Misplaced Pages

#158841

107-475: The Calbys river (now known as the Dalyan river) was the border between Caria and Lycia . Initially Kaunos was a separate state; then it became a part of Caria and later still of Lycia. Kaunos was an important sea port, the history of which is supposed to date back to the 10th century BC. Because of the formation of İztuzu Beach and the silting of the former Bay of Dalyan (from approx. 200 BC onwards), Kaunos

214-593: A suffragan of the Lycian Metropolitan of the capital's Archdiocese of Myra . It vacant since 1972, having had the following incumbents, both of the fitting Episcopal (lowest) rank : Kaunos is a site that is interesting for both its archeological and ecological importance. Situated in the Köyceğiz-Dalyan Special Environmental Protection Area , it offers outstanding vistas and is rich in wildlife. The ruins of

321-614: A Roman protectorate . The Romans validated home rule officially under the Lycian League in 168 BC. This native government was an early federation with republican principles; these later came to the attention of the framers of the United States Constitution , influencing their thoughts. Despite home rule, Lycia was not a sovereign state and had not been since its defeat by the Carians . In 43 AD

428-542: A central building, and burned them up. Then, after taking an oath not to surrender, they died to a man fighting the Persians, foreshadowing and perhaps setting an example for Spartan conduct at the Battle of Thermopylae a few generations later. Archaeological evidence indicates there was a major fire on the acropolis of Xanthos in the mid-6th century BC but, as Antony Keen points out, there is no way to connect that fire with

535-441: A century later than the conqueror of Lycia. The next logical possibility is that Kheriga's father, Arppakhu, was a descendant of the conqueror. In opposition, Keen reconstructs the dynastic sequence from coin inscriptions as follows. Kheriga had two grandfathers, Kuprlli and Kheriga. The younger Kheriga was the successor of Kuprlli. The latter's son, therefore, Kheziga, who was Kheriga's uncle, must have predeceased Kuprlli. Arppakhu

642-828: A geographical indication status in 2019. The eponymous inhabitants of Lycia, the Lycians , spoke Lycian, a member of the Luwian branch of the Anatolian languages , a subfamily of the Indo-European family. Lycian has been attested only between about 500 BC and no later than 300 BC, in a unique alphabet devised for the purpose from the Greek alphabet of Rhodes. However, the Luwian languages originated in Anatolia during

749-456: A monarchy set up by the Persians. Subsequently, the Lycians were verbose in stone, carving memorial, historical and governmental inscriptions. Not all of these can yet be entirely understood, due to remaining ignorance of the language. The term "dynastic period" is used. If the government was any sort of federal democracy, there is no evidence of it, as the term "dynastic" suggests. Lycia hosted

856-515: A non-trivial evolution in Carian from * -onto into -n, -ñ (and possibly -ne ?). Virtually nothing is known of Carian syntax. This is chiefly due to two factors: first, uncertainty as to which words are verbs; second, the longer Carian inscriptions hardly show word dividers. Both factors seriously hamper the analysis of longer Carian texts. The only texts for which the structure is well understood, are funeral inscriptions from Egypt. Their nucleus

963-588: A part of the kingdom of Lysimachus , who ruled until he was killed in battle in 281 BC. Control then passed to the Ptolemaic Kingdom, centre on Egypt. Ptolemy II Philadelphos (ruled 285–246 BC), who supported the Limyrans of Lycia when they were threatened by the Galatians (a Celtic tribe that had invaded Asia Minor ). The citizens of Limyra in return dedicated a monument to Ptolemy, called

1070-594: A prospering sea port. The amphitheater of the city was enlarged and Roman baths and a palaestra were built. The agora fountain was renovated and new temples arose. Kaunos was christianized at an early date and when the Roman Empire officially adopted the Christian faith, its name changed into Caunos-Hegia . From 625 AD onwards Kaunos was faced with attacks by Muslim Arabs and pirates. The 13th century brought invasions by Turkish tribes. Consequently,

1177-502: A similar sound. A few candidates have been proposed: ýbt , 'he offered', not , 'he brings / brought', ait , 'they made', but these are not well established. In a Carian-Greek bilingual from Kaunos the first two words in Carian are kbidn uiomλn , corresponding to Greek ἔδοξε Καυνίοις, 'Kaunos decided' (literally: 'it seemed right to the Kaunians'). The first word, kbidn , is Carian for 'Kaunos' (or, 'the Kaunians'), so one would expect

SECTION 10

#1732780537159

1284-520: A small enclave of Dorian Greeks for some centuries and Rhodes was mainly inhabited by Dorians at the time. After the defeat of the Persians by the Greeks, Lycia became open to further Greek settlement. During this period, inscriptions in Lycian diminished, while those in Greek multiplied. Complete assimilation to Greek occurred sometime in the 4th century, after Lycia had come under the control of Alexander

1391-452: A tax of 400 silver talents. This satrapy was later broken up and recombined. Keen hypothesizes that since Caria had responsibility for the King's Highway through Lycia, Lycia and Caria were a satrapy. The Achaemenid Persian policy toward Lycia was hands-off. There was not even a satrap stationed in the country. The reason for this tolerance after such a determined initial resistance is that

1498-519: A tree-model), or are due to the effects of a sprachbund , is disputed. Carian is known from these sources: Text in Carian: Kaunusa tiñ árdajós martaša arpandab tarśñpi mašina xrá́m za Prior to the late 20th century the language remained a total mystery even though many characters of the script seemed to be from the Greek alphabet . Using Greek phonetic values of letters investigators of

