Zhanshan , in order to establish the Northeast Administrative Committee. On the committee's second meeting, the aforementioned four plus Tang Yulin , Ling Sheng, and Qimote Semupilei were appointed as chairmen. On 18 February,

3108-660: The Soviet invasion of Manchuria in August 1945; its government was formally dissolved following the Japanese surrender in September. The territory was transferred to Chinese administration the following year. The name of the state is written with the same Han characters sharing the same meaning in both Japanese and Chinese, allowing for the use of the simplified and variant characters that exist in both languages. In Chinese,

3219-695: The Viceroy of the Three Northeast Provinces position was established to govern them. As the power of the court in Beijing weakened, many of the empire's outlying areas either broke free (such as Kashgar ) or fell under the control of the Western imperialist powers. The Russian Empire had set its sights on Qing's northern territories, and through unequal treaties signed in 1858 and 1860 ultimately annexed huge tracts of territory adjoining

3330-729: The Willow Palisade , with internal movement and migration regulated by ethnicity. These policies continued until after the end of the Second Opium War in the late 19th century, when the government started to encourage massive waves of Han migration to the northeast, collectively known as the Chuang Guandong , in order to prevent the Russian Empire from seizing more of the area. In 1907, the three provinces constituting Manchuria were officially constituted, and

3441-476: The kokutai " a crime in 1942–43 and were given long prison sentences, of whom four died due to the harsh conditions of prisons in Manchukuo. As the men working in the Social Research Unit had played important roles in Manchukuo's economic policy and were university graduates from good families, the Japanese historian Hotta Eri wrote that the Kenpeitai was ordered to "handle them with care", meaning no torture of

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3552-661: The kokutai " was a crime, which led many leftist Japanese university graduates to go work in Manchukuo, where they believed they could achieve the sort of social revolution that was impossible in Japan. By 1933, the Japanese state had essentially destroyed both the Japanese Socialist Party and the Japanese Communist Party via mass arrests and Tenkō with both parties reduced down to mere rumps, which caused many Japanese student leftists to draw

3663-618: The 1920s, much of the younger intelligentsia in Japan had rejected their parents' values and had become active in various left-wing movements. Starting with the Peace Preservation Law of 1925 , which made the very act of thinking about 'altering the kokutai ' a crime, the government had embarked on a sustained campaign to stomp out all left-wing thought in Japan. However, many of the bright young university graduates active in left-wing movements in Japan were needed to serve as civil servants in Manchukuo, which Young noted led

3774-666: The 1920s, the Japanese Army under the influence of the Wehrstaat (Defense State) theories popular with the Reichswehr had started to advocate their own version of the Wehrstaat , the totalitarian "national defense state" which would mobilize an entire society for war in peacetime. An additional influence on the Japanese "total war" school who tended to be very anti-capitalist was the First Five Year Plan in

3885-577: The Chinese, Mongols, Manchus, Koreans, and Japanese. At various times, the Japanese suggested that the Russians might be a "sixth race" of Manchukuo, but this was never officially declared. In 1936, the Manchukuo Almanac reported that were 33,592 Russians living in the city of Harbin—the "Moscow of the Orient"—and of whom only 5,580 had been granted Manchukuo citizenship. Japanese imperialism

3996-684: The Construction of Manchukuo" which attempted to emphasize the right of ethnic Japanese to the land of Manchukuo while attempting to delegitimize the Manchu's claim to Manchukuo as their native land, noting that most Manchus moved out during the Qing period and only returned later. Source: Beal, Edwin G (1945). "The 1940 Census of Manchuria". The Far Eastern Quarterly . 4 (3): 243–262. doi : 10.2307/2049515 . JSTOR   2049515 . S2CID   166016710 . In 1931–1932, there were 100,000 Japanese farmers; other sources mention 590,760 Japanese inhabitants. Other figures for Manchukuo speak of

4107-689: The Council issued a statement announcing that "the Northeast provinces are completely independent". On 18 February 1932 Manchukuo was proclaimed by the Northeast Supreme Administrative Council nominally in control of the region. On February 25, the Council decided that the name of the new country name (Manchukuo), the national flag, era name, and more. Manchukuo was formally established on 1 March in Xinjing , and

