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87-635: The Kraków Ghetto was one of five major metropolitan Nazi ghettos created by Germany in the new General Government territory during the German occupation of Poland in World War II . It was established for the purpose of exploitation, terror, and persecution of local Polish Jews . The ghetto was later used as a staging area for separating the "able workers" from those to be deported to extermination camps in Operation Reinhard . The ghetto

174-499: A Star of David on their arm, identifying them as being Jewish, which led to the revoking of most rights. A curfew was implemented that stripped Jews of many opportunities to participate in the cultural life. As time went on, Jews needed to obtain permits in order to enter and exit the ghetto, robbing them of any freedom they felt they had left at this point. Even though the Jews were unable to participate in certain areas of cultural life in

261-474: A "final solution" which was a euphemism for the murder of Jews. Toward the Endziel and Endloesung there were intermediate goals to be carried out in the short term, and one of these was to concentrate Jews from the countryside into larger cities, thus making certain areas Judenrein ("clean of Jews"). The first ghetto of World War II was established on 8 October 1939 at Piotrków Trybunalski (38 days after

348-926: A Polish rescuer who took them to Bochnia where their mother and sister joined them later. Bernard Offen , born in 1929 in Kraków survived the ghetto and several Nazi concentration camps. Second lieutenant Jerzy Zakulski , an attorney, and member of the National Armed Forces ( Narodowe Siły Zbrojne , NSZ) in German-occupied Kraków was sentenced to death by Stalinist officials and executed in Soviet-controlled postwar Poland on trumped-up charges of being an enemy spy. A Jewish Holocaust survivor from Kraków, Maria Błeszyńska née Bernstein, attempted to save Zakulski's life in gratitude for his rescue of her and her daughter during

435-523: A census and taxing the population. Cultural life in the Kraków Ghetto was bleak and dangerous for the Jewish population. Each day dragged on, consistently becoming harder and harder to tolerate and survive. There was not much for the Jews to live for. The mood was somber, spirits were low, and the majority of the ghetto's inhabitants remained hopeless. Jews in the Kraków ghetto were required to wear

522-630: A city outside the walls of the Jewish Quarter were called "Aryan". For example, in Warsaw , the city was divided into Jewish, Polish, and German Quarters. Those living outside the ghetto had to have identification papers proving they were not Jewish (none of their grandparents was a member of the Jewish community), such as a baptism certificate. Such documents were sometimes called "Christian" or "Aryan papers". Poland's Catholic clergy massively forged baptism certificates, which were given to Jews by

609-676: A difference, they served German needs. This included taking a census of Brzesko which showed that 3,270 Jews lived in Brzesko on 31 May 1941. The division of the Jewish Council was led by Jakub Hendler who also oversaw the counties of Szczurowa and Borzecin . Additional groups within Brzesko included the Central Organization for Orphan Care (CENTOS, Centralne Towarzystwo Opieki nad Sierotami), Jewish Social Self-Help (JSS, Jüdische Soziale Selbsthilfe), and Committee for

696-418: A diversion from reality, and the upholding of tradition.” These songs portrayed their immense suffering coupled with their dedication and determination to survive. Some of the most popular lyrics are “Me hot zey in dr’erd, me vet zey iberlebn, me vet noch derlebn” (“To hell with them, we will survive them, we will yet survive”), conveying and sharing the feelings of the Jewish people through music. Laughter, which

783-460: A first cousin to Roman Polański who, as a small girl, was rescued and survived the ghetto, wrote a novel based on her experiences, The Girl in the Red Coat : A Memoir . She is mistakenly thought to be portrayed in the film Schindler's List . The scene, however, was constructed on the memories of Zelig Burkhut, survivor of Plaszow (and other work camps). When being interviewed by Spielberg before

