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62-471: Dome Fuji is an ice dome rising to about 3,700 metres (12,100 ft) in the eastern part of Queen Maud Land . It is the highest elevation in Queen Maud Land and also the highest elevation within the claims of Norway . In 1963–1964, a Soviet Antarctic Expedition oversnow traverse crossed the northern part of the dome at an elevation of over 3,600 metres (11,800 ft). Owing to its location on

124-706: A dependency ( biland ), and the Antarctic Treaty officially came into force on 23 June 1961. Norwegian activity during the 1960s was limited to some minor co-expeditions with the United States, until it gradually picked up again following a larger expedition to western Queen Maud Land and the eastern Weddell Sea by the Norwegian Polar Institute in 1976–77. Founded in 1978, the Polar Affairs Department of

186-542: A base called Maudheim at 71°S, 11°W, and mapped much of western Queen Maud Land. During the International Geophysical Year (1957–1958), year-round stations were established in Queen Maud Land by Norway, the Soviet Union , Belgium and Japan. The Norwegian expedition continued with topographical mapping, while the others started geophysical and geological research. Norway's Norway Station

248-468: A bed inside. He said the purposes of the visit were to claim Norway's possessions in Antarctica, as well as to learn more about the climate research at Troll, which he said was key to better understanding of global climate change. In 2015, King Harald V became the world's first reigning monarch to visit Antarctica when he went to Queen Maud Land. Like all other territorial claims in Antarctica ,

310-534: A depth of 2,503 metres (8,212 ft) was reached. This first core covers a period back to 340,000 years. The core quality from the Dome Fuji Station is excellent, even in the brittle zone from 500 to 860 metres (1,640 to 2,820 ft) deep, where the ice is fragile during the in situ core-cutting procedure. A second deep core was started in 2003. Drilling was carried out during four subsequent austral summers from 2003–2004 until 2006–2007, and by then

372-422: A depth of 3,035.22 metres (9,958.1 ft) was reached. The drill did not hit the bedrock, but rock particles and refrozen water have been found in the deepest ice, indicating that the bedrock is very close to the bottom of the borehole. This core greatly extends the climatic record of the first core, and according to a first, preliminary dating, it reaches back 720,000 years. The ice of the second Valkyrie Dome core

434-567: A maximum of around 40 scientists, the numbers fluctuating depending on the season. Six are occupied year-round, while the remainder are seasonal summer stations. The main aerodromes for intercontinental flights, corresponding with Cape Town , South Africa, are Troll Airfield , near the Norwegian Troll research station, and a runway at the Russian Novolazarevskaya Station . Queen Maud Land extends from

496-688: A small unclaimed area from 1939 was annexed in June 2015. Positioned in East Antarctica , it makes out about one-fifth of the continent, and is named after the Norwegian Queen Maud (1869–1938). In 1930, the Norwegian Hjalmar Riiser-Larsen was the first person known to have set foot in the territory. On 14 January 1939, the territory was claimed by Norway. On 23 June 1961, Queen Maud Land became part of

558-508: Is Japan's main research station in Antarctica. A vast array of research is conducted there, including upper atmosphere physics, meteorology, seismology, gravimetry , geodesy/mapping, oceanography, glaciology, geology, marine and terrestrial biology, and medical research. Japan's other station, Dome Fuji Station was opened as part of a major ice-coring project. It mainly studies climate change and conducts deep drilling and atmospheric observations. Belgium's Princess Elisabeth Antarctica base

620-640: Is currently home to at least 13 research stations, six of which are operated year-round. Norway , Germany and Japan all operate both a perennial and a seasonal station. These are the Norwegian Troll and Tor ; the German Neumayer Station III and Kohnen ; and the Japanese Showa and Dome Fuji . India , Russia and South Africa also operate one permanent station each. Maitri , Novolazarevskaya , and SANAE IV , respectively. The remaining stations are seasonal, and include:

682-584: Is known as Dronning Mauds Land  [ no ] , which translates to Queen Maud Land . Antarctic flora Antarctic flora are a distinct community of vascular plants which evolved millions of years ago on the supercontinent of Gondwana . Presently, species of Antarctica flora reside on several now separated areas of the Southern Hemisphere , including southern South America , southernmost Africa , New Zealand , Australia , and New Caledonia . Joseph Dalton Hooker (1817 – 1911)

