An extraterrestrial or alien is a lifeform that did not originate on Earth. The word extraterrestrial means "outside Earth". Extraterrestrials are a common theme in modern science-fiction , and also appeared in much earlier works such as the second-century parody True History by Lucian of Samosata .
133-476: The Daleks ( / ˈ d ɑː l ɛ k s / DAH -leks ) are a fictional extraterrestrial race of extremely xenophobic mutants principally portrayed in the British science fiction television programme Doctor Who . They were conceived by writer Terry Nation and first appeared in the 1963 Doctor Who serial The Daleks , in casings designed by Raymond Cusick . Drawing inspiration from
266-485: A 2008 survey indicated that nine out of ten British children were able to identify a Dalek correctly. In 1999 a Dalek photographed by Lord Snowdon appeared on a postage stamp celebrating British popular culture. In 2010, readers of science fiction magazine SFX voted the Dalek as the all-time greatest monster, beating competition including Japanese movie monster Godzilla and J. R. R. Tolkien 's Gollum , of The Lord of
399-488: A Dalek vaporises a paintball that has blocked its vision while proclaiming, "My vision is not impaired!" The creature inside the mechanical casing is soft and repulsive in appearance, and vicious in temperament. The first-ever glimpse of a Dalek mutant, in The Daleks , was a claw peeking out from under a Thal cloak after it had been removed from its casing. The mutants' actual appearance has varied, but often adheres to
532-465: A Human/Dalek hybrid. The Cult then set about creating "Human Daleks" by "formatting" the brains of a few thousand captured humans so they can have Dalek minds. Dalek Sec, however, becomes more human in personality and alters the plan so the hybrids will be more human like him. The rest of the Cult mutinies. Sec is killed, while Thay and Jast are later wiped out with the hybrids. Dalek Caan, believing it may be
665-486: A New Year's Day episode, " Resolution " (2019), when a Dalek mutant, separated from its armoured casing, takes control of a human in order to build a new travel device for itself and summon more Daleks to conquer Earth. This Dalek is cloned by a scientist in " Revolution of the Daleks " (2021), and attempts to take over Earth using further clones, but they are killed by other Daleks for perceived genetic impurity. The Dalek army
798-403: A beam that has electrical tendencies, is capable of propagating through water, and may be a form of plasma or electrolaser . The eyepiece is a Dalek's most vulnerable spot; impairing its vision often leads to a blind, panicked firing of its weapon while exclaiming "My vision is impaired; I cannot see!" Russell T Davies subverted the catchphrase in his 2008 episode " The Stolen Earth ", in which
931-568: A cartoon in the Daily Mail captioned "THE DEGAULLEK", caricaturing French President Charles de Gaulle arriving at a NATO meeting as a Dalek with de Gaulle's prominent nose. The Daleks have become as synonymous with Doctor Who as the Doctor himself, and their behaviour and catchphrases are now part of British popular culture . "Hiding behind the sofa whenever the Daleks appear" has been cited as an element of British cultural identity, and
1064-529: A ceiling duct. The Fourth Doctor calls down, "If you're supposed to be the superior race of the universe, why don't you try climbing after us?" The Daleks generally make up for their lack of mobility with overwhelming firepower; a joke among Doctor Who fans is that "Real Daleks don't climb stairs; they level the building." Dalek mobility has improved over the history of the series: in their first appearance, in The Daleks , they were capable of movement only on
1197-571: A decline shared by its direct tabloid rivals The Sun and the Daily Star . Morgan was fired from the Mirror on 14 May 2004 after authorising the newspaper's publication of photographs allegedly showing Iraqi prisoners being abused by British Army soldiers from the Queen's Lancashire Regiment . Within days the photographs were shown to be fakes. Under the headline "SORRY.. WE WERE HOAXED",
1330-457: A larger, more pointed base; a glowing eyepiece; an all-over metallic-brass finish (specified by Davies); thicker, nailed strips on the "neck" section; a housing for the eyestalk pivot; and significantly larger dome lights. The new prop made its on-screen debut in the 2005 episode "Dalek". These Dalek casings use a short operator inside the housing while the 'head' and eyestalk are operated via remote control. A third person, Nicholas Briggs , supplies
1463-578: A man's skull by suction, measure the intelligence of a subject, and extract information from a man's mind. Dalek casings are made of a bonded polycarbide material called "Dalekanium" by a member of the human resistance in The Dalek Invasion of Earth and the Dalek comics, as well as by the Cult of Skaro in " Daleks in Manhattan ". The lower half of a Dalek's shell is covered with hemispherical protrusions, or 'Dalek-bumps', which are shown in
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#17327801826121596-622: A marketing exercise with Pepsi-Cola , who on the same day had decided to relaunch its cans with a blue design instead of the traditional red and white logo. Source: Tabloid Nation Notable former and current columnists of the Daily Mirror include: The Daily Mirror won "Newspaper of the Year" in 2002 at the British Press Awards . It won "Scoop of the Year" in 2003 ("3am", 'Sven and Ulrika'), 2004 (Ryan Parry, 'Intruder at
1729-639: A performance by the Georgian National Ballet , in which dancers in long skirts appeared to glide across the stage. For many of the shows the Daleks were operated by retired ballet dancers wearing black socks while sitting inside the Dalek. Raymond Cusick was given the task of designing the Daleks when Ridley Scott , then a designer for the BBC, proved unavailable after having been initially assigned to their debut serial. According to Jeremy Bentham's Doctor Who—The Early Years (1986), after Nation wrote
1862-508: A popular catchphrase. The Daleks were created by Terry Nation and designed by the BBC designer Raymond Cusick . They were introduced in December 1963 in the second Doctor Who serial, The Daleks . Wishing to create an alien creature that did not look like a "man in a suit", Terry Nation stated in his script for the first Dalek serial that they should have no legs. He was also inspired by
1995-461: A rage when thwarted. They tend to be excitable and will repeat the same word or phrase over and over again in heightened emotional states, most famously "Exterminate! Exterminate!" Extraterrestrials in fiction The 2nd century writer of satires, Lucian, in his True History claims to have visited the Moon when his ship was sent up by a fountain, which was peopled and at war with the people of
2128-503: A restructuring of the media interests of the Harmsworth family led to the Mirror becoming a part of International Publishing Corporation . During the mid-1960s, daily sales exceeded 5 million copies, a feat never repeated by it or any other daily (non-Sunday) British newspaper since. The Mirror was owned by Robert Maxwell between 1984 and 1991. The paper went through a protracted period of crisis after his death before merging with