1605-400: Is 1,100 m (3,600 ft), which is the highest part of the valley below it. Fellows considered the valley to be central Lycia. The Akçay, or 'White River', the ancient Aedesa, brought water from the slopes to the plain, where it pooled in two lakes below the town, Karagöl and Avlangöl. Currently the two lakes are dry, the waters being captured on an ongoing basis by irrigation systems for

1712-506: Is Tahtali Dağ, elevation 2,366 m (7,762 ft), dubbed "Mount Olympus" in antiquity by the Greeks, remembering Mount Olympus in Greece. These mountains create a rugged coastline called by Fellows eastern Lycia. Much of it has been reserved as Olimpos Beydağlari Parki. Within the park on the slopes of Mount Olympus is a U-shaped outcrop, Yanartaş , above Cirali , from which methane gas, naturally perpetually escaping from below through

1819-464: Is a region of western Anatolia between the ancient regions of Lycia and Lydia , a name possibly first mentioned in Hittite sources. Carian is closely related to Lycian and Milyan (Lycian B), and both are closely related to, though not direct descendants of, Luwian . Whether the correspondences between Luwian, Carian, and Lycian are due to direct descent (i.e. a language family as represented by

1926-458: Is documented as fighting on the winning side of Persia. The Persian satraps were re-installed, but (as the coinage of the time attests) they allowed local dynasts the freedom to rule. The last known dynast of Lycia was Perikles . He ruled 380–360 BC over eastern Lycia from Limyra , at a time when Western Lycia was directly under Persian domination. Pericles took an active part in the Revolt of

2033-401: Is impounded behind Alakir Dam to form an urban-size reservoir. Below the reservoir a braided stream alternates with a single, small channel flowing through irrigated land. The wide bed gives an indication of the former size of the river. Upstream from the reservoir the stream lies in an unaltered gorge, flowing from the slopes of Baydağlari. The ancient route to Antalya goes up the valley and over

2140-417: Is listed as regnant on two other inscriptions, but he did not succeed Kuprlli. He must therefore have married a daughter of Kuprlli, and have also predeceased the long-lived Kuprlli. The latter then was too old to reign de facto. On the contemporaneous deaths of both him and his son-in-law, Kheriga, named after his paternal grandfather, acquired the throne. Kuprlli was the first king recorded for certain (there

2247-485: Is not a native term. The Lycian inscriptions indicate the monarch was titled xñtawati, more phonetically khñtawati. The holders of this title can be traced in coin legends, having been given the right to coin. Lycia had a single monarch, who ruled the entire country from a palace at Xanthos. The monarchy was hereditary, hence the term "dynast." It was utilized by Persia as a means of transmitting Persian policy. It must have been they who put down local resistance and transported

SECTION 20

#1732780537159

2354-565: Is not limited to Kaunos itself, but is also carried out in locations nearby e.g. near the Sultaniye Spa where there used to be a sanctuary devoted to the goddess Leto. The city was commonly known by its Greek name, Kaunos (Καῦνος). The Romans called Kaunos by its name in Latin , Caunus. Kaunos' Carian name was Kbid (𐊼𐊬𐊹𐊢 in the Carian alphabet ). A citizen of Kaunos, a 'Kaunian',

2461-546: Is now located about 8 km from the coast. The city had two ports, the southern port at the southeast of Küçük Kale and the inner port at its northwest (the present Sülüklü Göl , Lake of the Leeches). The southern port was used from the foundation of the city till roughly the end of the Hellenistic era, after which it became inaccessible due to its drying out. The inner or trade port could be closed by chains. The latter

2568-403: Is the name of the deceased. Personal names in Carian were usually written as "A, [son] of B" (where B is in the genitive, formally recognizable from its genitival ending -ś). For example: In funeral inscriptions the father's name is often accompanied by the relative pronoun k̂i , "who, who is": The formula may then be extended by a substantive like 'grave', ' stele ', 'monument'; by the name of

2675-543: Is the same. The reason for this might be that the Carians originally developed an alphabet consisting of consonants only (like the Phoenician and Hieroglyphic alphabets before them), and later added the vowel signs, borrowed from a Greek alphabet . The Carian alphabet consisted of about 34 characters: In Caria inscriptions are usually written from left to right, but most texts from Egypt are written right-to-left; in

2782-462: Is the tomb of Tur..." [Ἀ]ριστοκλε̂ς ἐπ[οίε̄] Greek: Aristokles epoie — "Made by Aristocles." The word 𐊰𐊠𐊵 san is equivalent to τόδε and evidences the Anatolian language assibilation , parallel to Luwian za-, "this". If 𐊸𐋅𐊠𐊰 śjas is not exactly the same as Σε̂μα Sēma it is roughly equivalent. The Achaean Greeks arriving in small numbers on the coasts of Anatolia in

2889-700: The Achaemenid Empire in the Iron Age . At that time (546 BC) the Luwian speakers were displaced as Lycia received an influx of Persian speakers. The many cities in Lycia were wealthy as shown by their elaborate architecture starting at least from the 5th century BC and extending to the Roman period. Lycia fought for the Persians in the Persian Wars , but on the defeat of the Achaemenid Empire by