4218-919: The Far Eastern Jewish Council was created, chaired by the Harbin Jewish community leader Dr. Abraham Kaufman . Between 1937 and 1939 the city of Harbin in Manchukuo was the location of the Conference of Jewish Communities in the Far East. Following the Russian Red Army's invasion of Manchuria in 1945, Dr. Kaufman and several other Jewish community leaders were arrested by the Soviets and charged with anti-Soviet activities, resulting in Kaufman's imprisonment for ten years in

4329-479: The Japanese employees were mostly white-collar, meaning most of the Japanese living in Manchuria were middle-class people who saw themselves as an elite. In Japan, Manchuria was widely seen as analogous to the Wild West: a dangerous frontier region full of bandits, revolutionaries, and warlords, but also a land of boundless wealth and promise, where it was possible for ordinary people to become very well-off. During

4440-529: The Japanese liked to victimize them. Until World War II, the Japanese tended to leave alone those travelling to Manchukuo with a passport as they did not like to deal with protests from embassies in Tokyo about the mistreatment of their citizens. The Kwantung Army operated a secret biological-chemical warfare unit based in Pinfang, Unit 731, that performed gruesome experiments on people involving much visceration of

4551-502: The Japanese military underwent heavy losses, ultimately incurring about 500,000 casualties. The war caused many Japanese people to develop a more possessive attitude towards Manchuria, with Japan having sacrificed so much while fighting in Manchurian territory. From 1905 on, Japanese publications often described Manchuria as a "sacred" and "holy" land where many Japanese had died as martyrs. The war had almost bankrupted Japan, forcing

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4662-666: The Japanese state to embark upon a contradictory policy of recruiting the same people active in the movements that it was seeking to crush." To rule Manchukuo, which right from the start had a very statist economy, the Japanese state needed university graduates who were fluent in Mandarin Chinese, and the 1920s–30s, many of the university graduates in Japan who knew Mandarin were "progressives" involved in left-wing causes. The fact that young Japanese civil servants in Manchukuo with their degrees in economics, sociology, etc., who had once been active in left-wing movements helps explain

4773-553: The Japanese state was creating an entire state anew, which meant that Manchukuo had a desperate need for university graduates to work in its newly founded civil service. In addition, the Pan-Asian rhetoric of Manchukuo and the prospect of Japan helping ordinary people in Manchuria greatly appealed to the idealistic youth of Japan. Young wrote about the young Japanese people who went to work in Manchukuo: "The men, and in some cases,

4884-401: The Japanese to accept the compromise Treaty of Portsmouth mediated by President Theodore Roosevelt of the United States, under which Japan made gains, but nowhere to the extent that the Japanese public had been expecting. The Treaty of Portsmouth set off an anti-American riot in Tokyo between 5–7 September 1905 as the general viewpoint in Japan was that the Japanese had won the war but lost

4995-432: The Japanese to withdraw from the area, and Outer Manchuria would be under Soviet control by 1925. During the Warlord Era , Marshal Zhang Zuolin established himself in Manchuria with Japanese backing. Later, the Japanese Kwantung Army found him too independent, so he was assassinated in 1928. In assassinating Marshal Zhang, the 'Old Marshal', the Kwantung Army generals expected Manchuria to descend into anarchy, providing

5106-408: The Japanese used Manchukuo as a base to conduct their invasion of the rest of China. The Manchu general Tong Linge was killed in action by the Japanese in the Battle of Beiping–Tianjin , which marked the beginning of the Second Sino-Japanese War. In the summer of 1939, a border dispute between Manchukuo and the Mongolian People's Republic resulted in the Battle of Khalkhin Gol . During this battle,

5217-481: The Japanese, was used to kidnap various "unreliable" Russians living in Manchukuo for Unit 731 to experiment upon. The children of the Russian exiles often married Han Chinese, and the resulting children were always known in Manchukuo as "mixed water" people, and were shunned by both the Russian and Chinese communities. Chinese accounts, both at the time and later, tended to portray the Russians living in Manchuria as all prostitutes and thieves, and almost always ignored