2261-424: A result of a contractual obligation. Externally, Daleks resemble human-sized pepper pots with a single mechanical eyestalk mounted on a rotating dome, a gun-mount containing an energy-weapon ("gunstick" or " death ray ") resembling an egg-whisk, and a telescopic manipulator arm usually tipped by an appendage resembling a sink- plunger . Daleks have been known to use their plungers to interface with technology, crush
2394-477: A scientific explanation for the origin of mankind or its relation with other lifeforms, any hypothetical rational lifeforms had by necessity to be humans. Even in mythology, all deities are mostly humanlike. For example, Voltaire 's Micromégas features people from Saturn , who are simply of higher proportions. This was changed by the 1859 book On the Origin of Species by Charles Darwin , which proposed
2527-437: A strict command structure in which they are conditioned to obey superiors' orders without question. Dalek speech is characterised by repeated phrases, and by orders given to themselves and to others. Unlike the stereotypical emotionless robots often found in science fiction, Daleks are often angry; author Kim Newman has described the Daleks as behaving "like toddlers in perpetual hissy fits", gloating when in power and flying into
2660-554: A time when opinion polls showed the party on course for their worst election result since 1983. The newspaper was critical of the Liberal Democrats for forming the coalition which enabled the Conservatives to form a new government in 2010, and branded leader Nick Clegg as Pinickio (alluding to the lying fictional character Pinocchio ) for going back on numerous pre-election pledges. It has frequently referred to
2793-489: Is a British national daily tabloid newspaper . Founded in 1903, it is owned by parent company Reach plc . From 1985 to 1987, and from 1997 to 2002, the title on its masthead was simply The Mirror . It had an average daily print circulation of 716,923 in December 2016, dropping to 587,803 the following year. Its Sunday sister paper is the Sunday Mirror . Unlike other major British tabloids such as The Sun and
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#17327801826122926-514: Is an anagram ), and the Dalek design was attributed to one man, the paralyzed Kaled chief scientist and evil genius, Davros. Later Big Finish Productions audio plays attempted to explain this retcon by saying that the Skaro word "dal" simply means warrior, which is how the Kaleds described themselves, while "dal-ek" means "god." According to Genesis of the Daleks , instead of a short nuclear exchange,
3059-495: Is later sent by the Doctor into the "void" between worlds to be destroyed, using a spare TARDIS she recently acquired on Gallifrey. After cameo appearances depicting them as one of several villains trying to take advantage of "the Flux" event tearing through space-time in series 13 , the Daleks returned in the first 2022 special , " Eve of the Daleks ". In the episode, a team of Dalek Executioners are dispatched by High Command to avenge
3192-434: Is shown capable of inserting a tentacle into the back of a human's neck and controlling them. Daleks' voices are electronic; when out of its casing the mutant is only able to squeak. Once the mutant is removed the casing itself can be entered and operated by humanoids; for example, in The Daleks , Ian Chesterton ( William Russell ) enters a Dalek shell to masquerade as a guard as part of an escape plan. For many years it
3325-623: The Daily Mail , the Mirror has no separate Scottish edition; this function is performed by the Daily Record and the Sunday Mail , which incorporate certain stories from the Mirror that are of Scottish significance. Originally pitched to the middle-class reader, it was converted into a working-class newspaper after 1934, in order to reach a larger audience. It was founded by Alfred Harmsworth , who sold it to his brother Harold Harmsworth (from 1914 Lord Rothermere) in 1913. In 1963
3458-458: The 2003 invasion of Iraq , and ran many front pages critical of the war. It also gave financial support to the 15 February 2003 anti-war protest , paying for a large screen and providing thousands of placards. Morgan re-hired John Pilger , who had been sacked during Robert Maxwell 's ownership of the Mirror titles. Despite such changes, Morgan was unable to halt the paper's decline in circulation,
3591-523: The 2010 UK general election two days later, confirming the Daily Mirror ' s Labour allegiance. The election ended in Britain's first hung parliament since 1974 but Cameron still became prime minister within days as the Conservatives formed a coalition with the Liberal Democrats . The Daily Mirror was the only leading national newspaper to remain loyal to Labour and Gordon Brown at
3724-460: The 2019 UK general election , the newspaper again endorsed Labour "to protect NHS, end poverty and for a kinder Britain." The Daily Mirror threw its support behind the Labour Party for the 2024 UK general election , stating that "a Labour government is more crucial than ever for the new generation." On 2 April 1996, the Daily Mirror was printed entirely on blue paper. This was done as
3857-507: The Daily and Sunday Mirror moved to Trinity Mirror's facilities in Watford and Oldham. Under the editorship of Piers Morgan (from October 1995 to May 2004) the paper saw a number of controversies. Morgan was widely criticised and forced to apologise for the headline "ACHTUNG! SURRENDER For you Fritz, ze Euro 96 Championship is over" a day before England met Germany in a semi-final of
3990-523: The Daily Mirror remained loyal to Labour and urged its readers to vote for the party, then led by Michael Foot , condemning the Thatcher-led Tory government for its "waste of our nation", as well as the rise in unemployment that Thatcher's Conservative government had seen in its first term in power largely due to monetarist economic policies to reduce inflation, although the government's previously low popularity had dramatically improved since
4123-605: The Director-General of the BBC from 1992 to 2000, was called a "croak-voiced Dalek" by playwright Dennis Potter in the MacTaggart Lecture at the 1993 Edinburgh Television Festival . Dalek in-universe history has seen many retroactive changes , which have caused continuity problems. When the Daleks first appeared, they were presented as the descendants of the Dals, mutated after a brief nuclear war between
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4256-829: The Euro 96 football championships. In 2000, Morgan was the subject of an investigation after Suzy Jagger wrote a story in The Daily Telegraph revealing that he had bought £20,000 worth of shares in the computer company Viglen soon before the Mirror ' s 'City Slickers' column tipped Viglen as a good buy. Morgan was found by the Press Complaints Commission to have breached the Code of Conduct on financial journalism, but kept his job. The 'City Slickers' columnists, Anil Bhoyrul and James Hipwell , were both found to have committed further breaches of
4389-642: The Herald competing with the Mirror for readers, and in 1964, relaunched it as a mid-market paper, now named The Sun . When it failed to win readers, The Sun was sold to Rupert Murdoch – who immediately relaunched it as a more populist and sensationalist tabloid and a direct competitor to the Mirror . In an attempt to cater to a different kind of reader, the Mirror launched the "Mirrorscope" pull-out section on 30 January 1968. The Press Gazette commented: "The Daily Mirror launched its revolutionary four-page supplement "Mirrorscope". The ambitious brief for