2996-524: The Battle of Salamis , but he may be commemorated by the Harpy Tomb . According to this theory, Cybernis was the KUB of the first coin legends, dated to the window, 520–500. The date would have been more towards 500. There is a gap, however, between him and Kuprlli, who should have had a father named the same as his son, Kheziga. The name Kubernis does not appear again. Keen suggests that Darius I created

3103-640: The Late Bronze Age found them occupied by a population that did not speak Greek and were generally involved in political relationships with the Hittite Empire . After the fall of the latter the region became the target of heavy immigration by Ionian and Dorian Greeks who enhanced Greek settlements and founded or refounded major cities. They assumed for purposes of collaboration new regional names based on their previous locations: Ionia , Doris . The writers born in these new cities reported that

3210-643: The Late Bronze Age , Lycia was part of the Lukka lands known from Hittite and ancient Egyptian records. The toponyms Lukka and Lycia are believed to be cognate, as are the names of numerous Lukkan and Lycian settlements. The Lukka lands were never a unified kingdom, instead having a decentralized political structure. Archaeological remains of the Lukka people are sparse. The Lukka people were famously fractious, with Hittite and Egyptian records describing them as raiders, rebels, and pirates. Lukka people fought against

3317-597: The Mediterranean Sea in what is today the provinces of Antalya and Muğla in Turkey as well some inland parts of Burdur Province . The region was known to history from the Late Bronze Age records of ancient Egypt and the Hittite Empire . Lycia was populated by speakers of Luwic languages . Written records began to be inscribed in stone in the Lycian language after Lycia's involuntary incorporation into

Kaunos - Misplaced Pages Continue

3424-606: The Peloponnesian wars (431–404 BC), the majority of Lycian cities defaulted from the Delian League , with the exception of Telmessos and Phaselis. In 429 BC, Athens sent an expedition against Lycia to try to force it to rejoin the League. This failed when Lycia's leader Gergis/ Kheriga of Xanthos defeated Athenian General Melesander. The Lycians once again fell under Persian domination, and by 412 BC, Lycia

3531-632: The Persians , who incorporated them and their lands into the new Persian Empire . Cyrus the Great , founder of the Achaemenid dynasty, resolved to complete the conquest of Anatolia as a prelude to operations further west, to be carried out by his successors. He assigned the task to Harpagus , a Median general, who proceeded to subdue the various states of Anatolia, one by one, some by convincing them to submit, others through military action. Arriving at

3638-710: The Ptolemaion circa 270 BC. By 240 BC Lycia was firmly part of the Ptolemaic Kingdom , centred on Egypt, and remained in their control through 200 BC. Carian language The Carian language is an extinct language of the Luwic subgroup of the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European language family , spoken by the Carians . The known corpus is small, and the majority comes from Egypt . Circa 170 Carian inscriptions from Egypt are known, whilst only circa 30 are known from Caria itself. Caria

3745-625: The Roman senate put Kaunos under the jurisdiction of Rhodes. At that time it was known as the Rhodian Peraia . In 167 BC this led to a revolt by Kaunos and a number of other cities in western Anatolia against Rhodes. As a result, Rome discharged Rhodes from its task. In 129 BC the Romans established the Province of Asia, which covered a large part of western Anatolia. Kaunos was near

3852-616: The Xanthos , Lycian Arñna, originating in the Boncuk Mountains, flowing south, and transecting the several-mile-long beach at Patara . The Xanthos Valley was the country called Tŗmmis in dynastic Lycia, from which the people were the Termilae or Tremilae, or Kragos in the coin inscriptions of Greek Lycia: Kr or Ksan Kr. The name of western Lycia was given by Charles Fellows to it and points of Lycia west of it. The next ridge to

3959-497: The 19th and 20th centuries were unable to make headway and erroneously classified the language as non- Indo-European . A breakthrough was reached in the 1980s, using bilingual funerary inscriptions (Carian-Egyptian) from Egypt ( Memphis and Sais ). By matching personal names in Carian characters with their counterparts in Egyptian hieroglyphs, John D. Ray , Diether Schürr , and Ignacio J. Adiego were able to unambiguously derive

4066-509: The 2nd millennium BC. The country was known by the name of Lukka then, and was sometimes under Hittite rule. At about 535 BC, before the first appearance of attested Lycian, the Achaemenid Empire overran Lycia. Despite its resistance, because of which the population of Xanthos was decimated, Lycia became part of the Persian Empire. The first coins with Lycian letters on them appeared not long before 500 BC. Lycia prospered under

4173-574: The 2nd-century BC dialogue Erōtes found the cities of Lycia "interesting more for their history than for their monuments, since they have retained none of their former splendor," many relics of the Lycians remain visible today. These relics include the distinctive rock-cut tombs in the sides of cliffs. The British Museum in London contains one of the best collections of Lycian artifacts. Letoon , an important center in Hellenic times of worship for

4280-484: The 4th century BC. Kaunos is first referred to by Herodotus in his book Histories . He narrates that the Persian general Harpagus marches against the Lycians , Carians and Kaunians during the Persian invasion of 546 BCE. Herodotus writes that the Kaunians fiercely countered Harpagus' attacks but were ultimately defeated. Despite the fact that the Kaunians themselves said they originated from Crete ,. He thought it

4387-640: The 4th century. Four bishops are mentioned by Lequien : The Synecdemus of Hierocles and most Notitiae Episcopatuum , as late as the 12th or 13th century, place it in Lycia , as a suffragan of Myra . The see is included, under the Latinized form of its name, Caunus , among the Latin titular bishoprics recognized by the Catholic Church . since it was nominally restored (no later than 1911), as