870-672: A form of religious resistance by continuing to practice Judaism in secret. This succeeded through the safeguard of the Jewish police . The only pharmacy enclosed within the Kraków Ghetto boundary belonged to the Polish Roman Catholic pharmacist Tadeusz Pankiewicz , permitted by the German authorities to operate his "Under the Eagle Pharmacy" there upon his request. The scarce medications and tranquillizers supplied to

957-541: A limited time. Additionally, two key resistance members – Adolf Liebeskind and Tennenbaum – died in the attack. Finally, following the Cyganeria Café attack, weapons, various currencies, and enemy uniforms were found by the Gestapo. The Gestapo sent a message to Nazi elites via SS-Obergruppenfüher Wolff and Reichsfüher Himmler. Lucien Steinberg, the author of Jews Against Hitler, argues that this communicated

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1044-496: A residence permit that "...had to be renewed each month." The following year, on 3 March 1941, the establishment of the Kraków Ghetto was ordered by Otto Wächter . The ghetto was to be set up in the Podgórze District of Kraków. Podgórze was chosen as the site of the ghetto instead of the traditional Jewish quarter, Kazimierz , because Hans Frank believed Kazimierz was more significant to the history of Kraków. Podgórze

1131-535: A safe house for trafficked Jews and distribution of falsified documents as well as secret messages and storage of photographs from Auschwitz. She collaborated with Żegota , attended to sick Jews in hiding and placed them in hospitals under false identities. Żegota also had prominence in Kraków. The goal of Żegota was to aid the Jews on a day-to-day basis – rather than aiming for an overall solution. Zegota provided opportunity with false documents, doctors for healthcare, money, and several other pivotal resources and aid for

1218-694: A series of attacks in a retaliatory response to the implementation of mass deportations. Prior to Cyganeria, attacks occurred at the Optima factory and the Cosmo Club – the Cosmo Club attack killed several Nazi elites. Furthermore, three attacks were planned for Dec. 24, 1942: Cyganeria Café, Esplanada Café, Sztuka theater, and an officers’ club. Ultimately, the Hahalutz Halochem and Iskra resistance groups bombed Cyganeria on December 22 and killed from 7 to 70 Germans and injured many others. The attack at

1305-439: A traditional and important aspect of both Jewish holidays and Jewish home life more generally. The prisoners in the Kraków Ghetto did their best to keep this tradition alive, especially during Passover and Yom Kippur. Although music brought some comfort to many, suicide rates were significantly higher among the musicians than other camp workers. Many of the musicians were forced to watch the murder of their families and friends due to

1392-709: A voluntary expulsion program was enacted. Jews that chose to leave Kraków were allowed to take all of their belongings and relocate throughout the General-Government (Generalgouvernement). By 15 August 1940, 23,000 Jews had left Kraków. After this date, mandatory expulsions were enforced. On 25 November 1940, the Order for the Deportation of Jews from the Municipal District of Kraków was announced. This order declared that no more Jews were allowed into

1479-455: Is fitted with a memorial plaque, which reads "Here they lived, suffered and perished at the hands of Hitler's executioners. From here they began their final journey to the death camps." Young people of the Akiva youth movement , who had undertaken the publication of an underground newsletter, HeHaluc HaLohem ("The Fighting Pioneer"), joined forces with other Zionists to form a local branch of

1566-470: Is the author of a book describing, among other events, the ghetto liquidation. The list of several dozen Polish Righteous from Kraków, includes Maria and Bronisław Florek who lived at Czyżówka Street and saved Goldberger and Nichtberger families. Notably, Maria Florek smuggled forged identity papers procured at the Emalia Factory of Oskar Schindler (without his awareness), for the Jews hiding on

1653-615: The Reichsgaue , and then throughout the Generalgouvernement territory. The Nazis had a special hatred of Polish and other eastern Jews. Nazi ideology depicted Jews, Slavs and Roma as inferior race Untermenschen ("subhumans") who threatened the purity of Germany's Aryan Herrenrasse ("master race"), and viewed these people and also political opponents of the Nazi party as parasitic vermin or diseases that endangered