4522-514: The Labour Party since the 1945 UK general election . On the day of the 1979 UK general election , the Daily Mirror urged its readers to vote for the governing Labour Party led by James Callaghan . As widely predicted by the opinion polls, Labour lost this election and Conservative Margaret Thatcher became prime minister. The Mirror ' s continued support of the Labour government
4655-422: The Mirror attempted to move mid-market, claiming to eschew the more trivial stories of show-business and gossip. The paper changed its masthead logo from red to black (and occasionally blue), in an attempt to dissociate itself from the term " red top ", a term for a sensationalist mass-market tabloid. (On 6 April 2005, the red top came back.) Under then-editor Piers Morgan , the newspaper's editorial stance opposed
4788-457: The Mirror in circulation, and in 1984 the Mirror was sold to Robert Maxwell . The first Mirror using colour appeared on the 1st August 1988 edition. Following Maxwell's death in 1991, David Montgomery became Mirror Group's CEO, and a period of cost-cutting and production changes ensued. The Mirror went through a protracted period of crisis before merging with the regional newspaper group Trinity to form Trinity Mirror in 1999. Printing of
4921-580: The Mirror responded that it had fallen victim to a "calculated and malicious hoax" and apologised for the publication of the photographs. The Mirror 's front page on 4 November 2004, after the re-election of George W. Bush as U.S. president, read "How can 59,054,087 people be so DUMB?". It provided a list of states and their alleged average IQ, showing the Bush states all below average intelligence (except for Virginia ), and all John Kerry states at or above average intelligence. The source for this table
5054-481: The Nazis , Nation portrayed the Daleks as violent, merciless and pitiless cyborg aliens, completely absent of any emotion other than hate, who demand total conformity to the will of the Dalek with the highest authority, and are bent on the conquest of the universe and the extermination of any other forms of life, including other "impure" Daleks which are deemed inferior for being different to them. Collectively, they are
5187-454: The theory of evolution . This book caused a revolution in fiction as much as it did in science, as authors began to imagine extraterrestrial races completely different from human beings. With the rationale that evolution in other worlds may take completely different directions than on Earth, aliens began to be described as creepy monsters. Usually, authors used features from other animals, such as insects, crabs, and octopuses. Some such aliens are
5320-518: The 2005 episode " Dalek ", was built by modelmaker Mike Tucker . Additional Dalek props based on Tucker's master were subsequently built out of fibreglass by Cardiff -based Specialist Models. The Daleks became an immediate hit with viewers, returning for subsequent appearances throughout the 1960s. As early as one year after first appearing on Doctor Who , the Daleks had become popular enough to be recognized even by non-viewers. In December 1964 editorial cartoonist Leslie Gilbert Illingworth published
5453-729: The Andy Capp cartoon, created by Reg Smythe from Hartlepool, in the northern editions. The Mirror 's mass working-class readership had made it the United Kingdom's best-selling daily tabloid newspaper. In 1960, it acquired the Daily Herald (the popular daily of the labour movement) when it bought Odhams , in one of a series of takeovers which created the International Publishing Corporation (IPC). The Mirror management did not want
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5586-612: The British daily newspaper market, selling more than 5 million copies a day at its peak in the mid-1960s. The Mirror was an influential model for German tabloid Bild , which was founded in 1952 and became Europe's biggest-selling newspaper. In 1955, the Mirror and its stablemate the Sunday Pictorial (later to become the Sunday Mirror ) began printing a northern edition in Manchester . In 1957 it introduced
5719-547: The Code, and were sacked before the inquiry. In 2004, further enquiry by the Department of Trade and Industry cleared Morgan from any charges. On 7 December 2005 Bhoyrul and Hipwell were convicted of conspiracy to breach the Financial Services Act. During the trial it emerged that Morgan had bought £67,000 worth of Viglen shares, emptying his bank account and investing under his wife's name too. In 2002,
5852-473: The Conservative policy of privatisation, but its decision to be up-front about tax increases was seen as a key factor in its failure to win. By the time of the 1997 UK general election , support for the Labour Party, by then led by Tony Blair , in the opinion polls had exceeded that of support for the Conservative government led by John Major since late 1992, whose reduced popularity largely blamed on
5985-523: The Dal and Thal races 500 years ago. This race of Daleks is destroyed when their power supply is wrecked. However, when they reappear in The Dalek Invasion of Earth , they have conquered Earth in the 22nd century. Later stories saw them develop time travel and a space empire. In 1975, Terry Nation revised the Daleks' origins in Genesis of the Daleks , where the Dals were now called Kaleds (of which "Daleks"
6118-637: The Dalek War Fleet destroyed by the Doctor in the series 13 finale " The Vanquishers ", only for a time loop established by the TARDIS to save the Doctor's life and give her a chance to destroy the executioners instead. The Daleks later appeared alongside the Cybermen as allies to the Master in " The Power of the Doctor " as part of a plot to finally destroy their nemesis, but the alliance is defeated by
6251-466: The Dalek voice in the television series has been provided by Nicholas Briggs , speaking into a microphone connected to a voice modulator. Briggs had previously provided Dalek and other alien voices for Big Finish Productions audio plays , and continues to do so. In a 2006 BBC Radio interview, Briggs said that when the BBC asked him to do the voice for the new television series, they instructed him to bring his own analogue ring modulator that he had used in
6384-481: The Dalek's midsection (where the mutant is located), as normally ineffective firepower can be concentrated on the eyestalk to blind a Dalek. In 2019 episode " Resolution " the bumps give way to reveal missile launchers capable of wiping out a military tank with ease. Daleks have a very limited visual field, with no peripheral sight at all, and are relatively easy to hide from in fairly exposed places. Their own energy weapons are capable of destroying them. Their weapons fire
6517-424: The Daleks ) or life-size photographic enlargements in the early black-and-white episodes ( The Daleks , The Dalek Invasion of Earth , and The Power of the Daleks ). In stories involving armies of Daleks, the BBC effects team even turned to using commercially available toy Daleks, manufactured by Louis Marx & Co and Herts Plastic Moulders Ltd. Examples of this can be observed in the serials The Power of
6650-402: The Daleks , and Death to the Daleks . Other Dalek voice actors include Royce Mills (three stories), Brian Miller (two stories), and Oliver Gilbert and Peter Messaline (one story). John Leeson , who performed the voice of K9 in several Doctor Who stories, and Davros actors Terry Molloy and David Gooderson also contributed supporting voices for various Dalek serials. Since 2005