5328-431: The Kwantung Army and the Manchukuo state. Ohgami believed that his studies helped ordinary people, citing one study he did about water use in rural Manchukuo, where he noted a correlation between villages that were deprived of water and "banditry" (the codeword for anti-Japanese guerrillas), believing that the policy of improving water supply in villages was due to his study. The outbreak of the war with China in 1937 caused

5439-435: The Kwantung Army had assassinated his father, the "Young Marshal"—who unlike his father was a Chinese nationalist—had strong reasons to dislike Japan's privileged position in Manchuria. Marshal Zhang knew his forces were too weak to expel the Kwantung Army, but his relations with the Japanese were unfriendly right from the start. After the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931, Japanese militarists moved forward to separate

5550-419: The Manchukuo era. However, much of the country's economy was often subordinated to Japanese interests and, during the war, raw material flowed into Japan to support the war effort. Traditional lands were taken and redistributed to Japanese farmers with local farmers relocated and forced into collective farming units over smaller areas of land. When Manchukuo was founded as a Japanese puppet state, it inherited

5661-480: The Manchukuo military. The British writer Peter Fleming visited Manchukuo in 1935, and while riding a train through the countryside of Manchukuo, a group of Japanese colonists mistook his Swiss traveling companion Kini for a Russian refugee, and began to beat her up. It was only after Fleming was able to prove to the Japanese that she was Swiss, not Russian, that the Japanese stopped and apologized, saying that they would never had beaten her up if they had known she

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5772-428: The Mongol and Chinese population. Chinese and Oirat replaced Oirat and Kirghiz during the period of Manchukuo as the dual languages of the Nonni-based Kyrgyz. The Fuyu Kyrgyz language is now spoken in northeastern China's Heilongjiang province, in and around Fuyu County , Qiqihar (300 km northwest of Harbin ) by a small number of passive speakers who are classified as Kyrgyz nationality. Fuyu County as

5883-411: The Qing state, hoping that an overthrow of the Qing would enable a Japanese takeover of the Manchu homeland, with the belief that Han Chinese would not oppose it. Tōyama Mitsuru , who was the Society's leader as well as a member of the pan-Asian secret society Gen'yōsha , additionally believed that the anti-Qing revolutionaries would even aid the Japanese in taking over, as well as helping them to enlarge

5994-414: The Soviet Union, which provided an example of rapid industrial growth achieved without capitalism. At least part of the reason why the Kwantung Army seized Manchuria in 1931 was to use it as a laboratory for creating an economic system geared towards the "national defense state"; colonial Manchuria offered up possibilities for the army carrying out drastic economic changes that were not possible in Japan. From

6105-518: The Soviets without firing a single shot; there were even cases of armed riots and mutinies against the Japanese forces. Puyi abdicated on 17 August and had hoped to escape to Japan to surrender to the Americans, but the Soviets captured him and eventually extradited him to the government of China, when the Chinese Communist Party came to power in 1949, where the authorities had him imprisoned on charges of war crimes , along with all other captured Manchukuo officials. From 1945 to 1948, Manchuria served as

6216-418: The age of six. In 1931, Manchuria was invaded and occupied by the Empire of Japan following the Mukden incident . A puppet government was set up the following year, with Puyi brought in by the Japanese to serve as its nominal regent, though he himself had no actual political power. Japanese officials ultimately made all pertinent decisions, and exercised total control over Puyi's court and personal safety. Upon

6327-439: The area became an industrial powerhouse. Manchukuo had its own issued banknotes and postage stamps . Several independent banks were founded as well. The conquest of Manchuria proved to be extremely popular with the Japanese people who saw the conquest as providing a much-needed economic "lifeline" to their economy which had been badly hurt by the Great Depression. The very image of a "lifeline" suggested that Manchuria—which

6438-459: The art transport networks like the famous Asia Express railroad line, and modern infrastructure that was going up all over Manchukuo, Japan's newest colony become a popular tourist destination for middle-class Japanese, who wanted to see the "Brave New Empire" that was going up in the mainland of Asia. The Japanese government had official plans projecting the emigration of 5 million Japanese to Manchukuo between 1936 and 1956. Between 1938 and 1942