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744-560: Is suggested a paleobotanical habitat similar to the extant cool temperate Valdivian rainforests . During the colder Neogene (17–2.5 Ma), a low diversity tundra ecosystem dominated by angiosperms replaced the rainforests. There are two conifer and at least seven angiosperm morphotypes recorded in the Antarctica palaeoflora. Conifers include Cupressinoxylon , which is the more common, and Podocarpoxylon . The angiosperm component includes two species of Nothofagoxylon , one species of Myrceugenelloxylon (similar to Luma , in

806-596: Is therefore the second-oldest ice ever recovered, outranged only by the EPICA Dome C core . Queen Maud Land Queen Maud Land ( Norwegian : Dronning Maud Land ) is a roughly 2.7-million-square-kilometre (1.0-million-square-mile) region of Antarctica claimed by Norway as a dependent territory . It borders the claimed British Antarctic Territory 20° west and the Australian Antarctic Territory 45° east . In addition,

868-589: The Antarctic Plateau and the high elevation, Dome Fuji is one of the coldest places on Earth. Temperatures rarely rise above −30 °C (−20 °F) in summer and can drop to −80 °C (−110 °F) in winter. The annual average air temperature is −54.3 °C (−65.7 °F). The climate is that of a cold desert, with very dry conditions and an annual precipitation of about 25 millimetres (1 in) of water equivalent, which falls entirely as ice crystals . Dome Fuji Station (ドームふじ基地 Dōmu Fuji Kichi )

930-618: The Antarctic Treaty System , making it a demilitarised zone . It is one of two Antarctic claims made by Norway, the other being Peter I Island . They are administered by the Polar Affairs Department of the Norwegian Ministry of Justice and Public Security in Oslo . Most of the territory is covered by the east Antarctic ice sheet , and a tall ice wall stretches throughout its coast. In some areas farther within

992-525: The German Antarctic Expedition in 1938, led by Alfred Ritscher , to fly over as much of it as possible. The ship Schwabenland reached the pack ice off Antarctica on 19 January 1939. During the expedition, an area of about 350,000 square kilometres (140,000 sq mi) was photographed from the air by Ritscher, who dropped darts inscribed with swastikas every 26 kilometres (16 mi). Germany eventually attempted to claim

1054-644: The Mühlig-Hofmann Mountains . The other major mountain ranges are the Heimefront Range , Orvin Mountains , Wohlthat Mountains and Sør Rondane Mountains . Geologically, the ground of Queen Maud Land is dominated by Precambrian gneiss , formed c. 1 to 1.2  Ga , before the creation of the supercontinent Gondwana . The mountains consist mostly of crystalline and granitic rocks, formed c. 500 to 600  Ma in

1116-699: The Norwegian Ministry of Justice and the Police , headquartered in Oslo, has been assigned the administration of the Norwegian polar areas including Queen Maud Land. Since 1979, the Norwegian Polar Institute has been a directorate under the Ministry of the Environment . In 1992, an expedition by Ivar Tollefsen made the first ascents of several mountains, including the tallest, Jøkulkyrkja . Norway established

1178-517: The Pan-African orogeny during the assembly of Gondwana. In the farthest western parts of the territory, there are younger sedimentary and volcanic rocks . Research on the thickness of the ice has revealed that without the ice, the coast would be similar to those of Norway and Greenland , with deep fjords and islands. Queen Maud Land was the first part of Antarctica to be sighted, on 27 January 1820 by Fabian von Bellingshausen . However, it

1240-609: The Richard Evelyn Byrd expedition. In 1948, Norway and the United Kingdom agreed to limit Queen Maud Land to longitudes from 20°W to 45°E, and that the Bruce Coast and Coats Land were to be incorporated into Norwegian territory. The Norwegian–British–Swedish Antarctic Expedition of 1949–52 was the first international scientific expedition in Antarctica. The expedition established its winter quarters at

1302-814: The Troll Airfield , located at the Troll research station, or the runway at the Novolazarevskaya Station . From these two main airfields, smaller aircraft may fly further to other Antarctic destinations. Norway's Troll station serves as a major hub of the DROMLAN network through the Troll Airfield. Research at Troll include air and atmospheric measurements, monitoring of greenhouse gases and bird colonies, as well as meteorological and climate research. The other Norwegian station, Tor ,