6783-453: The Daleks depicted them as capable of hovering up a flight of stairs. Despite this, journalists covering the series frequently refer to the Daleks' supposed inability to climb stairs; characters escaping up a flight of stairs in the 2005 episode "Dalek" made the same joke and were shocked when the Dalek began to hover up the stairs after uttering the phrase "ELEVATE", in a similar manner to their normal phrase "EXTERMINATE". The new series depicts
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#17327801826126916-515: The Daleks featured the Daleks without Davros and nearly removing William Shakespeare from history. In Terror Firma , the Eighth Doctor met a Dalek faction led by Davros who was devolving more into a Dalek-like life form himself while attempting to create new Daleks from mutated humans of Earth. The audio dramas The Apocalypse Element and Dalek Empire also depicted the alien villains invading Gallifrey and then creating their own version of
7049-572: The Daleks , The Evil of the Daleks , and Planet of the Daleks . Judicious editing techniques also gave the impression that there were more Daleks than were actually available, such as using a split screen in "The Parting of the Ways". Four fully functioning props were commissioned for the first serial "The Daleks" in 1963, and were constructed from BBC plans by Shawcraft Engineering. These became known in fan circles as "Mk I Daleks" . Shawcraft were also commissioned to construct approximately 20 Daleks for
7182-461: The Daleks , which depicted a civil war between two factions of Daleks. One faction, the "Imperial Daleks", were loyal to Davros, who had become their Emperor, whilst the other, the "Renegade Daleks", followed a black Supreme Dalek. By the end of the story, armies of both factions have been wiped out and the Doctor has tricked them into destroying Skaro. However, Davros escapes and based on the fact that Daleks possess time travel and were spread throughout
7315-421: The Daleks as fully capable of flight, even space flight. The non-humanoid shape of the Dalek did much to enhance the creatures' sense of menace. A lack of familiar reference points differentiated them from the traditional " bug-eyed monster " of science fiction, which Doctor Who creator Sydney Newman had wanted the show to avoid. The unsettling Dalek form, coupled with their alien voices, made many believe that
7448-515: The Daleks have included Roy Skelton , who first voiced the Daleks in the 1967 story The Evil of the Daleks and provided voices for five additional Dalek serials including Planet of the Daleks , and for the one-off anniversary special " The Five Doctors ". Michael Wisher , the actor who originated the role of Dalek creator Davros in Genesis of the Daleks , provided Dalek voices for that same story, as well as for Frontier in Space , Planet of
7581-448: The Daleks he allegedly shouted at the screen, "That bloody Nation — he's stolen my robots!" The titling of early Doctor Who stories is complex and sometimes controversial. The first Dalek serial is called, variously, The Survivors (the pre-production title and on-screen title used for the serial's second episode), The Mutants (its official title at the time of production and broadcast, later taken by another unrelated story ), Beyond
7714-442: The Daleks outside the series were unsuccessful. Since Nation's death in 1997, his share of the rights is now administered by his former agent, Tim Hancock. Early plans for what eventually became the 1996 Doctor Who television movie included radically redesigned Daleks whose cases unfolded like spiders' legs. The concept for these " Spider Daleks " was abandoned, but it was picked up again in several Doctor Who spin-offs . When
7847-445: The Daleks to rattle as they moved and it was not possible to remove this noise from the final soundtrack. A small parabolic dish was added to the rear of the prop's casing to explain why these Daleks, unlike the ones in their first serial, were not dependent on static electricity drawn up from the floors of the Dalek city for their motive power. Later versions of the prop had more efficient wheels and were once again simply propelled by
7980-494: The Doctor " (2013), the Daleks are one of the races that besieges Trenzalore in an attempt to stop the Doctor from releasing the Time Lords from the pocket dimension. After converting Tasha Lem into a Dalek puppet, they regain knowledge of the Doctor. The Twelfth Doctor 's first encounter with the Daleks is in his second full episode, " Into the Dalek " (2014), where he encounters a damaged Dalek he names 'Rusty.' Connecting to
8113-606: The Doctor and new and old companions. In a video short for the 2023 Children in Need telethon, the origin of the iconic plunger-like appendages used by Daleks was retroactively established as being from the Fourteenth Doctor 's TARDIS, while also establishing an unintentional hint by that Doctor, given to a Kaled military officer, for the creation of the name "Dalek". Daleks have little, if any, individual personality, ostensibly no emotions other than hatred and anger, and
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#17327801826128246-479: The Doctor is removed from their collective consciousness at the end of the episode. The Daleks then appear in the 50th Anniversary special " The Day of the Doctor " (2013), where they are seen being defeated in the Time War . The same special reveals that many Time Lords survived the war since the Doctor found a way to transfer planet Gallifrey out of phase with reality and into a pocket dimension. In " The Time of
8379-537: The Doctor's description of the species in Remembrance of the Daleks as "little green blobs in bonded polycarbide armour ". In Resurrection of the Daleks a Dalek creature, separated from its casing, attacks and severely injures a human soldier; in Remembrance of the Daleks there are two Dalek factions (Imperial and Renegade), and the creatures inside have a different appearance in each case, one resembling
8512-528: The Doctor's love of the universe and his hatred of the Daleks, Rusty assumes a mission to destroy other Daleks. In " The Magician's Apprentice "/" The Witch's Familiar " (2015), the Doctor is summoned to Skaro where he learns Davros has rebuilt the Dalek Empire. In " The Pilot " (2017), the Doctor briefly visits a battle during the Dalek-Movellan war. The Thirteenth Doctor encountered a Dalek in
8645-590: The Kaled-Thal war was a thousand-year-long war of attrition , fought with nuclear , biological and chemical weapons which caused widespread mutations among the life forms of Skaro. Davros experimented on living Kaled cells to find the ultimate mutated form of the Kaled species, believing his own people had become weak and needed to be replaced by a greater life form. He placed his new Dalek creations in tank -like "travel machines" of advanced technology whose design
8778-533: The Progenitor results in the creation of New Paradigm Daleks who deem the Time War era Daleks to be inferior. The new Daleks are organised into different roles (drone, scientist, strategists, supreme and eternal), which are identifiable with colour-coded armour instead of the identification plates under the eyestalk used by their predecessors. They escape the Doctor at the end of the episode via time travel with
