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107-834: Kabylia or Kabylie ( / k ə ˈ b ɪ l i ə / ; Kabyle : Tamurt n Leqbayel or Iqbayliyen , meaning "Land of Kabyles", Arabic : منطقة القبائل , meaning "Land of the Tribes") is a mountainous coastal region in northern Algeria and the homeland of the Kabyle people . It is part of the Tell Atlas mountain range and is located at the edge of the Mediterranean Sea . Kabylia covers two provinces of Algeria : Tizi Ouzou and Bejaia . Gouraya National Park and Djurdjura National Park are also located in Kabylia. During

214-466: A 'national language' in the 2002 Algerian Constitution, but not as an 'official language' until 2016 after a long campaign by activists. French is not recognized in any legal document of Algeria but enjoys a de facto position of an official language as it is used in every Algerian official administration or institution, at all levels of the government, sometimes much more than Arabic. The Berber (Amazigh) language faces an unfavourable environment, despite

321-517: A 2002 constitutional amendment. In February 2016, the Algerian constitution passed a resolution that made Berber an official language alongside Arabic. The phonemes below reflect the pronunciation of Kabyle. Kabyle has three phonemic vowels : ⟨e⟩ is used to write the epenthetic schwa vowel [ə] which occurs frequently in Kabyle. Historically, it is thought to be the result of

428-721: A Gath (believed to be Tell es-Safi ) and Gath-rimmon or Gittaim (in or near Ramla). Archaeological excavations in Ramla conducted in 1992–1995 unearthed the remains of a dyeing industry ( Dar al-Sabbaghin , House of the Dyers) near the White Mosque; hydraulic installations such as pools, subterranean reservoirs and cisterns; and abundant ceramic finds that include glass, coins and jar handles stamped with Arabic inscriptions. Excavations in Ramla continued into 2010, led by Eli Haddad, Orit Segal, Vered Eshed, and Ron Toueg, on behalf of

535-535: A corresponding agent noun . In English it could be translated into verb+er. It is obtained by prefixing the verb with « am- » or with « an- » if the first letter is b / f / m / w (there are exceptions, however). Verbal nouns are derived differently from different classes of verbal stems (including 'quality verbs'). Often a- or t(u)- is prefixed: Pronouns may either occur as standalone words or bound to nouns or verbs. Example: « Ula d nekk. » – "Me too." Possessive pronouns are bound to

642-591: A critical region for the independence movement was being one of the major target of French counter-insurgency operations, not least the devastation of agricultural lands, looting, destruction of villages, population displacement, the creation of forbidden zones, etc. From the moment of independence, tensions had already developed between Kabyle leaders and the central government, with the Socialist Forces Front (FFS) party of Hocine Aït Ahmed , strong in wilayas III and IV (Kabylie and Algiers), opposing

749-615: A decade later, the population had increased nearly 25%; the 1931 census recorded 10,347 people (8,157 Muslims, 2,194 Christians, five Jews, and two Druze ), in a total of 2,339 houses. Ramla was connected to wired electricity (supplied by the Zionist-owned Palestine Electric Company ) towards the end of the 1920s. Economist Basim Faris noted this fact as proof of Ramla's higher standard of living than neighbouring Lydda. In Ramla, he wrote, "economic demands triumph over nationalism" while Lydda, "which

856-484: A determined local Christian cleric refused Sulayman's requests for plots in the middle of Lydda. Infuriated, he attempted to have the cleric executed, but his local adviser Raja ibn Haywa dissuaded him and instead proposed building a new city at a superior, adjacent site. In choosing the site, Sulayman utilized the strategic advantages of Lydda's vicinity while avoiding the physical constraints of an already-established urban center. Historian Moshe Sharon holds that Lydda

963-473: A fleet sent by Ikhshidid loyalists from Lower Egypt. The general Ja’far then invaded Palestine and conquered Ramla , the capital, he then conquered Damascus and made himself the master of the city and then he moved north and conquered Tripoli . It was around this time period that the Fatimid Caliphate reached its territorial peak of 4,100,000 km2. A Berber family emerged as formidable leaders in

1070-466: A market town for the surrounding area's agricultural products, and as a center for dyeing, weaving and pottery. It was also home to many Muslim religious scholars . Sulayman built an aqueduct in the city called al-Barada, which transported water to Ramla from Tel Gezer , about 10 kilometers (6 mi) to the southeast. Ramla superseded Lydda as the commercial center of Palestine. Many of Lydda's Christian, Samaritan and Jewish inhabitants were moved to

1177-571: A mixed Jewish–Arab town within the state of Israel. Arab homes of those who left in Ramla were given by the Israeli government to Jews, first Holocaust refugees from Europe and then immigrants from Arab and Muslim countries. In February 1949, the Jewish population was over 6,000. Ramla remained economically depressed over the next two decades, although the population steadily mounted, reaching 34,000 by 1972. A 2013 Israeli police report documented that

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1284-402: A more ancient city, visited " Rama , or Ramleh, where there are remains of the walls from the days of our ancestors, for thus it was found written upon the stones. About 300 Jews dwell there. It was formerly a very great city; at a distance of two miles (3 km) there is a large Jewish cemetery." In the 1480s, in the late Mamluk era, Felix Fabri visited Ramla and described (among other things)