6549-432: The beginning, the Army intended to turn Manchukuo into the industrial heartland of the empire, and starting in 1932, the Army sponsored a policy of forced industrialization that was closely modeled after the Five-Year Plan in the Soviet Union. Reflecting a dislike of capitalism, the Zaibatsu were excluded from Manchukuo and all of the heavy industrial factories were built and owned by Army-owned corporations. In 1935, there

6660-445: The conclusion that change was impossible in Japan, but still possible in Manchukuo, where paradoxically the Kwantung Army was sponsoring the sort of policies that were unacceptable in Japan. Moreover, the Great Depression had made it very difficult for university graduates in Japan to find work, which made the prospect of a well-paying job in Manchukuo very attractive to otherwise underemployed Japanese university graduates. In Manchukuo,

6771-400: The conquest meant that newspapers such as the Asahi Shimbun that had initially opposed the war swiftly pivoted to support the war as the best way of improving sales. The conquest of Manchuria was also presented as resolving the "unfinished business" left over the Russo-Japanese war that finally undid one of the key terms of the Treaty of Portsmouth. The most popular song in Japan in 1932 was

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6882-424: The contributions made by middle-class Russians to community life. Mindful of the way that Americans and most Europeans enjoyed extraterritorial rights in China at the time, accounts in Chinese literature about the Russians living in Manchukuo and their "mixed water" children often display a certain schadenfreude recounting how the Russians in Manchukuo usually lived in poverty on the margins of Manchukuo society with

6993-407: The council was abolished. It received formal recognition from Japan on 15 September 1932 through the Japan–Manchukuo Protocol , after the assassination of Japanese Prime Minister Inukai Tsuyoshi . The city of Changchun —renamed 新京 ; Xīnjīng ; 'new capital'—became the capital of Manchukuo. The local Chinese organized volunteer armies to oppose the Japanese and the new state required

7104-412: The decidedly leftist thrust of social and economic policies in Manchukuo with the state playing an increasingly large role in society. Likewise, much of the debate between Japanese civil servants about the sort of social-economic policies Japan should follow in Manchukuo in the 1930s was framed in Marxist terms, with the civil servants arguing over whether Manchuria prior to September 1931 had a "feudal" or

7215-430: The end of World War II were sent back to their homeland in 1946–1948 by U.S. Navy ships in the operation now known as the Japanese repatriation from Huludao . Historians generally consider Manchukuo a puppet state of Imperial Japan due to the Japanese military's continued occupation of the country and its direct control over the government. In 1994, the Yomiuri Shimbun conducted an interview with Prince Mikasa of

7326-504: The existence of Manchukuo, the ethnic balance did not change significantly, except that Japan increased the Korean population in China . From Japanese sources come these numbers: in 1940 the total population in Manchukuo of Longjiang , Rehe , Jilin , Fengtian , and Xing'an provinces at 43,233,954; or an Interior Ministry figure of 31,008,600. Another figure of the period estimated the total population as 36,933,000 residents. The majority of Han Chinese in Manchukuo believed that Manchuria

7437-515: The expression shakai [social] appeared in the title of a book, it was usually confiscated". Young also noted—with reference to Lord Acton's dictum that "Absolute power corrupts absolutely"—that for many of the idealistic young Japanese civil servants, who believed that they could affect a "revolution from above" that would make the lives of ordinary people better, that the absolute power that they enjoyed over millions of people "went to their heads", causing them to behave with abusive arrogance towards

7548-455: The fields of transportation, the government, and in business tended to be middle class, white-collar people such as executives, engineers, and managers, and those Japanese who working in Manchukuo as blue-collar employees tended to be skilled workers. In 1934, it was reported that a Japanese carpenter working in Manchukuo with its growing economy could earn twice as much as he could in Japan. With its gleaming modernist office buildings, state of