Kaunos - Misplaced Pages Continue

4494-591: The Calbys river emerged from her tears. The oldest find at the Kaunos archeological site is the neck of a Protogeometric amphora dating back to the 9th century BC, or even earlier. A statue found at the western gate of the city walls, pieces of imported Attic ceramics and the S-SE oriented city walls show habitation in the 6th century BC. However, none of the architectural finds at Kaunos itself dates back to earlier than

4601-485: The Carian King Miletus and Kyane , and grandson of Apollo . Kaunos had a twin sister by the name of Byblis who developed a deep, unsisterly love for him. When she wrote her brother a love letter, telling him about her feelings, he decided to flee with some of his followers to settle elsewhere. His twin sister became mad with sorrow, started looking for him and tried to commit suicide. Mythology says that

4708-511: The Great and his fellow Macedonians. There is no agreement yet on which inscription in the Lycian language is the very last, but nothing dated after the year 300 BC has yet been found. Subsequently, the Lycians were vassalized by the Roman Republic , which allowed the Lycians home rule under their own language, which at that point was Greek. Lycia continued to exist as a vassal state under the Roman Empire until its final division after

4815-626: The Great 's 334 BC brought the city under the rule of the Macedonian empire . After Alexander's death , Kaunos, due to its strategic location, was disputed among the Diadochi , changing hands between the Antigonids , Ptolemies , and Seleucids . Because of differences between the Hellenistic kingdoms, the Roman Republic was able to expand its influence in the area and annex a considerable number of Hellenistic kingdoms. In 189 BC

4922-566: The Great . Due to the influx of Greek speakers and the sparsity of the remaining Lycian speakers, Lycia was rapidly Hellenized under the Macedonians, and the Lycian language disappeared from inscriptions and coinage. On defeating Antiochus III the Great in 188 BC, the Roman Republic gave Lycia to Rhodes for 20 years, taking it back in 168 BC. In these latter stages of the Roman Republic, Lycia came to enjoy freedom as

5029-542: The Greek epigram inscribed on the Xanthian Obelisk , which says "this monument has brought glory to the family (genos) of ka[]ika," which has a letter missing. It is probably not *karikas, for Kherika, as the latter is translated in the Letoon trilingual as Gergis. A more likely possibility is *kasikas for Kheziga, the same as Kheriga's uncle, the successor to Kuprlli, who predeceased him. Herodotus mentioned that

5136-477: The Greek equivalent in parentheses. An epenthetic schwa to break up clusters may have been unwritten. Carian nouns are inflected for at least three cases: nominative, accusative, and genitive. The dative case is assumed to be present also, based on related Anatolian languages and the frequency of dedicatory inscriptions, but its form is quite unclear. All Anatolian languages also distinguish between animate and inanimate noun genders. Features that help identify

5243-473: The Greeks, it became intermittently a free agent. After a brief membership in the Athenian Empire , it seceded and became independent (its treaty with Athens had omitted the usual non-secession clause), was under the Persians again, revolted again, was conquered by Mausolus of Caria , returned to the Persians, and finally fell under Macedonian hegemony upon the defeat of the Persians by Alexander

5350-474: The Greeks, some of whom attempted to give etymologies in words they said were Carian. For the most part they still remain a mystery. Writing disappeared in the Greek Dark Ages but no earlier Carian writing has survived. When inscriptions, some bilingual, began to appear in the 7th century BCE it was already some hundreds of years after the city-naming phase. The earlier Carian may not have been exactly

5457-700: The Hittites as part of the Assuwa confederation , later fought for the Hittites in the Battle of Kadesh , and are listed among the groups known to modern scholars as the Sea People . Herodotus writes more credibly of contemporaneous events, especially where they concerned his native land. Asia Minor had been partly conquered by Iranian peoples , first the Scythians , later the Medes . The latter were defeated by

SECTION 50

#1732780537159

5564-646: The Iranians were utilizing another method of control: the placement of aristocratic Persian families in a region to exercise putative home rule. There is some evidence that the Lycian population was not as docile as the Persian hand-off policy would suggest. A section of the Persepolis Administrative Archives called the Persepolis Fortification Tablets, regarding the redistribution of goods and services in

5671-486: The Lycian inscription, except for one line identifying a person of illegible name, to whom the monument was erected, termed the son of Arppakhu in Lycian, equivalent to Greek Harpagos . Concluding that this person was the conqueror of Lycia in 546, Fellows conjectured that Harpagos had been made permanent satrap of Lycia for his services; moreover, the position was hereditary, creating a Harpagid Dynasty. This theory prevailed nearly without question for several generations. To

5778-463: The Persepolis palace economy , mentions some redistributed prisoners of war, among whom were the Turmirla or Turmirliya, Lycian Trm̃mili, "Lycians." They lived during the reign of Darius I (522–486), the tablets dating from 509. For closer attention to their conquered, the Persian government preferred to establish a client state , setting up a monarchy under their control. The term " dynast " has come into use among English-speaking scholars, but that

5885-405: The Roman emperor Claudius dissolved the league, and Lycia was incorporated into the Roman province of Lycia et Pamphylia . In 395, the province was assigned to the Eastern Roman Empire . It lost the region to the Sultanate of Rum in the early 13th century, which itself collapsed in 1308. It was then absorbed by the Beylik of Teke and came under the rule of the Ottoman Empire in 1423. Lycia