1391-406: A pan-Berber reduction or merger of three other vowels. The phonetic realization of the vowels, especially /a/ , is influenced by the character of the surrounding consonants; emphatic consonants invite a more open realization of the vowel, e.g. aẓru = [azˤru] 'stone' vs. amud = [æmud] 'seed'. Often /a, i, u/ are realized as [æ, ɪ, ʊ] . In the Kabyle language there are various accents which are

1498-402: A population of 15,160 (11,900 Muslims and 3,260 Christians). Ramla was part of the territory allotted to a proposed Arab state under the 1947 UN Partition Plan . However, Ramla's geographic location and its strategic position on the main supply route to Jerusalem made it a point of contention during the 1947–1948 civil war , followed by the internationalised 1948 Arab–Israeli War . A bomb by

1605-544: A public radio in Algeria (Channel II, which dates back to 1925 ), as well as a public TV channel in Morocco (Channel IV or Tamazight TV). Since private ownership of TV channels is illegal in Algeria, Kabyles have launched a private Kabyle speaking TV channel, called Berbère Television , that broadcasts from France. There is no Kabyle newspaper. Some Algerian newspapers such as La Dépêche de Kabylie  [ fr ] offer

1712-464: A small Kabyle section. In 1994, Kabyle pupils and students boycotted Algerian schools for a year, demanding the officialization of Berber, leading to the symbolic creation of the " Haut commissariat à l'amazighité " (HCA) in 1995. Berber was subsequently taught as a non-compulsory language in Berber speaking areas. The course being optional, few people attend. The Kabyle school boycott also resulted in

1819-585: A whole was fully and entirely conquered and subdued by France. Between 902 and 909 AD, after being converted to Isma'ilism and won over by Abu Abdallah 's dawah , the Kutama Berbers from Little Kabylie helped contribute to the founding of the Fatimid Caliphate , whose support in the conquest of Ifriqiya resulted in the creation of the Caliphate, although the ruling Fatimid dynasty

1926-450: Is an inscription stating that on the 15th of Muharram , of the year 425 (=10th of December, 1033 CE), there came an earthquake of great violence, which threw down a large number of buildings, but that no single person sustained an injury. In the city of Ramla there is marble in plenty, and most of the buildings and private houses are of this material; and, further, the surface thereof they do most beautifully sculpture and ornament. They cut

2033-498: Is estimated that half of Kabyles live outside the Kabylian region. Estimates on the number of Kabyle speakers in the region vary widely, with different dates and data given for different points of time. As such the number of Kabyle speakers varies considerably depending on differnt sources given. French ethnologist Camille Lacoste-Dujardin  [ fr ] estimates four million Kabyle speakers in 2001 in Algeria. According to

2140-455: Is expressed by «  ur  » before the verb and the particle «  ara  » after the verb: Other negative words (acemma... etc.) are used in combination with ur to express more complex types of negation. This system developed via Jespersen's cycle . Verb derivation is performed by adding affixes. There are three types of derivation forms: causative , reflexive and passive . Two prefixes can cancel each other: Every verb has

2247-1007: Is home to dozens of zawiyas affiliated with the Rahmaniyya Sufi brotherhood , including the following: The traditional economy of the area is based on arboriculture (orchards, olive trees ) and on the craft industry ( tapestry or pottery ). The mountain and hill farming is gradually giving way to local industry (textile and agro-alimentary). Today Kabylia is one of the most industrialised parts of Algeria . Kabylia produces less than 15% of Algerian GDP (excluding oil and gas). Industries include: pharmaceutical industry in Bgayet Bejaia , agro-alimentary in Ifri and Akbou , mechanical industry in Tizi Ouzou and other small towns of western Kabylia, and petrochemical industry and oil refining in Bgayet Bejaia . Bgayet ( Bejaia )'s port

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2354-491: Is mostly composed of fricatives, phonemes which are originally stops in other Berber languages, but in writing there is no difference between fricatives and stops. Below is a list of fricatives vs. stops and when they are pronounced (note that gemination turns fricatives into stops ). The most ancient Berber writings were written in the Libyco-Berber script , mostly from Numidian and Roman times. This script

2461-525: Is spoken by 3 million people and has significant Arabic , French , Latin , Greek , Phoenician and Punic substratum, with Arabic loanwords representing 35% to 46% of the total Kabyle vocabulary. Since the Berber Spring in 1980, Kabyles have been at the forefront of the fight for recognition of the Berber language as an official one in Algeria (see Languages of Algeria ). The Kabylia region

2568-514: Is still strong in villages but urban Kabyles in Algeria are increasingly shifting to Arabic and diaspora Kabyles to the surrounding language. A 2013 study found that 54% of Kabyles living in Oran spoke Arabic to their siblings. After the 2001–02 widespread Kabyle protests known as the Black Spring , the Berber (Amazigh) language (with all its Algerian dialects and varieties) was recognized as

2675-464: Is ten minutes' walk from Ramleh, is still averse to such a convenience as electric current, and so is not as yet served; perhaps the low standard of living of the poor population prevents the use of the service at the present rates, which cannot compete with petroleum for lighting". Sheikh Mustafa al-Khairi was mayor of Ramla from 1920 to 1947. The 1938 village statistics list the population ("Ramle, Er") as 11,950. The 1945/46 survey gives 'Ramle'

2782-534: Is the second biggest in Algeria after Algiers , and the 6th largest on the Mediterranean Sea. Kabyle language Estimating the number of Berber speakers is very difficult and figures are often contested. A 2004 estimate was that 9.4% of the Algerian population speaks Kabyle. The diaspora population has been estimated at one million. Kabyle is one of the Berber languages , a family within