8911-639: The Rings . The word "Dalek" has entered major dictionaries, including the Oxford English Dictionary , which defines "Dalek" as "In the BBC television science-fiction series Doctor Who: a member of a race of aggressive alien mutants in mobile armoured casings. Frequently in extended, allusive, or similative use." English-speakers sometimes use the term metaphorically to describe people, usually authority figures, who act like robots unable to break from their programming. For example, John Birt ,
9044-488: The Second World War and remembered the fear caused by German bombings . He consciously based the Daleks on the Nazis , conceiving the species as faceless, authoritarian figures dedicated to conquest, racial purity and complete conformity. The allusion is most obvious in the Dalek stories written by Nation, in particular The Dalek Invasion of Earth (1964) and Genesis of the Daleks (1975). Before he wrote
9177-523: The Sun (used on some production documentation), The Dead Planet (the on-screen title of the serial's first episode), or simply The Daleks . The instant appeal of the Daleks caught the BBC off-guard, and transformed Doctor Who into a national phenomenon. Children were both frightened and fascinated by the alien look of the monsters, and the idea of "hiding behind the sofa" became a popular, if inaccurate or exaggerated, meme. The Doctor Who production office
9310-623: The Sun over colonisation of the Morning Star. The way people have thought about extraterrestrials is tied to the development of actual sciences. One of the first steps in the history of astronomy was to realize that the objects seen in the night sky were not gods or lights, but physical objects like Earth. This notion was followed by the one that celestial objects should be inhabited as well. However, when people thought about such extraterrestrials, they thought of them simply as people, indistinguishable from humans. As people had never considered
9443-613: The Time Lord power source known as the Eye of Harmony, allowing the Daleks to rebuild an empire and become a greater threat against the Time Lords and other races that possess time travel. A new Doctor Who series premiered in 2005, introducing the Ninth Doctor and revealing that the "Last Great Time War" had just ended, resulting in the seeming destruction of the Time Lord society. The episode " Dalek ", written by Robert Shearman ,
9576-466: The Time War in different audio drama series such as Gallifrey: Time War, The Eighth Doctor: Time War, The War Doctor, and The War Master. A Dalek Emperor returned at the end of the 2005 series, having survived the Time War and then rebuilt the Dalek race with genetic material harvested from human subjects. It saw itself as a god, and the new human-based Daleks were shown worshipping it. The Emperor and this Dalek fleet were destroyed in " The Parting of
9709-500: The Tory government was now led by John Major . The election was won by the Conservatives, although Labour managed to significantly cut the Tory majority to 21 seats compared to the triple-digit figure of the previous two elections, which led to a difficult term for Major. The outcome of this election had been far less predictable than any of the previous three elections, as opinion polls over the previous three years had shown both parties in
9842-704: The Void between dimensions. They emerged along with the Genesis Ark, a Time Lord prison vessel containing millions of pure Daleks, at Canary Wharf due to the actions of the Torchwood Institute and Cybermen from a parallel world . This resulted in a Cyberman-Dalek clash in London, which was resolved when the Tenth Doctor caused both groups to be sucked – unprotected – into
9975-413: The Void. The Cult of Skaro survived by utilising an "emergency temporal shift" to escape. The four-Dalek Cult of Skaro returned in the two-part story " Daleks in Manhattan "/" Evolution of the Daleks ", in which whilst stranded in 1930s New York, they set up a base in the partially built Empire State Building and attempt to rebuild the Dalek race. To this end, Dalek Sec merges with a human being to become
10108-401: The Ways ". The 2006 season finale " Army of Ghosts "/" Doomsday " featured a squad of four pure-bred Dalek survivors from the old Empire, known as the Cult of Skaro, composed of Daleks who were tasked with developing imagination to better predict and combat enemies. These Daleks took on names: Jast, Thay, Caan, and their black Dalek leader Sec . The Cult had survived the Time War by escaping into
10241-582: The address to which to send membership applications. By the mid-1930s, the Mirror was struggling – it and the Mail were the main casualties of the early 1930s circulation war that saw the Daily Herald and the Daily Express establish circulations of more than two million, and Rothermere decided to sell his shares in it. In 1935 Rothermere sold the paper to Harry Guy Bartholomew and Hugh Cudlipp . With Cecil King (Rothermere's nephew) in charge of
10374-460: The aliens made by the Hills, with oversized heads, big eyes, pale grey skin, and small noses captivated the public imagination and was later used by TV shows and films. This started the grey alien archetype. According to Wade Roush, a science and technology writer, "The standard depiction of aliens at that point became the little grey man. So, when Steven Spielberg came along and made probably what are
10507-430: The amorphous creature from Resurrection , the other the crab-like creature from the original Dalek serial. As the creature inside is rarely seen on screen there is a common misconception that Daleks are wholly mechanical robots. In the new series Daleks are retconned to be squid -like in appearance, with small tentacles, one or two eyes, and an exposed brain. In the new series, a Dalek creature separated from its casing
10640-408: The audio plays. The BBC's sound department had changed to a digital platform and could not adequately create the distinctive Dalek sound with their modern equipment. Briggs went as far as to bring the voice modulator to the actors' readings of the scripts. Manufacturing the props was expensive. In scenes where many Daleks had to appear, some of them would be represented by wooden replicas ( Destiny of
10773-681: The combined title with immediate effect. In 2018, Reach plc acquired the Northern & Shell titles, including the Daily Express, which led to a number of editor moves across the stable. Lloyd Embley was then promoted to editor-in-chief across the entire group, and Alison Phillips (previously deputy editor-in-chief for the Trinity Mirror titles) was appointed editor of the Daily Mirror. The Mirror has consistently supported
10906-598: The conductive metal floors of their city; in The Dalek Invasion of Earth a Dalek emerges from the waters of the River Thames , indicating not only that they had become freely mobile, but that they are amphibious ; Planet of the Daleks showed that they could ascend a vertical shaft by means of an external anti-gravity mat placed on the floor; Revelation of the Daleks showed Davros in his life-support chair and one of his Daleks hovering and Remembrance of
11039-404: The cylindrical louvres just beneath the dome, which were lined with mesh to conceal their faces. In addition to being hot and cramped, the Dalek casings also muffled external sounds, making it difficult for operators to hear the director or dialogue. John Scott Martin , a Dalek operator from the original series, said that Dalek operation was a challenge: "You had to have about six hands: one to do