5992-422: The Satraps against Achaemenid power, but lost his territory when defeated. After Perikles, Persian rule was reestablished firmly in Lycia in 366 or 362 BC. Control was taken by Mausolus , the satrap of nearby Caria , who moved the satrap's residence to Halicarnassus . Lycia was also ruled directly by the Carian dynast Pixodarus , son of Hecatomnus , as shown in the Xanthos trilingual inscription . Lycia

6099-407: The Spartan Pausanias in the Eastern Mediterranean circa 478 BC. However, the Lycian were still on the Persian side during the expeditions of Kimon circa 470 BC, who finally persuaded the Lycian to join the Athenian alliance, the Delian League : Diodorus relates that Kimon "persuaded those of Lycia and took them into his allegiance". As the power of Athens weakened and Athens and Sparta fought

6206-583: The ancient Indus, formed the traditional border between Caria and Lycia. The stream, 229 km (142 mi) long, enters the Mediterranean to the west of modern-day Dalaman . Upstream it is dammed in four places, after an origin in the vicinity of Sarikavak in Denizli Province. The next ridge to the east is Akdağlari, 'the White Mountains', about 150 km (93 mi) long, with a high point at Uyluktepe, "Uyluk Peak", of 3,024 m (9,921 ft). This massif may have been ancient Mount Cragus. Along its western side flows Eşen Çayi, "the Esen River", anciently

6313-416: The city are near Dalyan , on the west bank of the ancient Kalbis river. The main sights at the archeological site itself are: Outside the official Kaunos archeological site, there are: Lycia Lycia ( Lycian : 𐊗𐊕𐊐𐊎𐊆𐊖 Trm̃mis ; Greek : Λυκία , Lykia ; Turkish : Likya ) was a historical region in Anatolia from 15–14th centuries BC (as Lukka ) to 546 BC. It bordered

6420-475: The city to be abandoned. The ancient city was badly devastated in an earthquake and gradually got covered with sand and a dense vegetation. The city was forgotten until Richard Hoskyn , a Royal Navy surveyor found a law tablet, referring to the Council of Kaunos and the inhabitants of this city. Hoskyn visited the ruins in 1840 and published his account in 1842, making knowledge of the ancient city once more available. Residential Bishops are known beginning from

6527-443: The cul-de-sac, as the coast itself is impassible except by boat. The valley was the seat of ancient Solymus, home of the Solymi. There are at least 381 ancient settlements in the broader region of Lycia-Pamphylia, with the vast majority of these in Lycia. These are situated either along the coastal strip in the protecting coves or on the slopes and hills of the mountain ranges. They are often difficult to access, which in ancient times

SECTION 60

#1732780537159

6634-440: The death of Theodosius I at which point it became a part of the Byzantine Empire under Arcadius . After the fall of the Byzantines in the 15th century, Lycia fell under the control of the Ottoman Empire ; Turkish colonization of the area soon followed. Turkish and Greek settlements existed side-by-side, each speaking their own language. All Greek-speaking enclaves in Anatolia were exchanged for Turkish speakers in Greece during

6741-401: The east, Beydağlari, 'the Bey Mountains', peaks at Kizlarsevrisi, 3,086 m (10,125 ft), the highest point of the Teke Peninsula. It is most likely the ancient Masicytus range. Between Beydağlari and Akdağlari is an upland plateau, Elmali, where ancient Milyas was located. The elevation of the town of Elmali, which means 'Apple Town,' from the density of fruit-bearing groves in the region,

6848-425: The easternmost portion of Muğla Province , and the southernmost portion of Burdur Province. In ancient times the surrounding districts were, from west to east, Caria , Pisidia , and Pamphylia , all equally as ancient, and each speaking its own Anatolian language . The name of the Teke Peninsula comes from the former name of Antalya Province, which was Teke Province , named from the Turkish tribe that settled in

6955-399: The edge of this province and was assigned to Lycia. In 88 BC Mithridates invaded the province, trying to curb further expansion by the Romans. The Kaunians teamed up with him and killed all the Roman inhabitants of their city. After the peace of 85 BC they were punished for this action by the Romans, who again put Kaunos under Rhodian administration. During Roman rule Kaunos became

7062-443: The event presented by Herodotus. It might have been another fire. The Caunians, says Herodotus, followed a similar example immediately after. If there was an attempt by any of the states of Lycia to join forces, as happened in Greece 50 years later, there is no record of it, suggesting that no central government existed. Each country awaited its own fate alone. Herodotus also says or implies that 80 Xanthian families were away at

7169-516: The final settlement of the border with Greece at the beginning of the Turkish Republic in 1923. The Turks had won wars against both Greece and Armenia in the preceding few years, settling the issue of whether the coast of Anatolia was going to be Greek or Turkish. The intent of the Treaty of Lausanne (1923) was to define borders that would not leave substantial populations of one country in another. Some population transfers were enforced. Former Greek villages still stand as ghost towns in Lycia. During

7276-457: The goddess Leto and her twin children, Apollo and Artemis , and nearby Xanthos, ancient capital of Lycia, constitute a UNESCO World Heritage Site . Turkey's first waymarked long-distance footpath, the Lycian Way , follows part of the coast of the region. The establishment of the path was a private initiative by a British/Turkish woman called Kate Clow. It is intended to support sustainable tourism in smaller mountain villages which are in