2889-421: Is used for subjects placed after their verbs, after prepositions, in noun complement constructions, and after certain numerals. Kabyle also places nouns in construct state when they head a noun phrase containing a co-referential bound pronoun earlier in the utterance. Examples: After a preposition (with the exception of "ar" and "s"), all nouns take their annexed state: Verbs are conjugated for three tenses:

2996-777: The International Encyclopedia of Linguistics there were 2.5 million speakers in Kabylia in 2003 out of 3.1 million worldwide. In 2004, Canadian linguist Jacques Leclerc (linguist)  [ fr ] estimated that there were 3.1 million Kabyle speakers in Algeria (9.4% of the total Algerian population) and 500,000 in France. Salem Chaker estimated there were 5.5 million speakers in 2004, including 3 to 3.5 in Kabylia. The Encyclopædia Universalis gives 7 million Kabyle speakers. The French Ministry of Culture estimated there were one million Kabyle speakers in France in 2013. Linguist Matthias Brenzinger estimates

3103-545: The Afroasiatic languages . It is believed to have broken off very early from Proto-Berber , although after the Zenaga language did so. Kabyle Berber is native to Kabylia . It is present in seven Algerian districts. Approximately one-third of Algerians are Berber-speakers, clustered mostly near Algiers , in Kabylian and Shawi, but with some communities related to Kabyle in the west ( Shenwa languages ), east and south of

3210-562: The Algerians of the Pacific .) Colonization also resulted in an acceleration of the emigration into other areas of the country and outside of it. Algerian migrant workers in France organized the first party promoting independence in the 1920s. Messali Hadj , Imache Amar , Si Djilani , and Belkacem Radjef rapidly built a strong following throughout France and Algeria in the 1930s and actively trained militants who became key players during

3317-508: The Battle of Icheriden in 1857 marked a decisive French victory, with sporadic outbursts of violence continuing as late as Mokrani 's rebellion in 1871. Much land was confiscated in this period from the more recalcitrant tribes and given to French pieds-noirs . Many arrests and deportations were carried out by the French in response to uprisings, mainly to New Caledonia (hence the origins of

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3424-569: The Berber Spring , demanding the officialisation and recognition of the Tamazight language. These resulted in the extrajudicial imprisonment of thousands of Kabylie intellectuals, along with other clashes in Tizi-Ouzou and Algiers in 1984 and 1985. With the opening up and establishment of the multi-party system in 1989, the RCD (Rally for Culture and Democracy) party was created by Saïd Sadi , at

3531-506: The Black Spring , in which 123 people died and some two thousand were wounded as a result of the authorities' violent crackdown. Eventually, the government was compelled to negotiate with the Arouch , a confederation of ancestral local councils over the situation, alongside wider issues such as social justice and the economy, which was deemed by the government as 'regionalist' and dangerous for national unity and cohesion. Nevertheless, Tamazight

3638-694: The Byzantine Empire in 534. The surviving Vandals then assimilated into the native Berber population. During the rule of the Romans, Vandals and Byzantines, the Kabyle people were some of the few Imazighen in North Africa who remained independent. During the Arab conquest of North Africa , the Kabyles were able to temporarily control and possess their mountains, It was not until 1857 that Kabylia as

3745-608: The First Crusaders ( c.  1099 ), after which it became the scene of various battles between the Crusaders and Fatimids in the first years of the 12th century. Later that century, it became the centre of a lordship in the Kingdom of Jerusalem , a Crusader state established by Godfrey of Bouillon . Ramla had an Arab -majority population before most were expelled during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War . The town

3852-620: The Franciscan church. Napoleon used the hospice as his headquarters during his Palestine campaign in 1799. The Ramla Museum is housed in the former municipal headquarters of the British Mandatory authorities. The building, from 1922, incorporates elements of Arab architecture such as arched windows and patterned tiled floors. After 1948, it was the central district office of the Israeli Ministry of Finance . In 2001,

3959-563: The French colonization of Algeria , the French invented the term 'Kabylia', a term never used by the Arab and Berber populations of Algeria prior to the French invasion. The word 'Kabyle' is a distortion of the Arabic word qaba'il (قبائل) which has two meanings, the first one is tribes that live among sedentary populations and the second is 'to accept', which Arabs after the Muslim conquest of

4066-630: The Hammadid and Zirid empires as well as the Fatimids established their rule in the Maghreb countries. The Zirids ruled land in what is now Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco, Libya, Spain, Malta and Italy. The Hammadids captured and held important regions such as Ouargla, Constantine, Sfax, Susa, Algiers, Tripoli and Fez establishing their rule in every country in the Maghreb region. The Fatimids conquered all of North Africa as well as Sicily and parts of

4173-675: The Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA). In January 2021, archaeologists from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem and Haifa University announced the discovery of six engravings on 120,000-year-old aurochs bone near the city of Ramla in the open-air Middle Paleolithic site of Nesher Ramla. According to  archaeologist Yossi Zaidner, this finding was definitely the oldest in the Levant . Three-dimensional imaging and microscopic analysis were used to examine