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1364-533: The " sector principle " for Arctic Ocean claims by the Soviet Union. In 2015, Norway partially rectified this question by formally laying its claim to the area between the Queen Maud Land and the South Pole. Norwegian administration of Queen Maud Land is controlled by the Polar Affairs Department of the Ministry of Justice and the Police , located in Oslo. The annexation of the territory is regulated by

1426-940: The Belgian Princess Elisabeth Antarctica base; the Finnish Aboa ; the Pakistani Jinnah ; and the Swedish Wasa . These stations' total summer population is approximately 494, but with considerably fewer in winter. These stations are connected by the Dronning Maud Land Air Network Project ( DROMLAN ), which is a cooperative agreement for transportation between eleven nations with research stations in East Antarctica. Long-range aircraft fly between Cape Town, South Africa and either

1488-590: The British as the King Edward VII Plateau, which was in conflict with the Norwegian claim. Amundsen's claim has never been officially claimed by the Norwegian government. The name Queen Maud Land was initially applied in January 1930 to the land between 37°E and 49°30′E discovered by Hjalmar Riiser-Larsen and Finn Lützow-Holm during Lars Christensen 's Norvegia expedition of 1929–30. It

1550-689: The Dependency Act of 24 March 1933; Queen Maud Land was added on 21 June 1957. It declares that Norwegian criminal law, private law and procedural law apply to the territory, in addition to other laws that explicitly state they are valid in the territory. Furthermore, it establishes that all the land belongs to the state, and prohibits both nuclear detonations and the storage of nuclear waste. Since 5 May 1995, Norwegian law has required all Norwegian activity in Antarctica to follow international environmental law for Antarctica. Norwegian citizens who plan activities in Queen Maud Land must therefore report to

1612-595: The Eurasian continent. Today, the flora of Africa and India have few remnants of the Antarctic flora. Australia drifted north and became drier as well; the humid Antarctic flora retreated to the east coast and Tasmania, while the rest of Australia became dominated by Acacia , Eucalyptus , and Casuarina , as well as xeric shrubs and grasses. Humans arrived in Australia 50–60,000 years ago and used fire to reshape

1674-529: The King Haakon VII Sea off Queen Maud Land. The Ross seal is notably found in its greatest numbers in the King Haakon VII Sea. The nunatak areas have a scarcity of flora, limited to lichen , bryophyte and algae. Flowering plants are not found there. The Norwegian Polar Institute has not registered the occurrence of any threatened or rare plants or animals in Queen Maud Land, the known ones thus existing in healthy populations. Queen Maud Land

1736-574: The Netherlands in 1964–66. The United States established the temporary Plateau Station in 1966. In 1948, the newly created Norwegian Polar Institute was assigned the administration of Norwegian territories in the Arctic and Antarctic, including Queen Maud Land. Norway sent two major expeditions to the territory in the 1940s and 1950s, but its efforts declined after that. On 21 June 1957, Queen Maud Land became subject to Norwegian sovereignty as

1798-474: The Norwegian Polar Institute, which may prohibit any non-compliant activity. Those who visit Queen Maud Land must follow laws regarding protection of nature, treatment of waste, pollution and insurance for search and rescue operations. There are three types of birds around Troll station: the Antarctic petrel , the snow petrel and the south polar skua . The Antarctic petrel lives on the sea ice for most of

1860-439: The Norwegian claim of Queen Maud Land (along with its claim of Peter I Island ) is subject to the Antarctic Treaty System . The treaty makes clear that Antarctica can only be used for peaceful purposes and assures the freedom of scientific activity. It promotes international scientific cooperation and bans any nuclear -related activities. Although territorial claims are not invalidated by the treaty, all claims under Article III of

1922-573: The air. Captain H. Halvorsen of the whaler Sevilla discovered the Princess Astrid Coast independently at the same time. Six years later, during Christensen's expedition of 1936–37, Viggo Widerøe flew over and discovered the Prince Harald Coast. Negotiations with the British government in 1938 resulted in the western border of Queen Maud Land being set at 20°W. Norway's claim was disputed by Germany, which dispatched