11172-498: The decades. In 1963 Hodgson and his colleagues used equalisation to boost the mid-range of the actor's voice, then subjected it to ring modulation with a 30 Hz sine wave . The distinctive harsh, grating vocal timbre this produced has remained the pattern for all Dalek voices since (with the exception of those in the 1985 serial Revelation of the Daleks , for which the director, Graeme Harper , deliberately used less distortion). Besides Hawkins and Graham, other voice actors for
11305-494: The episode " Dalek " to be spheres embedded in the casing. Both the BBC-licensed Dalek Book (1964) and The Doctor Who Technical Manual (1983) describe these items as being part of a sensory array, while in the 2005 series episode "Dalek" they are integral to a Dalek's forcefield mechanism, which evaporates most bullets and resists most types of energy weapons. The forcefield seems to be concentrated around
11438-426: The eyestalk, one to do the lights, one for the gun, another for the smoke canister underneath, yet another for the sink plunger. If you were related to an octopus then it helped." For Doctor Who' s 21st-century revival the Dalek casings retain the same overall shape and dimensional proportions of previous Daleks, although many details have been redesigned to give the Dalek a heavier and more solid look. Changes include
11571-466: The failings of Black Wednesday in September of that year and it had failed to recover popularity in spite of a strong economic recovery and fall in unemployment. A reinvented New Labour had further improved its credibility under Blair by promising traditional Labour essentials including more funding for healthcare and education but also promising not to increase income tax and ending its commitment to
11704-488: The fender and incorporating the arm boxes, collars, and slats into a single fibreglass moulding. These props were repainted in grey for the Seventh Doctor serial Remembrance of the Daleks and designated as " Renegade Daleks "; another redesign, painted in cream and gold, became the " Imperial Dalek " faction. New Dalek props were built for the 21st-century version of Doctor Who . The first, which appeared alone in
11837-492: The first Dalek serial, Nation was a scriptwriter for the comedian Tony Hancock . The two men had a falling out and Nation either resigned or was fired. Hancock worked on several series proposals, one of which was called From Plip to Plop , a comedic history of the world that would have ended with a nuclear apocalypse, the survivors being reduced to living in dustbin-like robot casings and eating radiation to stay alive. According to Hancock's biographer Cliff Goodwin, when Hancock saw
11970-465: The greatest enemies of Doctor Who ' s protagonist, the Time Lord known as " the Doctor ". During the second year of the original Doctor Who programme (1963–1989), the Daleks developed their own form of time travel. At the beginning of the second Doctor Who TV series that debuted in 2005, it was established that the Daleks had engaged in a Time War against the Time Lords that affected much of
12103-404: The illustrations more abundant. By 1939, the publication was selling 1.4 million copies a day. In 1937, Hugh McClelland introduced his wild Western comic strip Beelzebub Jones in the Daily Mirror . After taking over as cartoon chief at the Mirror in 1945, he dropped Beelzebub Jones and moved on to a variety of new strips. During the Second World War the Mirror positioned itself as
12236-415: The intent to rebuild their Empire. The Daleks appeared, only briefly, in subsequent finales " The Pandorica Opens "/" The Big Bang " (2010) and " The Wedding of River Song " (2011) as Steven Moffat decided to "give them a rest" and stated, "There's a problem with the Daleks. They are the most famous of the Doctor's adversaries and the most frequent, which means they are the most reliably defeatable enemies in
12369-461: The interference of Donna Noble , a companion of the Doctor, and Caan, who has been manipulating events to destroy the Daleks after realising the severity of the atrocities they have committed. The Daleks returned in the 2010 episode " Victory of the Daleks ", wherein it is revealed that some Daleks survived the destruction of their army in "Journey's End" and retrieved the "Progenitor", a tiny apparatus containing 'original' Dalek DNA. The activation of
12502-603: The largest daily picture paper. In 1924 the newspaper sponsored the 1924 Women's Olympiad held at Stamford Bridge in London. Lord Rothermere was a friend of Benito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler , and directed the Mirror ' s editorial stance towards them in the early 1930s. On Monday, 22 January 1934 the Daily Mirror ran the headline "Give the Blackshirts a helping hand" urging readers to join Sir Oswald Mosley 's British Union of Fascists , and giving
12635-607: The last of its kind now, escapes once more via an emergency temporal shift. The Daleks returned in the 2008 season's two-part finale, " The Stolen Earth "/" Journey's End ", accompanied once again by their creator Davros. The story reveals that Caan's temporal shift sent him into the Time War, despite the War being "Time-Locked". The experience of piercing the Time-Lock resulted in Caan seeing parts of several futures, destroying his sanity in
12768-516: The lead, although any Labour lead in the polls had been relatively narrow since the Conservative government's change of leader from Thatcher to Major in November 1990, in spite of the onset of the early 1990s recession which had pushed unemployment up again after several years of decline. Labour's credibility was helped by plans including extra National Health Service (NHS) funding and moving away from firm commitments on re-nationalisation to reverse
12901-401: The name had reverted and the front page was mainly photographs. Circulation grew to 466,000 making it the second-largest morning newspaper. Alfred Harmsworth sold the newspaper to his brother Harold Harmsworth (from 1914 Lord Rothermere) in 1913. In 1917, the price was increased to one penny. Circulation continued to grow: in 1919, some issues sold more than a million copies a day, making it
13034-486: The nationalisation of leading industries. The Daily Mirror urged its readers that their country needed Blair, and to vote Labour. The 1997 election produced a Labour landslide that ended the party's 18-year exile from power, followed by two further wins in the 2001 and 2005 UK general elections . On 4 May 2010, the newspaper printed a picture of Conservative leader David Cameron with a giant red cross through his face. The headline read "How to stop him" in reference to
13167-404: The new series was announced, many fans hoped that the Daleks would return once more to the programme. The Nation estate, however, demanded levels of creative control over the Daleks' appearances and scripts that were unacceptable to the BBC. Eventually the Daleks were cleared to appear in the first series. In 2014, Doctor Who showrunner Steven Moffat denied their numerous appearances since was as
13300-611: The new standard. This is especially noticeable in the Star Trek franchise; this would later be explained in-universe as a result of an ancient spacefaring humanoid civilization “seeding” its DNA across countless planets including Earth. This changed again since the 1990s with the advent of computer-generated imagery (CGI), and later on as CGI became more effective and less expensive, as it allows to generate bizarre lifeforms without being constrained to actors with costumes or mechanical effects. Daily Mirror The Daily Mirror