4280-578: The White Mosque . It was not completed until the reign of Sulayman's successor Caliph Umar II ( r.  717–720 ). The Sulayman's construction works were financially managed by a Christian from Lydda, Bitrik ibn al-Naka. The remains of the White Mosque, dominated by a minaret added at a later date, are visible in the present day. In the courtyard are underground water cisterns from the Umayyad period. From early on, Ramla developed economically as

4387-518: The hammam there; "built in a wonderous and clever fashion". In the early days of the Ottoman period, in 1548, a census was taken recording 528 Muslim families and 82 Christian families living in Ramla. On 2 March 1799 , Napoleon Bonaparte occupied Ramla during his unsuccessful bid to conquer Palestine, using the Franciscan hospice as his headquarters. The village appeared as 'Ramleh' on

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4494-629: The independence of Algeria , some Kabyle activists tried to revive the Libyco-Berber script, which is still in use by the Tuareg . Attempts were made to modernize the writing system by modifying the shape of the letters and by adding vowels. This new version of Tifinagh has been called Neo-Tifinagh and has been adopted as the official script for Berber languages in Morocco . However, a majority of Berber activists (both in Morocco and Algeria) prefer

4601-441: The preterite (past), intensive aorist (present perfect, present continuous, past continuous) and the future (ad+aorist). Unlike other Berber languages, the aorist alone is rarely used in Kabyle (in the other languages it is used to express the present). Verbs are conjugated for person by adding affixes. These suffixes are static and identical for all tenses (only the theme changes). The epenthetic vowel e may be inserted between

4708-478: The "schoolbag strike". In June and July 1998 the region flared up again after the assassination of protest singer and political activist Lounès Matoub at the same time that a law requiring the use of Arabic in all fields of education entered into force, further worsening tensions. Following the death in April 2001 of Massinissa Guermah, a young high school student, in police custody, major riots took place, known as

4815-546: The Central District ranks fourth among Israel's seven districts in terms of drug-related arrests. Today, five of Israel's prisons are located in Ramla, including the maximum-security Ayalon Prison and the country's only women's prison, called Neve Tirza . In 2015, Ramla had one of Israel's highest crime rates. The Tower of Ramla , also known as the White Tower, was built in the 13th century. It served as

4922-596: The Early Muslim period) to provide Ramla with a steady supply of water. Use of the cistern was apparently discontinued at the beginning of the tenth century (the beginning of the Fatimid period), possibly due to the fact that the main aqueduct to the city went out of use at that time. The Crusaders built a cathedral in the first half on the 12th century, converted into a mosque when the Mamluks conquered Ramla in

5029-672: The FLN's Political Bureau centred around the person of Ahmed Ben Bella , who in turn relied upon the forces of the border army group within the ALN commanded by Houari Boumediene . The Provisional Government of the Algerian Republic (based in Tizi Ouzou ) was defeated by the Oujda Group led by Ahmed Ben Bella in the 1962 Algerian crisis . As early as 1963 the FFS called into question

5136-491: The Jarrahids, who continued to dominate the surrounding countryside. The following decade was marked by peace, but, in 1024, the Jarrahids renewed their rebellion. The Fatimid general Anushtakin al-Dizbari secured Ramla for a few months, but the Jarrahids overran the city that year, killing and harassing several inhabitants and seizing much of the population's wealth. They appointed their own governor, Nasr Allah ibn Nizal. In

5243-627: The Jewish militia group Irgun went off in the Ramla market on 18 February, killing 7 residents and injuring 45. After a number of unsuccessful raids on Ramla, the Israeli army launched Operation Dani . Ramla was captured on 12 July 1948, a few days after the capture of Lydda. The Arab resistance surrendered on July 12, and most of the remaining inhabitants were expelled . A disputed claim, advanced by scholars including Ilan Pappé , characterizes this as ethnic cleansing . By November 1949, there were about 2,000 Arabs in Ramla and Lod. Ramla became

5350-643: The Kutama and Sanhaja Berbers over the eastern and central Maghrib" and Loimeier states that rebellions against the Fatimids were also expressed through protest and opposition to Kutama rule. The weakening of the Abbasids allowed Fatimid-Kutama power to quickly expand and in 959 Ziri ibn Manad , Jawhar the Sicilian and a Kutama army conquered Fez and Sijilmassa in Morocco. During the reign of al-Aziz Billah ,

5457-641: The Latin script and see the Tifinagh as a hindrance to literacy in Berber. Kabyle literature continues to be written in Latin script. The use of Tifinagh is limited to logos . Mouloud Mammeri codified a new orthography for the Kabyle language which avoided using French orthography. His script has been adopted by all Berber linguists, the INALCO , and the Algerian HCA. It uses diacritics and two letters from

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5564-512: The Maghreb used for local populations that accepted Islam . Kabylia was a part of the Kingdom of Numidia (202 BC – 46 BC). The history of Kabylie started to appear in the classical books during the fourth century AD with the revolt of the commander Firmus and his brother Guildon against the empire. The Vandals , a Germanic people, established a kingdom in North Africa in 435. Their rule lasted for 99 years until they were conquered by

5671-521: The Mediterranean coast. Sulayman established his city in Lydda's vicinity, avoiding Lydda proper. This was likely due to a lack of available space for wide-scale development and agreements dating to the Muslim conquest in the 630s that, at least formally, precluded him from confiscating desirable property within Lydda. In a tradition recorded by the historian Ibn Fadlallah al-Umari (died 1347),