1740-592: The Jewish Fighting Organization (ŻOB, Polish : Żydowska Organizacja Bojowa), and organize resistance in the ghetto, supported by the Polish underground Armia Krajowa . The group carried out a variety of resistance activities including the bombing of the Cyganeria cafe – a gathering place of Nazi officers. Unlike in Warsaw , their efforts did not lead to a general uprising before the ghetto

1827-577: The Jewish Quarter . There were several distinct types including open ghettos , closed ghettos , work , transit , and destruction ghettos , as defined by the Holocaust historians. In a number of cases, they were the place of Jewish underground resistance against the German occupation, known collectively as the ghetto uprisings . The first anti-Jewish measures were enacted in Germany with

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1914-561: The Warsaw Ghetto alone to Treblinka over the course of 52 days. In some ghettos, local resistance organizations staged ghetto uprisings . None were successful, and the Jewish populations of the ghettos were almost entirely killed. On June 21, 1943, Heinrich Himmler issued an order to liquidate all ghettos and transfer remaining Jewish inhabitants to concentration camps . A few ghettos were re-designated as concentration camps and existed until 1944. Brzesko Ghetto Before

2001-406: The Warsaw Ghetto before July 1942. To prevent unauthorised contact between the Jewish and non-Jewish populations, German Order Police battalions were assigned to patrol the perimeter. Within each ghetto, a Jewish Ghetto Police force was created to ensure that no prisoners tried to escape. In general terms, there were three types of ghettos maintained by the Nazi administration. The parts of

2088-539: The invasion of Poland during World War II , the Nazi regime set up ghettos across German-occupied Eastern Europe in order to segregate and confine Jews , and sometimes Romani people , into small sections of towns and cities furthering their exploitation. In German documents, and signage at ghetto entrances, the Nazis usually referred to them as Jüdischer Wohnbezirk or Wohngebiet der Juden , both of which translate as

2175-404: The 'Aryan side' of Kraków. Władysław Budyński, who provided help without remuneration even to complete strangers, ended up marrying a Jewish girl, Chana Landau in 1943, but they were caught by Gestapo in 1944 and deported to different concentration camps. Both survived, reunited in Kraków, and in 1969 emigrated to Sweden. Polish gynaecologist Dr Helena Szlapak turned her home at Garbarska Street into

2262-494: The Brzesko ghetto. Throughout the lifespan of the ghetto Jews within the ghetto worked to escape. Some of the Jews escaped into the nearby woods where they hid until they could escape or were caught. Other Jews tried to escape by using fake Aryan documents forged for them. Paulina Tider and her family were part of the group that got Aryan papers to escape Brzesko. Dov Landau managed to escape with his father in June 1942. Anyone who

2349-506: The Germans forces, mostly cleaning. forced labor was demanded of men between the ages of 15 and 60. Jews were outfitted with armbands displaying the Star of David on their right arm. After the armbands, exclusion from many businesses and activities followed including from restaurants, parks, and stores. Burglaries were a problem in and around Brzesko before it became a ghetto. After

2436-724: The Holocaust; however, she was unsuccessful. The certified letter she sent to the Regional Military Court in Warsaw was thrown out, along with the plea for presidential mercy. Zuzanna Ginczanka and her husband left the Lvov ghetto for the Kraków ghetto in September 1942. She was arrested and shot in a prison in January 1945. In 1940 Edward Mosberg , at the time 14 years old, and his immediate family, grandparents, cousins, and aunt were moved into one small apartment in

2523-422: The Jewish population of Kraków began immediately after the German troops entered the city on 6 September 1939 in the course of the German aggression against Poland . Jews were ordered to report for forced labour beginning in September 1939. In November, all Jews twelve years or older were required to wear identifying armbands. Throughout Kraków, synagogues were closed and all their relics and valuables confiscated by