7659-454: The former Russian railroad network in southern Manchuria to owning the ports, mines, hotels, telephone lines, and sundry other businesses, dominating the economy of Manchuria. With the growth of the South Manchuria Railroad company ( Mantetsu ) came a growth in number of Japanese people living in Manchuria, from a Japanese population of 16,612 in 1906 to one of 233,749 in 1930. The majority of blue-collar employees for Mantetsu were Chinese, and

7770-429: The heady luxury of colonial consumption. They made it into a project of radical change, experimentation and possibility". The Kwantung Army for its part tolerated the talk of social revolution in Manchukuo as the best way of gaining support from the Han majority of Manchukuo, who did not want Manchuria to be severed from China. Even more active in going to Manchukuo were the products of Tenkō ('changing directions'),

7881-422: The homeland of the Manchu people , though by the 20th century they had long since become a minority in the region, with Han Chinese constituting by far the largest ethnic group. The Manchu-led Qing dynasty , which had governed China since 17th century, was overthrown with the permanent abolition of the dynastic system in the 1911 Xinhai Revolution , with Puyi , the final emperor of China , forced to abdicate at

7992-471: The interwar period, Manchuria once again became a political and military battleground between Russia, Japan, and China. Imperial Japan moved into Russia's far eastern territories, taking advantage of internal chaos following the Russian Revolution . However, in the years following the establishment of the Soviet Union, a combination of Soviet military successes and American economic pressure forced

8103-486: The life of ordinary people, to determine Manchukuo was in the "feudal" or "capitalist" stage of development. Starting in 1936, the Manchukuo state launched Five Year Plans for economic development, which were closely modeled after the Five Year Plans in the Soviet Union. In theory, the Japanese were creating an entirely new, independent state, and this allowed for a considerable level of experimentation regarding

8214-403: The local Chinese more economically successful. The South Korean historian Bong Inyoung noted when it came to writing about the "mixed water" people, Chinese writers tended to treat them as not entirely Chinese, but on the other hand were willing to accept these people as Chinese provided that would totally embrace Chinese culture by renouncing their Russian heritage, thus making Chineseness as much

8325-599: The name of Manchukuo has often been prefixed with 偽 ; wěi ; 'so-called' to stress its perceived illegitimacy. In English, 'Manchukuo' derives from the Wade–Giles romanization Man-chou-kuo , incorporating the anglicized demonym 'Manchu'. Other European languages used equivalent terms: Manchukuo was known to its Axis allies as Manciukuò in Italian and Mandschukuo or Mandschureich in German. Manchukuo

8436-431: The nominal transition from republic to empire, Puyi was proclaimed as the emperor of Manchukuo. The Japanese population of Manchuria increased dramatically during this period, largely due to Japan's efforts to resettle young, land-poor farmers from the inner islands . By 1945, more than a million Japanese people had settled within Manchukuo. The region's Korean population also increased during this period. Regions in

8547-541: The official persecution that Jews experienced under Japan's ally Nazi Germany, and Japanese authorities were involved in closing down local anti-Semitic publications such as the Russian Fascist Party's newspaper Nash Put . However, Jews in Manchukuo were victims of harassment by antisemitic elements among the White Russian population, one notable incident being the murder of Simon Kaspé . In 1937

8658-694: The opium trade that the Qing were currently trying to destroy. The Society would support Sun and other anti-Manchu revolutionaries until the Qing ultimately collapsed. In Japan, many anti-Qing revolutionaries gathered in exile, where they founded and operated the Tongmenghui resistance movement, whose first meeting was hosted by the Black Dragon Society. The Black Dragon Society had a large impact on Sun specifically, cultivating an intimate relationship with him. Sun often promoted pan-Asianism, and sometimes even passed himself off as Japanese. In

8769-574: The peace. The perception in Japan was the Treaty of Portsmouth was a humiliating diplomatic disaster that did not place all of Manchuria into the Japanese sphere of influence as widely expected, and the question of Manchuria was still "unfinished business" that would one day be resolved by the Imperial Army. In 1906, Japan established the South Manchurian Railway on the southern half of the former Chinese Eastern Railway built by Russia from Manzhouli to Vladivostok via Harbin with