5778-597: The Middle East. During the Regency of Algiers , most of Kabylia was independent. Kabylia was split into two main kingdoms, the Kingdom of Kuku in modern Tizi Ouzou , and the Kingdom of Ait Abbas in modern Béjaïa . Though the region was the last stronghold against French colonization, the area was gradually taken over by the French after 1830 , despite vigorous local resistance by the local population led by leaders such as Faḍma n Sumer and Cheikh Mokrani , until

5885-608: The West, is known under the name of Filastin. The armies of the First Crusade took the hastily evacuated town without a fight. In the early years of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem though, control over this strategic location led to three consecutive battles between the Crusaders and Egyptian armies from Ascalon , a Fatimid-held town along the southern coast of Palestine. As Crusader rule stabilized, Ramla became

5992-466: The affix and the verb. Verbs are always marked for subject and may also inflect for person of direct and indirect object. Examples: Kabyle is a satellite-framed based language, Kabyle verbs use two particles to show the path of motion: Examples: Kabyle usually expresses negation in two parts, with the particle ur attached to the verb, and one or more negative words that modify the verb or one of its arguments . For example, simple verbal negation

6099-437: The area: There are a number of flora and fauna associated with this region. Notable is a population of the endangered primate , Barbary macaque , Macaca sylvanus , whose prehistoric range encompassed a much wider span than the present limited populations in Algeria, Morocco and Gibraltar . The area is populated by Kabyles, a Berber ethnic group. They speak the Kabyle language , the largest Berber language in Algeria. It

6206-538: The authority of the single-party system, which resulted in two years of armed confrontation in the region. The rebellion was defeated, leaving more than four hundred dead, and most of the FLN leaders from Kabylia and the eastern provinces either executed or forced into exile. In April 1980, following the banning of a conference by writer Mouloud Mammeri on traditional Kabyle poetry, riots and strikes broke out in Tizi Ouzou , followed by several months of demonstrations on university campuses in Kabylia and Algiers, known as

6313-532: The bone. The six lines ranged in length from 38 to 42 millimeters. The city has historically suffered severe damage from several major earthquakes, including the 1033 Jordan Rift Valley earthquake , 1068 Near East earthquake , smaller earthquakes in 1070 and 1546, and the 1927 Jericho earthquake . In May 2006, a naturally sealed-off underground space now known as Ayyalon Cave was discovered near Ramla, outside Moshav Yad Rambam . The cave sustains an unusual type of ecosystem, based on bacteria that create all

6420-434: The building became a museum documenting the history of Ramla. The Commonwealth War Cemetery is the largest of its kind in Israel, holding graves of soldiers fallen during both World Wars and the British Mandate period. A tradition reported by Ishtori Haparchi (1280–1355) and other early Jewish writers is that Ramla was the biblical Gath of the Philistines . Initial archaeological claims seemed to indicate that Ramla

6527-421: The capital of Jund Filastin , the district he governed in Bilad al-Sham before becoming caliph in 715. The city's strategic and economic value derived from its location at the intersection of the Via Maris , connecting Cairo with Damascus , and the road connecting the Mediterranean port of Jaffa with Jerusalem . It rapidly overshadowed the adjacent city of Lydda , whose inhabitants were relocated to

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6634-399: The case of Algeria". Nevertheless, after four decades of pacific struggle, riots, strikes, and social mobilization, including the Berber spring (1980, riots and strikes in the Kabylie region of Tizi Ouzou, Bouira and Bejaïa, as well as Algiers) and the Black Spring in 2001, President Bouteflika and his government recognized Amazigh (Berber) as a "national language" for the second time through

6741-414: The centuries were actively and fully assimilated into the Arab culture of Algeria. During the War of Independence (1954–1962), the FLN and ALN 's reorganisation of the country created, for the first time, a unified Kabyle administrative territory, wilaya III , being as it was at the centre of the anti-colonial struggle. As such, along with the Aurès , it was one of the most affected areas because of

6848-498: The city was destroyed by the Jarrahids , a branch of the Tayy tribe. Nonetheless, the 10th-century Jerusalemite geographer al-Muqaddasi described Ramla as "a fine city, and well built; its water is good and plentiful; it fruits are abundant". He noted that it "combines manifold advantages, situated as it is in the midst of beautiful villages and lordly towns, near to holy places and pleasant hamlets", as well as bountiful fields, walled towns and hospices. The geographer further noted

6955-462: The city's disadvantages included the severe muddiness of the place during the rainy winter season and its hard, sandy grounds due to its distance from natural water sources. The limited drinking water gathered in the city's cisterns were generally inaccessible to the poorer inhabitants. By 1011–1012, the Jarrahids controlled all of Palestine, except for the coastal towns, and captured Ramla from its Fatimid garrison, making it their capital. The city and

7062-400: The city's significant commerce and "excellent markets", lauding the quality of its fruits and bread as the best of their kind. During this period, Ramla was one of the major centers for the production and export of oil extracted from unripe olives, known as anfa kinon ( Greek : ὀμφάκιον, ὀμφάχινον; Latin : omphacium; Arabic : زيت الأنفاق ), and used in cuisine and medicine. Conversely,

7169-477: The country. The populations of Béjaïa (Bgayet), Bouïra (Tubirett) and Tizi Ouzou (Tizi Wezzu) provinces are in majority Kabyle-speaking. In addition, Kabyle is mainly spoken in the provinces of Boumerdès , and as well as in Bordj Bou Arréridj , Jijel , and in Algiers where it coexists with Algerian Arabic . Kabyle Berber is also spoken as a native language among the Algerian Kabyle-descended diaspora in European and North American cities (mainly France). It