2610-471: The Jewish residents of 29 nearby villages to move to the ghetto. The size of the ghetto was reduced again in June 1942. The reductions in the size of the ghetto were associated with the deportation of Jews, including deportations to the Bełżec extermination camp . When apartments that were no longer included in the ghetto were vacated, possessions were stolen and the units were reassigned. The Municipal Housing Office

2697-469: The Jews with a program called Żegota . Initially, rather than aligning with either communist or Zionist groups, the Iskra Resistance group aimed solely at combating and destroying the Nazis. From the outset, Iskra's inaugural members were Heszek Bauminger, Shlomo Sh., and eventually Gola Mire. Heszek Bauminger fought for the Polish army at the beginning of the war, and despite participating in

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2784-436: The Jews. In Zegota , historians assert that Polish – Jewish relations were strong before the war, and Żegota became involved to strengthen the organically arising aid. Moreover, led by Stanislaw Dobrowolski, food, medicine, funds, and means for escape were provided. Several Żegota members – Jozefa Rysinska, Mieczyslaw Kurz, Tadeusz Bilewicz, Zygmunt Kuzma, and Ada Prochnicka – facilitated transport of supplies and overall aid in

2871-569: The Kennkarten [identification cards]..." from the Labor Office (Arbeitsamt). The ghetto was populated by approximately 16,000 Jews when it was first formed. Before the ghetto was cordoned off, it was home to around 3,500 residents. The ghetto consisted of 320 buildings. To accommodate the density, apartments within the ghetto were divided on a 2m² per person basis or by a standard of three people to one window. The Jewish Council ( Judenrat )

2958-811: The Kraków Ghetto. In 1942, his grandmother, aunts, and cousins were deported from it to Belzec concentration camp in German-occupied Poland. In 1943, the Kraków Ghetto was liquidated, and the remaining Mosberg family was moved to the Kraków-Płaszów concentration camp in Płaszów just south of Kraków, a Nazi concentration camp operated by the SS , which had been constructed on the grounds of two former Jewish cemeteries. 50°2′43″N 19°57′17″E  /  50.04528°N 19.95472°E  / 50.04528; 19.95472 Nazi ghettos Beginning with

3045-587: The Kraków ghetto that aided in keeping the spirits of Jews up as much as possible during such low and awful times. The Kraków Jewish underground resistance existed from 1942 to late 1943, and stemmed from youth groups such as Akiva. The two groups that formed were Iskra and Hahalutz Halochem , or the Fighting Organization of the Jewish youth. Despite ultimately focusing on more classical armed resistance actions, they originally focused on providing support for education and welfare organizations within

3132-416: The Kraków ghetto, “various cultural and religious activities continued within the ghetto." Although the practice of religion was banned, that did not stop those in the Kraków ghetto from praying and staying true to Judaism . At least three synagogues or other religious facilities were still in use that served as a place for the Jews to go to and pray. There was also a café where artists played live music within

3219-648: The Nazi authorities. Kraków was made the capital of the General Government (the part of occupied Poland not directly incorporated into Germany), and by May 1940 the German occupation authority headed by the Governor-General Hans Frank announced that Kraków should become the “racially cleanest" city in the General Government. Massive deportations of Jews from the city ensued. Of the more than 68,000 Jews in Kraków at

3306-526: The Nazi regime did not acknowledge this; instead, German medical professionals published essays blaming Jewish people's supposed "low cultural level" and "uncleanliness" for the typhoid epidemics. Posters depicting Jews as lice, which transmit from person to person the bacteria that causes epidemic typhus, were publicized, and the respected status of German doctors helped spread the belief that the Jews were responsible for spreading typhus. The German public health officials in occupied Poland were concerned only with

3393-407: The Nazi's insistence that the prisoner-musicians play music while the other prisoners were marched to the gas chambers. Aleksander Kulisiewicz was an aspiring musician who did his best to “collect, compose, and perform songs” while living in the ghetto even though it was illegal to do so. Inmates in the Kraków ghetto worked 12-hour days that left them more exhausted than imaginable. In order to pass