8880-424: The policies that the new state would be carrying out. Many university graduates in Japan who were ostensibly opposed to the social system within Japan itself, instead went to Manchukuo with the belief that they could implement reforms that might later inspire policy within Japan itself. This was especially the case since it was impossible to effect any reforms in Japan itself as the very act of thinking about "altering

8991-435: The pretext for seizing the region. Marshal Zhang was killed when the bridge his train was riding across was blown up while three Chinese men were murdered and explosive equipment was placed on their corpses to make it appear that they were the killers, but the plot was foiled when Zhang's son Zhang Xueliang, the 'Young Marshal', succeeded him without incident while Tokyo refused to send additional troops to Manchuria. Given that

9102-621: The railroad network of Manchuria that was built originally during an economic and military struggle between Russia and Japan over Chinese territory and became a focal point before and after the Russo-Japanese War . Chinese warlords had also aimed to build local lines when possible. Manchukuo's railroad system would consist mainly of the South Manchuria Railway , a Japanese concession in the Republic of China, and

9213-438: The region from Chinese control and to create a Japanese-aligned puppet state. To create an air of legitimacy, the last Emperor of China, Puyi , was invited to come with his followers and act as the head of state for Manchuria. One of his faithful companions was Zheng Xiaoxu , a Qing reformist and loyalist. The "Northeast Supreme Administrative Council" was established as a Japanese puppet organization in Manchuria following

9324-757: The region. Mantetsu personnel were involved in the economic exploitation of occupied China during World War II, and colonial planning at the behest of the Imperial Japanese Army. Many railway lines in Manchukuo were owned by the Manchukuo National Railway . After 1933, the Manchukuo National Railway was fully owned by the South Manchuria Railway/Mantetsu. Mantetsu had close to monopoly status and its properties were guarded by

9435-406: The samurai caste, and almost all of the officers in the Imperial Japanese Army came from samurai families, which made the Kwantung Army very hostile towards any sort of land reform which might serve as an example for Japanese peasants. In October 1941, the Soviet spy ring headed by Richard Sorge was uncovered in Tokyo, which caused the authorities to become paranoid about Soviet espionage, and led to

9546-442: The sort that the Kenpeitai normally employed in its investigations. When the Japanese surrender was announced on 15 August 1945, Puyi agreed to abdicate. Manchukuo was initially divided into three provinces. This number increased to five in 1934 when Sanjiang and Heihe were split off from Longjiang Province . A special ward of Beiman ( Chinese : 北滿特別區 ) existed between 1 July 1933 and 1 January 1936. In 1941, Manchukuo

9657-460: The state in Manchukuo to grow even bigger as a policy of "total war" came in, which meant there was a pressing demand for people with university degrees trained to think "scientifically". Fogel wrote that almost all of the university graduates from Japan who arrived in Manchukuo in the late 1930s were "largely left-wing Socialists and Communists. This was precisely at the time when Marxism had been all but banned in Japan, when (as Yamada Gōichi put) "if

9768-422: The subjects to see the effects of chemicals and germs on the human body. In the late 1930s, the doctors of Unit 731 demanded more European subjects to experiment upon in order to test the efficiency the strains of anthrax and plague that they were developing, leading to a great many of the Russians living in Manchukuo becoming the unwilling human guinea pigs of Unit 731. The Russian Fascist Party , which worked with

9879-456: The territory of their state, which among other regions included present-day Manchuria, Xinjiang, Mongolia, and Tibet, with the idea of 'China' itself, rejecting notions that only Han areas were core parts of China. The Qing thought of China as fundamentally multi-ethnic: the term 'Chinese people' referred to all the Han, Manchu and Mongol subjects within the empire; likewise, the term 'Chinese language'

9990-465: The title Fuyu . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fuyu&oldid=1181450730 " Categories : Disambiguation pages Place name disambiguation pages Japanese masculine given names Masculine given names Hidden categories: Articles containing Japanese-language text Short description