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1984-512: The boundary with Coats Land in the west to the boundary with Enderby Land in the east, and is divided into the Princess Martha Coast , Princess Astrid Coast , Princess Ragnhild Coast , Prince Harald Coast and Prince Olav Coast . The territory is estimated to cover around 2,700,000 square kilometres (1,000,000 sq mi), which roughly corresponds to the sizes of India , Argentina or Kazakhstan . The limits of

2046-433: The claim, put forth in 1939, did not fix the northern and southern limits other than as "the mainland beach in Antarctica ... with the land that lies beyond this beach and the sea beyond". The sea that extends off the coast between the longitudinal limits of Queen Maud Land is generally called King Haakon VII Sea . There is very limited ice-free land at the coast, in the vicinity of Japan's Showa station. The remainder of

2108-435: The coast consists of a 20-to-30-metre high (70 to 100 ft) wall of ice almost throughout the entire territory. It is thus only possible to disembark from a ship in a few places. Some 150 to 200 kilometres (90 to 120 mi) from the coast, rocky peaks pierce the ice cap, itself at a mean height of around 2,000 metres (6,600 ft) above sea level, with the highest point at Jøkulkyrkja (3,148 metres or 10,328 feet) in

2170-902: The extant family Myrtaceae ), and one species of Weinmannioxylon (similar to Eucryphia in the extant family Cunoniaceae). Two other species are assigned to genera Hedycaryoxylon ( Monimiaceae ) and Atherospermoxylon ( Atherospermataceae ). A fossil water lily , Notonuphar (similar to Nuphar in the extant family Nympheaceae ), was described from Eocene -aged sediments on Seymour Island in 2017. Antarctica's extant flora presently consists of around 100 mosses , 25-30 liverworts , and around 700 terrestrial and aquatic algal species. In addition, there are around 250 lichens . Species of moss endemic to Antarctica include Grimmia antarctici , Schistidium antarctici , and Sarconeurum glaciale . Just two native flowering plants, Deschampsia antarctica (Antarctic hair grass) and Colobanthus quitensis (Antarctic pearlwort), are found on

2232-475: The first decades of the 20th century. The Antarctic Plateau was claimed for Norway by Roald Amundsen as the King Haakon VII Plateau when his expedition was the first to reach the South Pole on 14 December 1911. It was mapped as a circular territory comprising the plateau around the South Pole, including all the land above latitude 85°S. However, roughly the same area had been claimed by

2294-481: The flora of southern Neotropic (South America) and Australasian realms , which were also former parts of Gondwana. Some genera which originated in Antarctic Flora are still recognized as major components of the flora of New Caledonia, Tasmania , Madagascar , India , New Zealand, and southern South America. South America, Madagascar, Africa, India, Australia, New Zealand, and Antarctica were all part of

2356-522: The ice sheet, mountain ranges breach through the ice, allowing for birds to breed and the growth of a limited flora . The region is divided into, from west to east, the Princess Martha Coast , Princess Astrid Coast , Princess Ragnhild Coast , Prince Harald Coast and Prince Olav Coast : The waters off the coast are called the King Haakon VII Sea . There is no permanent population, although there are 12 active research stations housing

2418-441: The late 19th century. In addition, Norway was forced to contend with competing claims made by the United Kingdom and other countries in the years prior to the Norwegian claim, including the new threat of German claims in Queen Maud Land. The Norwegian claim was sometimes referred to as the "Bouvet sector", drawing from the previously annexed Bouvet Island . During 1946 and 1947, vast areas of Queen Maud Land were photographed during

2480-437: The late Cretaceous period in the cooler and humid southern hemisphere regions of Australia, southern South America, southern Africa, Antarctica, and New Zealand; it most resembled the flora of modern-day southern New Zealand. A drier northern Gondwanan flora had developed in northern South America and northern Africa. Africa and India drifted north into the tropical latitudes, became hotter and drier, and ultimately connected with

2542-540: The limits of the Australian Antarctic Territory in the east (45° east long.), with the land lying within this coast and the environing sea, shall be brought under Norwegian sovereignty. The primary basis for the annexation were the Norwegian explorations and the need to secure the Norwegian whaling industry's access to the region. Scientific operations were also a basis, with Norwegian contributions to international polar science extending back to