7276-419: The end of his reign in 705 and continued in office through the reign of his brother Caliph al-Walid I ( r.  705–715 ), whom he succeeded. He died as caliph in 717. Ramla remained the capital of Palestine through the Fatimid period (10th–11th centuries). Its role as the principal city and district capital came to an end shortly before the arrival of the First Crusaders in 1099. It received its name,

7383-559: The energy they need chemically, from the sulfur compounds they find in the water, with no light or organic food coming in from the surface. A bulldozer working in the Nesher cement quarry on the outskirts of Ramla accidentally broke into the cavern. The finds have been attributed to the cave's isolation, which led to the evolution of a whole food chain of specially developed organisms, including several previously unknown species of invertebrates . With several large halls on different levels, it measures 2,700 metres (8,900 ft) long, making it

7490-494: The extended Latin alphabet: Č č Ḍ ḍ Ɛ ɛ Ǧ ǧ Ɣ ɣ Ḥḥ Ṣ ṣ Ṭ ṭ Ẓ ẓ. Kabyle has two genders : masculine and feminine. As in most Berber languages , masculine nouns and adjectives generally start with a vowel ( a- , i- , u- ), while feminine nouns generally start with t- and end with a -t , e.g. a qcic 'boy' vs. t aqcic t 'girl'. Plurals generally are formed by replacing initial a- with i- , and either suffixing -en ("regular/external" plurals), changing vowels within

7597-404: The first recognition of Amazigh as a national language in November 1996. President Bouteflika has frequently stated that "Amazigh (the Berber language) will never be an official language, and if it has to be a national language, it must be submitted to a referendum". In 2005, President Bouteflika, stated that "there is no country in the world with two official languages" and "this will never be

7704-399: The following year, al-Dizbari drove the Jarrahids out of Ramla, but was recalled to Egypt in 1026. In 1029, he returned and routed the Jarrahids and their Bedouin allies. Persian geographer Nasir-i-Khusrau visited the city in 1047, remarking: Ramla is a great city, with strong walls built of stone, mortared, of great height and thickness, with iron gates opening therein. From the town to

7811-531: The food supply to dwindle. Seven more species of troglobite crustaceans and springtails were discovered in "Noah's Ark Cave", as the cave has been dubbed by journalists, several of them unknown to science. According to the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS), a total of 63,462 people were living in Ramla at the end of 2004. In 2001, the ethnic makeup of the city was 80% Jewish, 20% Arab (16% Muslim Arabs and 4% Christian Arabs ). Ramla

7918-513: The importance of the maquis (aided by the mountainous terrain ) and the high levels of support and collaboration of its inhabitants for the nationalist cause. Several historic leaders of the FLN came from this region, including Hocine Aït Ahmed , Abane Ramdane , and Krim Belkacem . It was also in Kabylia that the Soummam conference took place in 1956, the first of the FLN. The flipside of being such

8025-428: The map of Pierre Jacotin compiled during this campaign. In 1838, Edward Robinson found Ramleh to be a town of about 3000 inhabitants, surrounded by olive-groves and vegetables. It had few streets, and the houses were made of stone and were well-built. There were several mosques in the town. In 1863, Victor Guérin noted that the Latin (Catholic) population was reduced to two priests and 50 parishioners. In 1869,

8132-432: The marble here with a toothless saw, which is worked with 'Mekka sand'. They saw the marble in length, as is the case with wood, to form the columns; not in across; they also cut it into slabs. The marbles that I saw here were of all colours, some variegated, some green, red, black and white. There is, too, at Ramla, a particular kind of fig, and this they export to all the countries round. This city Ramla, throughout Syria and

8239-457: The minaret of the White Mosque ( al-Masjid al-Abyad ) erected by Caliph Suleiman in the 8th century, of which only remnants are to be seen today. The tower is six stories high, with a spiral staircase of 119 steps. The Pool of Arches, also known as St. Helen's Pool and Bīr al-Anezīya, is an underground water cistern built during the reign of the Abbasid caliph Haroun al-Rashid in 789 CE (in

8346-560: The modified noun. Example : « Axxam-nneɣ. » – "Our house." (House-our) Ramla Ramla or Ramle ( Hebrew : רַמְלָה , Ramlā ; Arabic : الرملة , ar-Ramleh ) is a city in the Central District of Israel . Ramle is one of Israel's mixed cities , with significant numbers of both Jews and Arabs. The city was founded in the early 8th century CE by the Umayyad caliph Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik as

8453-504: The new city. Although the traditional accounts are in agreement that Lydda almost immediately fell into obscurity following the founding of Ramla, narratives vary about the extent of Sulayman's efforts to transfer Lydda's inhabitants to Ramla, some holding that he only demolished a church in Lydda and others that he demolished the city altogether. Al-Ya'qubi (died 839) noted Sulayman razed the houses of Lydda's inhabitants to force their relocation to Ramla and punished those who resisted. In

8560-412: The new city. Not long after its establishment, Ramla developed as the commercial centre of Palestine , serving as a hub for pottery, dyeing, weaving, and olive oil, and as the home of numerous Muslim scholars . Its prosperity was lauded by geographers in the 10th–11th centuries, when the city was ruled by the Fatimids and Seljuks . It lost its role as a provincial capital shortly before the arrival of