7383-487: The grandfather ("A, [son] of B, [son] of C"); other familial relations ("mother of ..., son of ...", etc.); profession ("astrologer, interpreter"); or ethnicity or city of origin. Example: The Athenian Bilingual Inscription Σε̂μα τόδε : Τυρ[ Greek: Sema tode Tyr — "This is the tomb of Tur...," Καρὸς τô Σκύλ[ακος] Greek: Karos to Skylakos — "the Carian, the son of Scylax" () 𐊸𐋅𐊠𐊰 : 𐊰𐊠𐊵 𐊭𐊲𐊥[ Carian: Śjas: san Tur[ "This

7490-465: The images of various gods, the first portraiture of actual rulers appears with the coinage of Lycia in the late 5th century BC. No ruler had dared to illustrate his own portrait on coinage until that time. The Achaemenids had been the first to illustrate the person of their king or a hero in a stereotypical undifferentiated manner, showing a bust or the full body, but never an actual portrait, on their Sigloi and Daric coinage from circa 500 BC. From

7597-462: The inscriptions of the Xanthian Obelisk were added those of the Letoon trilingual , which gave a sequel, as it were, to the names on the obelisk. Studies of coin legends, initiated by Fellows, went on. Currently, most (but not all) of the Harpagid Theory has been rejected. The Achaemenids utilized no permanent satrapies; the political circumstances changed too often. The conqueror of new lands was seldom made their satrap; he went on to other conquests. It

7704-529: The kingship on reorganizing the satrapies in 525, and that on the intestate death of Kubernis in battle, the Persians chose another relative named Kheziga, who was the father of Kuprlli. The Lycian dynasty may therefore be summarized as follows: Following the Achaemenid defeat in the Greco-Persian War (479 BC), the Lycians may have temporarily joined the Greek side during the counter-attacks of

7811-474: The language as Anatolian include the asigmatic nominative (without the Indo-European nominative ending *-s) but -s for a genitive ending: 𐊿𐊸𐊫𐊦 wśoλ , 𐊿𐊸𐊫𐊦𐊰 wśoλ-s . The similarity of the basic vocabulary to other Anatolian languages also confirms this e.g. 𐊭𐊺𐊢 ted "father"; 𐊺𐊵 en "mother". A variety of dative singular endings have been proposed, including zero-marked and -i/-e suffixation. No inanimate stem has been securely identified but

7918-849: The latter case each character is written mirrorwise. Some, mostly short, inscriptions have word dividers: vertical strokes, dots, spaces or linefeeds. In the chart below, the Carian letter is given, followed by the transcription. Where the transcription differs from IPA, the phonetic value is given in brackets. Many Carian phonemes were represented by multiple letter forms in various locations. The Egypto-Carian dialect seems to have preserved semivowels w, j, and ý lost or left unwritten in other varieties . Two Carian letters have unknown phonetic values: 𐊱 and 𐋆. The letter 𐊶 τ 2 may have been equivalent to 𐋇 τ. 𐊳 ñ [n̩, n̚] 𐊰 s 𐊶 τ 2 [t͡ʃ]? 𐊦, 𐊣 λ [l:, ld] 𐋃, 𐋉 ĺ [l]? Phonemes attested in Egypto-Carian only. Across

8025-524: The leader of the Lycian fleet under Xerxes in the Second Persian War of 480 BC was Kuberniskos Sika , previously interpreted as "Cyberniscus, the son of Sicas," two non-Lycian names. A slight regrouping of the letters obtains kubernis kosika , "Cybernis, son of Cosicas," where Cosicas is for Kheziga. Cybernis went to the bottom of the Straits of Salamis with the entire Lycian fleet in

8132-456: The nominative and accusative are probably attested: The relative pronoun k̂j, k̂i , originally 'who, that, which', has in Carian usually developed into a particle introducing complements. Example: No undisputable verbal forms have yet been discovered in Carian. If verbal conjugation in Carian resembles the other Anatolian languages, one would expect 3rd person singular or plural forms, in both present and preterite , to end in -t or -d , or

8239-526: The old castle on the acropolis was fortified with walls, giving it a typical medieval appearance. In the 14th century the Turkish tribes had conquered part of Caria, which resulted in a dramatic decrease in sea trade. The resulting economic slump caused many Kaunians to move elsewhere. In the 15th century the Turks captured the entire area north of Caria and Kaunos was hit by a malaria epidemic . This caused

8346-416: The other Anatolian languages like Lycian , Milyan , or Lydian . A striking feature of Carian is the presence of large consonant clusters, due to a tendency to not write short vowels. Examples: The sound values of the Carian alphabetic signs are very different from those in the usual Greek alphabets. Only four vowels signs are the same as in Greek (A = α, H = η, O = ο, Y = υ/ου), but not a single consonant

8453-451: The people among whom they had settled were called Carians and spoke a language that was "barbarian", "barbaric" or "barbarian-sounding" (i.e. not Greek). No clue has survived from these writings as to what exactly the Greeks might mean by "barbarian". The reportedly Carian names of the Carian cities did not and do not appear to be Greek. Such names as Andanus, Myndus, Bybassia, Larymna, Chysaoris, Alabanda, Plarasa and Iassus were puzzling to

8560-402: The period that Kaunos was annexed and added to the province of Caria by the Persian rulers, the city was drastically changed. This was particularly the case during the reign of the satrap Mausolos (377–353 BC). The city was enlarged, was modeled with terraces and walled over a huge area. The city gradually got a Greek character, with an agora and temples dedicated to Greek deities. Alexander