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2604-462: The mountainous areas of Queen Maud Land. During the breeding season, the south polar skua feeds exclusively upon the eggs, as well as both young and adult birds, of both petrel species. The emperor penguin has some of its breeding places concentrated in Queen Maud Land. All four of the true Antarctic seals, namely the Weddell seal , leopard seal , crabeater seal and Ross seal , can be found in

2666-472: The northern and western parts of the Antarctic Peninsula . The continent of Antarctica itself has been too cold and dry to support any other vascular plants for millions of years. The scanty vegetation of Antarctica is a result of the chilling temperature, lack of sunlight, little rainfall, relatively poor soil quality , and a lack of moisture due to the inability of the plants to absorb water in

2728-876: The successor to three former stations, was completed in 1997. Research at SANAE IV include invasion biology /ecology, geology, geomorphology and atmospheric sciences . Its facilities include a small hospital and a two-helicopter hangar. The Swedish Wasa station and the Finnish Aboa station together make up the Nordenskiöld Base , and cooperate in research and logistics. Research carried out includes geodesy/mapping, glaciology, human biology, meteorological observations, geology and geophysics. The German Neumayer Station III , finished in 2009, succeeded two former stations that were buried by snow and ice. It conducts geophysical, meteorological and seismological research, as well as air chemistry measurements and atmospheric ozone monitoring. Germany's other station, Kohnen ,

2790-606: The summer station Troll in 1989–90. In 2003, Minister of the Environment Børge Brende was the first Norwegian minister to visit Queen Maud Land, and he soon allocated funds to expand the Troll station. Troll was upgraded to a year-round station in 2005 as part of the centenary of Norway's independence. Among the guests were Minister of Foreign Affairs Jan Petersen and Minister of the Environment Knut Arild Hareide , and Troll

2852-470: The supercontinent Gondwana, which started to break up in the early Cretaceous period (145–66 million years ago). India was the first to break away, followed by Africa, and then New Zealand, which started to drift north. By the end of the Cretaceous, South America and Australia were still joined to Antarctica. Paleontologist Gilbert Brenner identified the emergence of a distinct southern Gondwanan flora by

2914-625: The territory surveyed by Ritscher under the name New Swabia , but lost any claim to the land following its defeat in the Second World War . On 14 January 1939, five days prior to the German arrival, Queen Maud Land was annexed by Norway, by royal decree: That part of the mainland coast in the Antarctic extending from the limits of the Falkland Islands Dependencies in the west (the boundary of Coats Land) to

2976-406: The treaty are in effect suspended as long as it is in force. Norway, Australia, France, New Zealand and the United Kingdom have all mutually recognised each other's claims in Antarctica. But there is a question on the actual boundaries of the claim, since the initial Norwegian demarcations both towards the South Pole and into the sea were left unclear. Apparently this was to avoid accepting use of

3038-573: The tree fern Dicksonia , are characteristic of the Antarctic flora. A wide variety of plant life has resided in Antarctica throughout its history. Investigations of Upper Cretaceous and Early Tertiary sediments of Antarctica yield a rich assemblage of well-preserved fossil dicotyledonous angiosperm wood which provides evidence for the existence, since the Late Cretaceous, of temperate forests similar in composition to those found in present-day southern South America, New Zealand and Australia. It

3100-686: The vegetation of the continent; as a result, the Antarctic flora, also known as the Rainforest flora in Australia, retreated to a few isolated areas composing less than 2% of Australia's land area. The woody plants of the Antarctic flora include conifers in the families Podocarpaceae , Araucariaceae and the subfamily Callitroideae of Cupressaceae , and angiosperms such as the families Proteaceae , Griseliniaceae , Cunoniaceae , Atherospermataceae , and Winteraceae , and genera like southern beech ( Nothofagus ) and fuchsia ( Fuchsia ). Many other families of flowering plants and ferns, including

3162-534: The year, with the exception of its breeding season (in Antarctica, from November to February), when it moves to the inland mountains and nunataks . The 3.9-square-kilometre (1.5 sq mi) area of ice-free cliffs in Princess Astrid Coast called Svarthamaren Mountain hosts Antarctica's largest known inland colony of breeding seabirds, almost 1 million (250,000 pairs) Antarctic petrels. Many snow petrels and south polar skuas also breed in this area. Snow petrels are generally spread out in smaller colonies throughout