3480-548: The Nazis: in Warsaw this was 1,060 kJ (253 kcal) per Jew, compared to 2,800 kJ (669 kcal) per Pole and 10,930 kJ (2,613 kcal) per German. With the crowded living conditions, starvation diets, and insufficient sanitation (coupled with lack of medical supplies), epidemics of infectious disease became a major feature of ghetto life. In the Łódź Ghetto some 43,800 people died of 'natural' causes, and 76,000 in

3567-608: The OD had an office established at Józefińska Street 37 in Podgórze. In April 1941, the ghetto was enclosed by a wall made of barbed wire and stone; the stones used were designed to look like tombstones, but also included "...Jewish monuments and tombstones from the cemetery." The ghetto wall was constructed using Jewish forced labor. The ghetto was accessible by three entrances: one near the Podgórze Market, Limanowskiego Street, and

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3654-469: The Plac Zgody. The Kraków Ghetto was a closed ghetto meaning that it was physically closed off from the surrounding area and access was restricted. Within other German-occupied areas, open ghettos and destruction ghettos existed. Movement in and out of the ghetto was restricted and Jews working outside of the ghetto had to have the proper documentation. Jews had to "...obtain the appropriate stamps for

3741-595: The Social Zionist Hashomer Hatzair group, he moved his allegiances to communism. Gola Mire – another Hatzair former member – became involved in the Polish Communist Party. Accordingly, Iskra worked in conjunction with the communist Polish Workers' Party division – Gwardia Ludowa – in an armed initiative. Specifically, German armed forces were the target of Iskra. Further, Resistance in the Kraków ghetto decided to attack

3828-560: The Third Decree of the General Governor's was enacted. This decree stated that Jews found outside "...their designated residential area will be punished with death." The punishment also applied to anyone found aiding Jews. The decree applied to all residents within the General Government. On 28 November 1941, the area that encompassed the ghetto was reduced. The population of the Kraków Ghetto increased because Nazis required

3915-550: The attack's significance to Hitler. Publicly the identity of the attacks perpetrators were not revealed and it was rumored to be the Polish Underground or the Soviets . Regarding the Jews who carried out the attack, they were disguised as Poles. This reflected a concern, within Hahalutz Halochem, of Nazi retaliation against the ghetto if the Jews were implicated. Additionally, Jews in the Kraków Ghetto participated in

4002-449: The camps. Movie director Roman Polanski , a survivor of the ghetto, in his 1984 memoir Roman evoked his childhood experiences there before the mass deportations of Operation Reinhard in Kraków . "My own feeling – Polański wrote – was that if only one could explain to them that we had done nothing wrong, the Germans would realize that it all was a gigantic misunderstanding." Many years later, Roma Ligocka , Polish artist and author, and

4089-490: The city of Kraków, Jews residing in Kraków required a special permit, and locations outside of Kraków that Jews were forced to move to were chosen by authorities. Jews forced to leave were also only allowed to bring along 25 kg (62½ lbs.) of their belongings when they left. By 4 December 1940, 43,000 Jews were removed from Kraków, both voluntarily and involuntarily. Jews that were still residing in Kraków at this time were deemed "...economically useful..." and they had to obtain

4176-402: The deportation, all the Jews living in Brzesko were gathered in the square of the town. Throughout the process of deportation to the death camps, any citizens considered too weak to travel were shot in the town square. This could be due to illness, age, or injury. Those left behind after the deportation were sent to Tarnów Ghetto or killed. Kirkut cemetery was the site of many executions from