10101-451: The total population of Manchukuo was estimated as 30,880,000, with 6.1 persons the average family, and 122 men for each 100 women. These numbers included 29,510,000 Chinese (96%, which should have included the Manchu people ), 590,760 Japanese (2%), 680,000 Koreans (2%), and 98,431 (<1%) of other nationality: White Russians , Mongols , etc. Around 80% of the population was rural. During

10212-506: The very people that they had gone to Manchukuo to help. Young wrote that it was a "monumental conceit" of the part of the young idealists to believe that they could use the Kwantung Army to achieve a "revolution from above" when it was the Kwantung Army that was using them. The ambitious plans for land reform in Manchukuo were vetoed by the Kwantung Army for precisely the reason that it might inspire similar reforms in Japan. The landlords in Japan tended to come from families who once belonged to

10323-605: The wake of the Xinhai Revolution, the Black Dragons began infiltrating China, making inroads selling opium and spreading anti-Communist sentiment. Eventually, they also began directly agitating for a Japanese takeover of Manchuria. With the Russo-Japanese War , Japanese influence largely replaced that of Russia in Manchuria. Japan had mobilized one million soldiers to fight the Russians in Manchuria, one for every eight Japanese families. Despite shocking success,

10434-549: The western part of the country with large Mongolian populations were ruled under a slightly different system, reflecting the distinct traditions extant there. The southern tip of the Liaodong Peninsula , now the city of Dalian , continued to be ruled directly by Japan as the Kwantung Leased Territory until the end of the war. The state was ultimately toppled at the end of World War II with

10545-445: The women, who answered the call of this land of opportunity, brought with them tremendous drive and ambition. In their efforts to remake their own lives, they remade an empire. They invested it with their preoccupations of modernity and their dreams of a Utopian future. They pushed it to embrace idealist rhetoric of social reform and justified itself in terms of Chinese nationalist aspiration. They turned it to architectural ostentation and

10656-478: Was Swiss, saying that they sincerely believed she was a Russian when they assaulted her. Fleming observed that in Manchukuo: "you can beat White Russians up till you are blue in the face, because they are people without status in the world, citizens of nowhere". Fleming further noted that the Japanese in Manchukuo had a strong dislike of all European people, and because the Russians in Manchukuo were stateless without an embassy to issue protests if they were victimized,

10767-588: Was Tachibana Shiraki, who had once been a Marxist Sinologist until after he was arrested and undergoing tenko became a fanatical right-winger. Tachibana went to Manchukuo in 1932, proclaiming that the theory of the "five races" working together was the best solution to Asia's problems and argued in his writings that only Japan could save China from itself, which was a complete change from his previous policies, where he criticized Japan for exploiting China. Other left-wing activists like Ohgami Suehiro did not undergo tenko , but still went to work in Manchukuo, believing it

10878-537: Was a change when the "reform bureaucrat" Nobusuke Kishi was appointed Deputy Minister of Industrial Development. Kishi persuaded the Army to allow the zaibatsu to invest in Manchukuo, arguing that having the state carry out the entire industrialization of Manchukuo was costing too much money. Kishi pioneered an elitist system where bureaucrats such as himself developed economic plans, which the zaibatsu had to then carry out. Kishi succeeded in marshaling private capital in

10989-536: Was changed to the 'Empire of Manchuria' in 1934 upon the coronation of Puyi as the Kangde Emperor. The name in Chinese and Japanese literally translates to 'Empire of Great Manchuria', with the prefixed 大 ; dà ; 'great' suggestive of official names for previous Chinese dynasties, such as ' Great Ming ' and ' Great Qing ', though this went largely unreflected in English translations. The Qing dynasty

11100-444: Was founded in the 17th century by Manchus hailing from northeastern China, conquering the ethnically Han Shun and Ming dynasties. Upon establishing themselves, the Qing referred to their state as 中國 ; Zhōngguó ; 'central country' in Chinese and equivalently as ᡩᡠᠯᡳᠮᠪᠠᡳ ᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ ; Dulimbai gurun in Manchu. The name was used in official documents and treaties, and while conducting foreign affairs. The Qing equated