13433-641: The octopean Martians from The War of the Worlds (1898), the Selenites from First men in the Moon (1901), the birdlike Tweel from A Martian Odyssey (1934) and even a sentient star in Star Maker (1937). The Barney and Betty Hill incident took place in 1961 when the couple claimed that they were abducted by aliens and subjected to invasive experiments. It was the first recorded claim of an alien abduction , soon followed by others. The description of
13566-464: The paper of the ordinary soldier and civilian, and was critical of the political leadership and the established parties. At one stage, the paper was threatened with closure following the publication of a Philip Zec cartoon (captioned by William Connor ), which was misinterpreted by Winston Churchill and Herbert Morrison . In the 1945 UK general election , the paper strongly supported the Labour Party in its eventual landslide victory. In doing so,
13699-492: The paper supported Herbert Morrison, who co-ordinated Labour's campaign, and recruited his former antagonist Philip Zec to reproduce, on the front page, a popular VE Day cartoon on the morning of the election, suggesting that Labour were the only party who could maintain peace in post-war Britain. By the late 1940s, it was selling 4.5 million copies a day, outstripping the Express ; for some 30 years afterwards, it dominated
13832-530: The paper's finances and Guy Bartholomew as editor, during the late 1930s the Mirror was transformed from a conservative, middle class newspaper into a left-wing paper for the working class. Partly on the advice of the American advertising agency J. Walter Thompson, the Mirror became the first British paper to adopt the appearance of the New York tabloids. The headlines became bigger, the stories shorter and
13965-406: The party as the "Fib Dems" or "Lib Dumbs". The Daily Mirror endorsed Democratic candidate Hillary Clinton in the run-up for the 2016 U.S. presidential election . Also in 2016, the newspaper asked for Jeremy Corbyn 's resignation "for the good of the party and of the country." Despite this critical position, the Daily Mirror endorsed the Labour Party in the 2017 UK general election . For
14098-465: The process. Caan rescued many pure-bred Time War era Daleks and Davros, who created new pure Dalek troops using his own body's cells (his Kaled DNA, as all pure Daleks were originally Kaleds). A red Supreme Dalek leads the new army while keeping Caan and Davros imprisoned on the Dalek flagship, the Crucible . Davros and the Daleks plan to destroy reality itself with a "reality bomb". The plan fails due to
14231-439: The props were wholly mechanical and operated by remote control. The Daleks were actually controlled from inside by short operators, who had to manipulate their eyestalks, domes and arms, as well as flashing the lights on their heads in sync with the actors supplying their voices. The Dalek cases were built in two pieces; an operator would step into the lower section and then the top would be secured. The operators looked out between
14364-475: The regional newspaper group Trinity in 1999 to form Trinity Mirror . The Daily Mirror was launched on 2 November 1903 by Alfred Harmsworth (later Lord Northcliffe) as a newspaper for women, run by women. About the name, he said: "I intend it to be really a mirror of feminine life as well on its grave as on its lighter sides ... to be entertaining without being frivolous, and serious without being dull." It cost one penny (equivalent to 57p in 2023). It
14497-465: The relaunched paper did not have advertisements on the front page as previously, but instead news text and engraved pictures (of a traitor and an actress), with the promise of photographs inside. Two days later, the price was dropped to one halfpenny and to the masthead was added: "A paper for men and women". This combination was more successful: by issue 92, the guaranteed circulation was 120,000 copies and by issue 269, it had grown to 200,000: by then
14630-428: The same life-support system he himself used since being burned and blinded by a nuclear attack. His creations became intent on dominating the universe by enslaving or purging all "inferior" non-Dalek life. The Daleks are the series' most popular and famous villains and their returns to television over the decades have often gained media attention. Their battle cry , a staccato "Exterminate!" has entered common usage as
14763-411: The script, Cusick was given only an hour to come up with the design for the Daleks and was inspired in his initial sketches by a pepper pot on a table. Cusick himself, however, states that he based it on a man seated in a chair, and used the pepper pot only to demonstrate how it might move. In 1964, Nation told a Daily Mirror reporter that the Dalek name came from a dictionary or encyclopaedia volume,
14896-421: The seated operators' feet, but they remained so heavy that when going up ramps they often had to be pushed by stagehands out of camera shot. The difficulty of operating all the prop's parts at once contributed to the occasionally jerky Dalek movements. This problem has largely been eradicated with the advent of the "new series" version, as its remotely controlled dome and eyestalk allow the operator to concentrate on
15029-473: The slogan "You know he's right, chuck her out." By this stage, unemployment was falling and inflation had remained low for several years. As a result, the Tories were re-elected for a third successive term, although Labour did cut the Tory majority slightly. For the 1992 UK general election , the Daily Mirror continued to support Labour, still led by Neil Kinnock . By this stage, Thatcher had stepped down and
15162-516: The smooth movement of the Dalek and its arms. The staccato delivery, harsh tone and rising inflection of the Dalek voice were initially developed by two voice actors, Peter Hawkins and David Graham , who varied the pitch and speed of the lines according to the emotion needed. Their voices were further processed electronically by Brian Hodgson at the BBC Radiophonic Workshop . The sound-processing devices used have varied over
15295-517: The spine of which read "Dal – Lek" (or, according to another version, "Dal – Eks"). He later admitted that this book and the associated origin of the Dalek name were completely fictitious, and that anyone bothering to check out his story would have found him out. The name had simply rolled off his typewriter. Later, Nation was pleasantly surprised to discover that in Serbo-Croatian the word "dalek" means "far" or "distant". Nation grew up during
15428-521: The success of the Falklands conflict a year earlier. However, the Conservatives were re-elected and Labour suffered its worst postwar general election result, only narrowly bettering the SDP–Liberal Alliance in terms of votes whilst winning considerably more seats. At the 1987 UK general election , the Daily Mirror remained loyal to Labour, led by Neil Kinnock , and urged its readers with
15561-474: The supplement, which ran on Wednesdays and Fridays, was to deal with international affairs, politics, industry, science, the arts and business". The British Journalism Review said in 2002 that "Mirrorscope" was "a game attempt to provide serious analysis in the rough and tumble of the tabloids". It failed to attract significant numbers of new readers, and the pull-out section was abandoned, its final issue appearing on 27 August 1974. In 1978, The Sun overtook