8667-572: The phonetic value of most Carian signs. It turned out that not a single Carian consonant sign has the same phonetic value as signs of similar shape in the Greek alphabet. By 1993 the so-called "Ray-Schürr-Adiego System" was generally accepted, and its basic correctness was confirmed in 1996 when in Kaunos (Caria) a new Greek-Carian bilingual was discovered, where the Carian names nicely matched their Greek counterparts. The language turned out to be Indo-European, its vocabulary and grammar closely related to

8774-543: The pirates mentioned in classical texts. The Carians who fought for Troy (if they did) were not classical Carians any more than the Greeks there were classical Greeks. Being penetrated by larger numbers of Greeks and under the domination from time to time of the Ionian League , Caria eventually Hellenized and Carian became a dead language . The interludes under the Persian Empire perhaps served only to delay

8881-459: The prisoners to Persepolis, or ordered them transported. Some members of the dynasty were Iranian, but mainly it was native Lycian. If the survivors of 546 were in fact herdsmen (speculation), then all the Xanthian nobility had perished, and the Persians must have designated some other Lycian noble, whom they could trust. The first dynast is believed to be the person mentioned in the last line of

8988-612: The process of depopulation. Since it is mainly walked in March – June and Sept–Nov, it also has lengthened the tourism season. The Turkish Culture and Tourism Ministry promotes the Lycian coast as part of the Turkish Riviera or the Turquoise Coast, but the most important part of this is further west near Bodrum. This coast features rocky or sandy beaches at the bases of cliffs and settlements in protected coves that cater to

9095-471: The raw materials for tar used in boat building and repair – and dried figs. During the 5th and 4th centuries BC the city started to use the name Kaunos as an alternative for its ancient name Kbid, because of the increased Hellenistic influence. The myth about the foundation of the city probably dates back to this period. After the Peace of Antalcidas in 387 BC, Kaunos again came under Persian rule. During

9202-566: The region. Four ridges extend from northeast to southwest, roughly, forming the western extremity of the Taurus Mountains . Furthest west of the four are Boncuk Dağlari, or 'the Boncuk Mountains', extending from about Altinyayla, Burdur , southwest to about Oren north of Fethiye . This is a fairly low range peaking at about 2,340 m (7,680 ft). To the west of it the steep gorges of Dalaman Çayi ('the Dalaman River'),

9309-550: The remainder of Lycia; presumably, that is true because they submitted without further incident. Lycia was well populated and flourished as a Persian satrapy; moreover, they spoke mainly Lycian. The Harpagid Theory was initiated by Charles Fellows , discoverer of the Xanthian Obelisk , and person responsible for the transportation of the Xanthian Marbles from Lycia to the British Museum . Fellows could not read

9416-521: The rocks, feeds eternal flames. This is the location of ancient Mount Chimaera . Through the cul-de-sac between Baydağlari and Tahtalidağlari, the Alakir Çay ('Alakir River'), the ancient Limyra, flows to the south trickling from the broad valley under superhighway D400 near downtown Kumluca across a barrier beach into the Mediterranean. This configuration is entirely modern. Upstream the river

9523-550: The same. The local development of Carian excludes some other theories as well: it was not widespread in the Aegean, is not related to Etruscan , was not written in any ancient Aegean scripts, and was not a substrate Aegean language . Its occurrence in various places of Classical Greece is due only to the travel habits of Carians , who apparently became co-travellers of the Ionians . The Carian cemetery of Delos probably represents

9630-424: The second word, uiomλn , to be the verbal form, 'they decided'. Several more words ending in a nasal are suspected to be verbal forms, for example mδane , mlane , mλn (cf. uio-mλn ), 'they vowed, offered (?)', pisñ , 'they gave (?)'. However, to make such nasal endings fit in with the usual Anatolian verb paradigm (with 3rd person plural preterite endings in -(n)t/-(n)d , from * -onto ), one would have to assume

9737-471: The southern coast of Anatolia in 546 BC, the army of Harpagus encountered no problem with the Carians and their immediate Greek neighbors and alien populations, who submitted peacefully. In the Xanthos Valley an army of Xanthian Greeks sallied out to meet them, fighting determinedly, although vastly outnumbered. Driven into the citadel, they collected all their property, dependents and slaves into

9844-484: The suffix -n may be reconstructed based on the inherited pattern. Alternatively, a zero ending may be derived from the historical * -od . The ablative (or locative?) case is suspected in one phrase (𐊠𐊣𐊫𐊰𐊾 𐊴𐊠𐊥𐊵𐊫𐊰𐊾 alosδ k̂arnosδ "from/in Halicarnassus (?)"), perhaps originally a clitic derived from the preverb δ "in, into" < PIE *endo . Of the demonstrative pronouns s(a)- and a- , 'this',

9951-427: The time of Alexander the Great , portraiture of the issuing ruler would then become a standard, generalized, feature of coinage. After the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, his generals fought amongst themselves over the succession. Lycia fell into the hands of the general Antigonus by 304 BC. In 301 BC Antigonus was killed by an alliance of the other successors of Alexander, and Lycia became

10058-544: The time, perhaps with the herd animals in alpine summer pastures (pure speculation), but helped repopulate the place. However, he reports, the Xanthians of his time were mainly descended from non-Xanthians. Looking for any nuance that might shed light on the repopulation of Xanthos, Keen interprets Herodotus' "those Lycians who now say that they are Xanthians" to mean that Xanthos was repopulated by other Lycians (and not by Iranians or other foreigners). Herodotus said nothing of