8667-683: The number of Kabyle speakers in Algeria at between 2.5 to 3 million in 2015. Bruce Maddy-Weitzman's 2018 estimate is more than 5 million Kabyle speakers in Kabylie. Linguist Asya Pereltsvaig gives 5.6 million Kabyle speakers worldwide in 2020, mostly in Algeria. In 2021, Amina Mettouchi, professor of Berber linguistics, estimated the number of speakers at five million worldwide and more than three million in Algeria. In 2022, according to Ethnologue there were 7.5 million speakers worldwide, including 6.4 million in Algeria. Many identify two dialects: Greater Kabylie (west) and Lesser Kabylie (east), but

8774-547: The population was given as 3,460; 3000 Muslims, 400 Greek Orthodox and 60 Catholics. In 1882, the Palestine Exploration Fund 's Survey of Western Palestine noted that there was a bazaar in the town, "but its prosperity has much decayed, and many of the houses are falling into ruins, including the Serai ." Expansion began only at the end of the 19th century. In 1889, 31 Jewish worker families settled in

8881-583: The reality is more complex than that, Kabyle dialects constitute a dialect continuum that can be divided into four main dialects (from west to east): With the exception of the far-eastern dialect, much of the vocabulary of Kabyle is common across its dialects, though some lexical differences exist, e.g. the word dream in English (from west to east): bargu, argu, argu, bureg. Almost all Berber speakers are multilingual, in Arabic and often also in French. Kabyle

8988-531: The region of Kabylia by the sixth century, when Latin became the official and administrative language in North Africa, as in the rest of the former Roman empire. Kabyle became a mostly spoken language after the Arabic conquest of North Africa , and while many examples of the Kabyle language written in a form of Berber-Arabic script survive, the number of Kabyle texts was relatively much smaller than those written in other Berber languages such as Shilha , Mozabite , and Nafusi . The first French–Kabyle dictionary

9095-457: The result of assimilations (these accents are generally divided into western and eastern Kabyle). Some of these assimilations are present among all Kabyle "dialects" and some not. These assimilations are not noted in writing, such as: Gemination affects the quality of certain consonants, turning semivowels and fricatives into stops ; in particular, geminated ɣ becomes qq , geminated y becomes gg , and geminated w becomes bb . Kabyle

9202-538: The role of the Kutama in the Fatimid army was greatly weakened as he significantly reduced their size in the army and included new socio-military groups. In 969 under the command of Jawhar, the Fatimid troops conquered Egypt from the Ikhsidids, the general Ja'far ibn Fallah was instrumental in this success: he led the troops that crossed the river Nile and according to al-Maqrizi, captured the boats used to do this from

9309-517: The same time as identity politics and the cultural awakening of the Kabylians were intensifying in reaction to the increasingly hard-line Arabization . In the midst of the civil war, there was an act of massive civil disobedience beginning in September 1994 and lasting the entire school year until mid 1995 where the ten-million strong population of Kabylia conducted a total school boycott, known as

9416-509: The sea-coast is a distance of three leagues. The inhabitants get their water from the rainfall, and in each house is a tank for storing the same, in order that there may always be a supply. In the middle of the Friday Mosque [White Mosque], also, is a large tank: and from it, when it is filled with water, anyone who wishes may take. The area of the mosque measures two hundred paces ( Gam ) by three hundred. Over one of its porches ( suffah )

9523-510: The seat of a seigneury in the Kingdom of Jerusalem, the Lordship of Ramla within the County of Jaffa and Ascalon . It was a city of some economic significance and an important way station for pilgrims travelling to Jerusalem. The Crusaders identified it with the biblical Ramathaim and called it Arimathea . Around 1163, the rabbi and traveller Benjamin of Tudela , who also mistook it for

9630-496: The second half of the 13th century, when they added a round minaret, an entrance from the north, and a mihrab . The Great Mosque of Ramla, also known as the El-Omari Mosque, it is in architectural terms Israel's largest and best-preserved Crusader church. The Hospice of St Nicodemus and St Joseph of Arimathea on Ramla's main boulevard, Herzl Street, is easily recognized by its clock-faced, square tower. It belongs to

9737-485: The singular form of raml (sand), from the sandy area in which it sat. Sulayman's motives for founding Ramla were personal ambition and practical considerations. The location of Ramla near Lydda, a long-established and prosperous city, was logistically and economically advantageous. The area's economic importance was based on its strategic location at the intersection of the two major roads linking Egypt with Syria (the so-called " Via Maris ") and linking Jerusalem with

9844-606: The state's expenditures. In the late 9th century the Muslim inhabitants were composed mainly of Arabs and Persians, while the clients of the Muslims were Samaritans. The golden age of Ramla under the Umayyads and Abbasids, when the city overtook Jerusalem as a trade center, later gave way to a period of political instability and war beginning in the late 10th century. The Egypt-based Fatimids conquered Ramla in 969 and ten years later

9951-480: The struggle for independence and in building an independent Algerian state. French colonists invented the Kabyle myth in the 19th century which asserted that the Kabyle people were more predisposed than Arabs to assimilate into "French civilization." Lacoste explained that "turning the Arabs into invaders was one way of legitimizing the French presence". Prior to the creation of the term in the 1840s, Kabyles throughout