11211-417: Was nothing more than a figurehead and real authority rested in the hands of the Japanese military officials. An imperial palace was specially built for the emperor. The Manchu ministers all served as frontmen for their Japanese vice-ministers, who made all decisions. In this manner, Japan formally detached Manchukuo from China over the course of the 1930s. With Japanese investment and rich natural resources,

11322-510: Was often referred to in English simply as 'Manchuria', itself an unfamiliar term within China; its use had previously been widely encouraged by the Japanese in order to connote a level of separation from the rest of China. This was in stark contrast to the position held by the Qing, that Manchus were one of several integral Chinese peoples, with their homeland being an integral part of China. The historian Norman Smith wrote that "the term 'Manchuria'

11433-520: Was ostensibly founded as a republic , its territory consisting of the lands seized in the Japanese invasion of Manchuria ; it was later declared to be a constitutional monarchy in 1934, though very little changed in the actual functioning of government. Manchukuo received limited diplomatic recognition , mostly from states aligned with the Axis powers , with its existence widely seen as illegitimate. The region now known as Manchuria had historically been

11544-400: Was possible to effect social reforms that would end the "semi-feudal" condition of the Chinese peasants of Manchukuo, and that he could use the Kwantung Army to effect left-wing reforms in Manchukuo. Ohgami went to work in the "agricultural economy" desk of the Social Research Unit of the South Manchurian Railroad company, writing up reports about the rural economy of Manchukuo that were used by

11655-464: Was reorganized into 19 provinces, with the two special cities of Xinjing and Harbin. Each province was in turn divided in four (Xing'an dong) and 24 (Fengtian) prefectures . Harbin was later incorporated into Binjiang province . Andong and Jinzhou provinces separated themselves from Fengtian while Binjiang and Jiandao separated themselves from Jilin in the same year. Manchukuo experienced rapid economic growth and progress in its social systems. During

11766-607: Was rich in natural resources—was essential for Japan to recover from the Great Depression , which explains why the conquest was so popular at the time and later why the Japanese people were so completely hostile towards any suggestion of letting Manchuria go. At the time, censorship in Japan was nowhere near as stringent as it would later become, and the American historian Louise Young noted: "Had they wished, it would have been possible in 1931 and 1932 for journalists and editors to express anti-war sentiments". The popularity of

11877-566: Was rightfully part of China, and they both passively and violently resisted Japan's propaganda that Manchukuo was a "multinational state". After the Russian Civil War (1917–1922), thousands of Russians fled to Manchuria to join the Russian community already there. The Russians living in Manchuria were stateless and as whites had an ambiguous status in Manchukuo, which was meant to be a Pan-Asian state, whose official "five races" were

11988-521: Was spoken by a majority of adults in a community of around a hundred homes. However, many adults in the area have switched to speaking a local variety of Mongolian , and children have switched to Chinese as taught in the education system. Manchukuo Manchukuo was a puppet state of the Empire of Japan in Northeast China that existed from 1932 until its dissolution in 1945. It

12099-502: Was the government-sponsored Concordia Association , although various émigré groups were permitted their own political associations such as the White Russian Russian Fascist Party . The American historian Louise Young noted that one of the most striking aspects of Manchukuo was that many of the young Japanese civil servants who went to work in Manchukuo were on the left, or at least had once been. In

12210-477: Was to a certain extent based on racism with the Japanese as the "great Yamato race", but there was always a certain dichotomy in Japanese thinking between an ideology based on racial differences based on bloodlines versus the idea of Pan-Asianism with Japan as the natural leader of all the Asian peoples. In 1940, ethnic Russians were included among the other nationalities of Manchukuo as candidates for conscription into

12321-711: Was used to refer to the Manchu and Mongolian languages in addition to those language varieties that descended from Old Chinese . Moreover, the Qing stated explicitly in various edicts, as well as within the Treaty of Nerchinsk , that the Manchu home provinces belonged to China. The Manchu homeland was referred to as the 三東省 ; Sān dōngshěng ; 'three eastern provinces' during the Qing, those provinces being Jilin , Heilongjiang , and Liaoning . These regions were first delineated in 1683, but would not become actual provinces until 1907. Jilin and Heilongjiang, considered primarily Manchu, were separated from Han Liaoning along

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