10165-517: The trees. The Aedesa once drained the plain through a chasm to the east, but now flows entirely through pipelines covering the same route, but emptying into the water supplies of Arycanda and Arif. An effort has been made to restore some of the cedar forests cleared in antiquity. The easternmost ridge extends along the east coast of the Teke Peninsula, and is called, generally, Tahtali Dağlari, "The Tahtali Mountains." The high point within them

10272-420: The various sites where inscriptions have been found, the two lateral phonemes /l/ and /λ/ contrast but may be represented by different letters of the Carian script 𐊣/𐋎, 𐊦, and 𐋃/𐋉 depending on the location. The letter 𐋉 (formerly transcribed <ŕ>) is now seen as an Egyptian variant of 𐋃 <ĺ>. In the chart below, the Carian letter for each vowel is followed by the conventional transcription with

10379-462: The villagers -men, women and children alike- had get-togethers over a good glass of wine. Herodotus mentions that Kaunos participated in the Ionian Revolt (499–494 BCE). Some important inscriptions in Carian language were found here, dating to c. 400 BC, including a bilingual inscription in Greek and Carian found in 1996. They helped to decipher the Carian alphabets . After Xerxes I

10486-532: The yachting industry. Yeşilüzümlü village is a popular touristic attraction among the tourists beyond the Lycian Way due to its historic architecture and narrow cobblestone streets. The village is also located near the Cadyanda ruins, which date back to 3000 BCE, that are also popular among the tourists. The inhabitants are also known for their weavings called "Dastar", which Turkish Patent Institute granted

10593-503: Was a defensive feature. The rugged coastline favored well-defended ports from which, in troubled times, Lycian pirate fleets sallied forth. The principal cities of ancient Lycia were Xanthos , Patara , Myra , Pinara , Tlos and Olympos (each entitled to three votes in the Lycian League) and Phaselis . Cities such as Telmessos and Krya were sometimes listed by Classical authors as Carian and sometimes as Lycian. Although

10700-567: Was also ruled by men such as Mithrapata (late 4th century BC), whose name was Persian. Persia held Lycia until it was conquered by Alexander III (the Great) of Macedon during 334–333 BC. During the Alexander the Great period, Nearchus was appointed viceroy of Lycia and of the land adjacent to it as far as mount Taurus. Although many of the first coins in Antiquity illustrated

10807-614: Was an earlier possible) in the coin legends. He reigned approximately 480–440. Harpagos was not related by blood. The conqueror, therefore, was not the founder of the line, which was not Harpagid. An Iranian family, however, producing some other Harpagids, did live in Lycia and was of sufficient rank to marry the king's daughter. As to whether the Iranian family were related to any satrap, probably not. Herodotus said that Satrapy 1 (the satrapies were numbered) consisted of Ionia, Magnesia, Aeolia, Caria, Lycia, Milya, and Pamphylia, who together paid

10914-474: Was beaten in the Second Persian War and the Persians were gradually withdrawn from the western Anatolian coast, Kaunos joined the Delian League . Initially they only had to pay 1 talent of tax, an amount that was raised by factor 10 in 425 BC. This indicates that by then the city had developed into a thriving port, possibly due to increased agriculture and the demand for Kaunian export articles, such as salt, salted fish, slaves, pine resin and black mastic –

11021-487: Was called Kbdyn (plural Kbdynš , 𐊼𐊬𐊢Ε𐊵𐊯). These terms were used on silver coinage and in stone inscriptions . This term fell out of use in the Hellenistic Period . In Lycian texts such as the Letoon trilingual , the city was called Xbide (𐊜𐊂𐊆𐊅𐊁 in the Lycian alphabet ), and Kaunians were called Xbidẽñni (𐊜𐊂𐊆𐊅𐊚𐊑𐊏𐊆). According to mythology Kaunos was founded by King Kaunos , son of

11128-418: Was far more likely that the Kaunians were the original inhabitants of the area because of the similarity between his own Carian language and that of the Kaunians. He added that there were, however, great differences between the lifestyles of the Kaunians and those of their neighbours, the Carians and Lycians. One of the most conspicuous differences being their social drinking behaviour. It was common practice that

11235-697: Was inherited by the Turkish Republic after the Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire . The borders of Lycia varied over time, but at its centre was the Teke peninsula of southwestern Turkey, which juts southward into the Mediterranean Sea , bounded on the west by the Gulf of Fethiye , and on the east by the Gulf of Antalya . Lycia comprised what is now the westernmost portion of Antalya Province,

11342-576: Was not the Persian custom to grant hereditary satrapies; satrap was only a step in the cursus honorum . And finally, a destitute mountain country would have been a poor reward for Cyrus' best general. The main evidence against the Harpagid Theory (as Keen calls it) is the reconstruction of the name of the Xanthian Obelisk's deceased as Lycian Kheriga, Greek Gergis ( Nereid Monument ), a king reigning approximately 440–410 BC, over

11449-489: Was used till the late days of Kaunos, but due to the silting of the delta and the ports, Kaunos had by then long lost its important function as a trade port. After the capture of Caria by Turkish tribes, and the serious malaria epidemic of the 15th century AD, Kaunos was completely abandoned. In 1966, Prof. Baki Öğün started the excavations of ancient Kaunos. These have been continued up to the present day, and are now supervised by Prof. Cengiz Işık. The archeological research

#158841