10058-539: The surrounding places were plundered by the Bedouin, impoverishing much of the population. The Jarrahids brought the Alid emir of Mecca , al-Hasan ibn Ja'far , to act as caliph in defiance of the Fatimids. The development was short-lived, as the Jarrahids abandoned al-Hasan after Fatimid bribes, and the caliphal claimant left the city for Mecca. A Fatimid army led by Ali ibn Ja'far ibn Fallah wrested control of Ramla from

10165-459: The third-largest limestone cave in Israel. One of the finds was an eyeless scorpion, given the name Akrav israchanani honouring the researchers who identified it, Israel Naaman and Hanan Dimentman. All ten specimen of the blind scorpion found in the cave had been dead for several years, possibly because recent overpumping of the groundwater has led the underground lake to shrink, and with it

10272-519: The town, which had no Jewish population at the time. In the 1922 census of Palestine conducted by the British Mandate authorities , 'Ramleh' had a population of 7,312 (5,837 Muslims , 1,440 Christians and 35 Jews). The Christians were further noted by denomination: 1,226 Orthodox , 2 Syriac Orthodox (Jacobites), 150 Roman Catholics , 8 Melkite Catholics , 4 Maronite , 15 Armenian , 2 Abyssinian Church and 36 Anglicans . Less than

10379-511: The unique Berber form of elected delegates form of government (through financial contribution and thus influence), the Zirids . Beyond their immediate Zirid territory ( aarch /Congregation), another aarch and family Hammadid and its associates emerged in Kabylia with influence covering most of today's Algeria, whereas the Zirid's territory extended eastward to cover the area of modern Tunisia. Both

10486-577: The word ("broken/internal" plurals), or both. Examples: As in all Berber languages, Kabyle has two types of states or cases of the noun : free state and construct state (or 'annexed state'). The free state is morphologically unmarked. The construct state is derived either by changing initial /a-/ to /u-/, loss of initial vowel in some feminine nouns, addition of a semi-vowel word-initially, or in some cases no change occurs at all: As in Central Morocco Tamazight , construct state

10593-459: The words of al-Jahshiyari, Sulayman "founded the town of al-Ramla and its mosque and thus caused the ruin of Lod [Lydda]". The Abbasids toppled the Umayyads in 750, confiscating the White Mosque and all other Umayyad properties in Ramla. The Abbasids annually reviewed the high costs of maintaining the Barada canal, though starting under the reign of Caliph al-Mu'tasim it became a regular part of

10700-514: Was Arab . After the conquest of Ifriqiya, the Fatimids conquered the realm of the Rustamids on the way to Sijilmasa which they also briefly conquered. There the imprisoned Abdullāh al-Mahdī Billah was freed, accepted as the Imam of the movement, and installed as the first Caliph and founder of the ruling dynasty. The historian Heinz Halm describes the early Fatimid state as being "a hegemony of

10807-712: Was "too Christian in ethos for the taste of the Umayyad rulers", particularly following the Arabization and Islamization reforms instituted by Abd al-Malik. According to al-Jahshiyari (died 942), Sulayman sought a lasting reputation as a great builder following the example of his father and al-Walid, the respective founders of the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem and the Great Mosque of Damascus . The construction of Ramla

10914-456: Was Sulayman's "way to immortality" and "his personal stamp on the landscape of Palestine", according to Luz. The first structure Sulayman erected in Ramla was his palatial residence, which dually served as the seat of Palestine's administration ( diwan ). The next structure was the Dar al-Sabbaghin (House of the Dyers). At the center of the new city was a congregational mosque , later known as

11021-507: Was an abjad , and is not yet completely deciphered today. Deciphered scripts are mostly funerary, following a simple formula of "X son of Y" (X u Y) which is still used to this day in the Kabyle language. Such writings have been found in Kabylie (also known as Kabylia) and continue to be discovered by archeologists. The Tifinagh script of the Tuaregs was a direct continuation of this earlier script. The Libyco-Berber alphabet disappeared in

11128-492: Was compiled by a French ethnologist in the 18th century. It was written in Latin script with an orthography based on that of French . However, the Kabyle language really became a written language again in the beginning of the 19th century. Under French influence, Kabyle intellectuals began to use the Latin script . " Tamacahutt n wuccen " by Brahim Zellal was one of the first Kabyle books written using this alphabet. After

11235-474: Was not built on the site of an ancient city, although in recent years the ruins of an older city were uncovered to the south of Ramla. Earlier, Benjamin Mazar had proposed that ancient Gath lay at the site of Ras Abu Hamid east of Ramla. Avi-Yonah , however, considered that to be a different Gath, usually now called Gath-Gittaim. This view is also supported by other scholars, those holding that there was, both,

11342-604: Was recognised in 2002 as a national language of Algeria, and as of 7 February 2016, an official language of the State alongside Arabic. The Movement for the Autonomy of Kabylie (MAK) , founded in June 2001, has called for self-government for the region since 2011. The MAK was renamed as "Mouvement pour l'Autodétermination de la Kabylie" seeking independence from Algeria. Main features: Three large chains of mountains occupy most of

11449-421: Was subsequently repopulated by Jewish immigrants. Today, Ramla is one of Israel's mixed cities , with a population 76% Jewish and 24% Arab. The Umayyad prince and governor of Palestine , Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik , founded Ramla as the seat of his administration, replacing Lydda , the Muslims' original provincial capital. Sulayman had been appointed governor by his father Caliph Abd al-Malik before

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