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3224-514: Was also part of the ancient supercontinent of Gondwana, which gradually broke up by plate tectonics starting 110 million years ago. The separation of South America from Antarctica 30–35 million years ago allowed the Antarctic Circumpolar Current to form, which isolated Antarctica climatically and caused it to become much colder. The Antarctic flora subsequently died out in Antarctica, but is still an important component of

3286-573: Was among the last to be explored, as it required aircraft in combination with ships to undertake systematic exploration. Early Norwegian research activities in Antarctica rested entirely on whaling and sealing expeditions funded by ship owners, particularly by Christen Christensen and his son Lars . The first two Norwegian expeditions were carried out by sealing ships in 1892–93 and 1893–94. While they were primarily sent for exploring, sealing, and whaling possibilities, they also performed scientific research. Further Norwegian expeditions were mounted into

3348-534: Was determined to be its own floristic kingdom because of the influx of tropical Eurasian flora that had mostly supplanted the Antarctic flora and included New Guinea and New Caledonia in the Paleotropical floristic kingdom. Millions of years ago the climate in Antarctica was warmer, and was able to support flora well into the Neogene . This included forests of podocarps and southern beech . Antarctica

3410-555: Was established as Dome Fuji Observation Base (ドームふじ観測拠点 Dōmu Fuji Kansoku Kyoten ) in January 1995. Its name was changed to "Dome Fuji Station" on April 1, 2004. Located at 77°19′S 39°42′E  /  77.317°S 39.700°E  / -77.317; 39.700 , it is separated from Showa Station by about 1,000 kilometres (620 mi). Deep ice core drilling at Valkyrie Dome was started in August 1995, and in December 1996

3472-401: Was established as a project to promote polar sciences, as well as to demonstrate the possibility of building a zero emission station. Research is conducted by an international team of scientists, studying climatology, glaciology and microbiology . Queen Maud Land is featured in the 2021 video game Battlefield 2042 as the setting of the multiplayer map Breakaway. A Norwegian pop group

3534-482: Was established for researching birds at the breeding colony in Svarthamaren Mountain . Activities conducted by Russia's Novolazarevskaya Station include environmental monitoring, geodesy /mapping, geomagnetic and meteorological observations, glaciology , biology, ionospheric  / auroral observations, limnology , geology, geophysics and seismology . South Africa's SANAE IV station,

3596-621: Was lent to South Africa following the withdrawal of the Norwegian expedition in 1960. South Africa later built the SANAE station, near the now-defunct Norway Station. The Soviet Union, and later Russia, has maintained continual operations, although it moved from Lazarev Station to Novolazarevskaya Station . Japan has been based at its Showa Station since 1957, except for a hiatus of a few years. Belgium closed its King Baudouin Station in 1961, though it mounted limited operations in cooperation with

3658-543: Was named after the Norwegian queen Maud of Wales , wife of the then-reigning King Haakon VII . The territory was explored further during the Norvegia expedition of 1930–31. During this whaling season, a total of 265 whaling ships, mostly Norwegian, worked off the coast of Queen Maud Land. In the same season, Riiser-Larsen discovered the Prince Olav Coast, Princess Martha Coast and Princess Ragnhild Coast from

3720-406: Was officially opened by Queen Sonja of Norway , the first queen to ever visit Antarctica. In 2008, Prime Minister Jens Stoltenberg , accompanied by forty officials, scientists and reporters, became the first Norwegian prime minister to visit Queen Maud Land. He personally named three mountains around the Troll station where he was based, although he chose to sleep outdoors in a tent, rather than in

3782-546: Was opened as part of a major ice-drilling project. The Maitri station succeeded the Dakshin Gangotri station in 1989, India's first Antarctic base. Maitri's research focus on geology, and the study of the supercontinent Gondwana , when India and Antarctica belonged to the same landmass. It also includes low-temperature engineering research that is relevant to conditions in the Himalayas . The Showa Station

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3844-444: Was the first to notice similarities in the flora and speculated that Antarctica had served as either a source or a transitional point, and that land masses now separated might formerly have been adjacent. Based on the similarities in their flora, botanist Ronald D'Oyley Good identified a separate Antarctic Floristic Kingdom that included southern South America, New Zealand, and some southern island groups. In addition, Australia

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