15694-525: The time of the Sixth Doctor 's Revelation of the Daleks new props were being manufactured out of fibreglass . These models were lighter and more affordable to construct than their predecessors. These newer models were slightly bulkier in appearance around the mid-shoulder section, and also had a redesigned skirt section which was more vertical at the back. Other minor changes were made to the design due to these new construction methods, including altering
15827-564: The two Dalek movies in 1965 and 1966 (see below ). Some of these movie props filtered back to the BBC and were seen in the televised serials, notably The Chase , which was aired before the first movie's debut. The remaining props not bought by the BBC were either donated to charity or given away as prizes in competitions. The BBC's own Dalek props were reused many times, with components of the original Shawcraft "Mk I Daleks" surviving right through to their final classic series appearance in 1988. But years of storage and repainting took their toll. By
15960-554: The two most influential movies about aliens – Close Encounters of the Third Kind , and ET the Extra-Terrestrial – the aliens and those movies were both basically variations on the 1950s and 1960s little green or little grey man image". The advent of TV and films, with extraterrestrials played by actors, toned down the fantasy. For budget reasons, humanlike aliens with just some specific non-human body features became
16093-585: The universe and altered parts of history. In the programme's narrative, the planet Skaro suffered a thousand-year war between two societies: the Kaleds and the Thals . During this time-period, many natives of Skaro became badly mutated by fallout from nuclear weapons and chemical warfare . The Kaled government believed in genetic purity and swore to "exterminate the Thals" for being inferior. Believing his own society
16226-640: The universe, there was still a possibility that many had survived these events. The original "classic" Doctor Who series ended in 1989. In the 1996 Doctor Who TV-movie (which introduced the Eighth Doctor ), Skaro has seemingly been recreated and the Daleks are shown to still rule it. Though the aliens are never seen on-screen, the story shows the Time Lord villain the Master being executed on Skaro as Dalek voices chant "Exterminate." In Eighth Doctor audio plays produced by Big Finish from 2000 to 2005, Paul McGann reprised his role. The audio play The Time of
16359-508: The universe." These episodes also reveal that Skaro has been recreated yet again. They next appear in " Asylum of the Daleks " (2012), where the Daleks are shown to have greatly increased numbers and now have a Parliament; in addition to the traditional "modern" Daleks, several designs from both the original and new series appear, all co-existing rather than judging each other as inferior or outdated (except for those Daleks whose personalities deem them "insane" or can no longer battle). All record of
16492-402: The voice in their various appearances. In the 2010 season, a new, larger model appeared in several colours representing different parts of the Dalek command hierarchy. Terry Nation's original plan was for the Daleks to glide across the floor. Early versions of the Daleks rolled on nylon castors , propelled by the operator's feet. Although castors were adequate for the Daleks' debut serial, which
16625-420: Was The Economist , although it was a hoax. Richard Wallace became editor in 2004. On 30 May 2012, Trinity Mirror announced the merger of the Daily Mirror and Sunday Mirror into a single seven-day-a-week title. Richard Wallace and Tina Weaver, the respective editors of the Daily Mirror and Sunday Mirror , were simultaneously dismissed and Lloyd Embley , editor of The People , appointed as editor of
16758-498: Was assumed that, due to their design and gliding motion, Daleks were unable to climb stairs, and that this provided a simple way of escaping them. A cartoon from Punch pictured a group of Daleks at the foot of a flight of stairs with the caption, "Well, this certainly buggers our plan to conquer the Universe". In a scene from the serial Destiny of the Daleks , the Doctor and companions escape from Dalek pursuers by climbing into
16891-539: Was based on his own life-support chair. Genesis of the Daleks marked a new era for the depiction of the species, with most of their previous history either forgotten or barely referred to again. Future stories in the original Doctor Who series, which followed a rough story arc , would also focus more on Davros, much to the dissatisfaction of some fans who felt that the Daleks should take centre stage rather than merely becoming minions of their creator. Davros made his last televised appearance for 20 years in Remembrance of
17024-411: Was becoming weak and that it was his duty to create a new master race from the ashes of his people, the Kaled scientist Davros genetically modified several Kaleds into squid-like life-forms he called Daleks, removing "weaknesses" such as mercy and sympathy while increasing aggression and survival-instinct. He then integrated them with tank -like robotic shells equipped with advanced technology based on
17157-416: Was broadcast on BBC One on 30 April 2005 and confirmed that the Time War had mainly involved the Daleks fighting the Time Lords, with the Doctor ending the conflict by seemingly destroying both sides, remarking that his own survival was "not by choice." The episode featured a single Dalek who appeared to be the sole survivor of his race from the Time War. Later audio plays by Big Finish Productions expanded on
17290-479: Was in spite of its falling popularity over the previous few months which had been partly as a result of what was labelled by the Daily Mail the " Winter of Discontent ", where the country was crippled by numerous public sector strikes. By the time of the 1983 UK general election , Labour support was at a postwar low, partly due to the strong challenge by the recently formed SDP–Liberal Alliance . Despite this,
17423-439: Was inundated with letters and calls asking about the creatures. Newspaper articles focused attention on the series and the Daleks, further enhancing their popularity. Nation jointly owned the intellectual property rights to the Daleks with the BBC, and the money-making concept proved nearly impossible to sell to anyone else, so he was dependent on the BBC wanting to produce stories featuring the creatures. Several attempts to market
17556-403: Was not an immediate success and in 1904 Harmsworth decided to turn it into a pictorial newspaper with a broader focus. Harmsworth appointed Hamilton Fyfe as editor and all of the paper's female journalists were fired. The masthead was changed to The Daily Illustrated Mirror , which ran from 26 January to 27 April 1904 (issues 72 to 150), when it reverted to The Daily Mirror . The first issue of
17689-429: Was shot entirely at the BBC's Lime Grove Studios , for The Dalek Invasion of Earth Terry Nation wanted the Daleks to be filmed on the streets of London. To enable the Daleks to travel smoothly on location, designer Spencer Chapman built the new Dalek shells around miniature tricycles with sturdier wheels, which were hidden by enlarged fenders fitted below the original base. The uneven flagstones of Central London caused
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