4263-622: The dominant Polish resistance movement, the Home Army ( Armia Krajowa , or AK). Any Pole found by the Germans to be giving any help to a Jew was subject to the death penalty. In 1942, the Nazis began Operation Reinhard , the systematic deportation of Jews to extermination camps . Nazi authorities throughout Europe deported Jews to ghettos in Eastern Europe or most often directly to extermination camps built by Nazi Germany in occupied Poland . Almost 300,000 people were deported from

4350-549: The ghetto was Germans. When a Jew was shot by someone in the Nazi party, they would force other Jews within the community to sign a document stating the person had died from natural causes. In addition, the Jews had to pay for any ammunition used to shoot other Jewish people in Brzesko. During 1942, three Aktions took place in the Brzesko ghetto and were conducted by the Order Police which included people such as Lapsch, Wagner, and Mikler. On 18 June 1942, 180 Jews were killed in

4437-483: The ghetto was first created in the fall of 1941 it was an open ghetto. It was marked by signs, but had no barriers to keep the Jewish people inside. Jews were not allowed to leave and any movement in or out of the city was monitored. Having the ghetto open allowed for smuggling of food in by nearby Aryan community. After it was closed, this responsibility fell on the Jewish Police . This section of Jewish Police

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4524-529: The ghetto's residents often free of charge – apart from health-care considerations – contributed to their survival. Pankiewicz passed around hair dyes to Jews compelled to cross the ghetto walls illegally. In recognition of his heroic deeds in helping countless Jews in the ghetto during the Holocaust , he was bestowed the title of the Righteous among the Nations by Yad Vashem on February 10, 1983. Pankiewicz

4611-424: The ghetto, which proved to be instrumental in keeping Jews' spirits up. Finally, there was a ghetto pharmacy, which was a place where people could go to discuss problems, read underground and official newspapers and learn the realities of what was happening and what atrocities they were living through. Numerous songs were created by those living in the ghetto, serving three major purposes: “documentation of ghetto life,

4698-567: The ghetto. Eventually establishing a magazine, the groups initially focused on working with the Polish Underground and the Communist Partia Robotnicza ( PPR ) . They ultimately planned for action against the Nazis. The Resistance conducted demonstrations against several Nazi -frequented institutions, including café Cyganeria, café Esplanada, and a theater. Additionally, the Polish Underground group also aided

4785-431: The ghettos were generally brutal. In Warsaw , the Jews, comprising 30% of the city overall population, were forced to live in 2.4% of the city's area, a density of 7.2 people per room. In the ghetto of Odrzywół , 700 people lived in an area previously occupied by five families, between 12 and 30 to each room. The Jews were not allowed out of the ghetto, so they had to rely on smuggling and the starvation rations supplied by

4872-503: The health of German personnel, so they repeatedly urged occupation authorities to isolate Jews further from the rest of the population. German forces regarded the establishment of ghettos as temporary measures, in order to allow higher level Nazis in Berlin to decide how to execute their goal of eradicating Jews from Europe. Nazi officials had an Endziel , an unarticulated final goal that would take time to reach, and also an Endlösung ,

4959-750: The heart of the city, was the largest ghetto in Nazi occupied Europe, with over 400,000 Jews crammed into an area of 3.4 square kilometres ( 1 + 3 ⁄ 8 square miles). The Łódź Ghetto was the second largest, holding about 160,000 people. According to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum archives, there were at least 1,000 such ghettos in German-occupied and annexed Poland and the Soviet Union alone. Ghettos across Eastern Europe varied in their size, scope and living conditions. The conditions in

5046-462: The historic Jewish district of Kazimierz. Displaced Polish families from Podgórze took up residences in the former Jewish dwellings outside the newly established ghetto. Meanwhile, 15,000 Jews were crammed into an area previously inhabited by 3,000 people who used to live in a district consisting of 30 streets, 320 residential buildings, and 3,167 rooms. As a result, one apartment was allocated to every four Jewish families, and many less fortunate lived on

5133-706: The invasion), with the Tuliszków ghetto established in December 1939. The first large metropolitan ghetto known as the Łódź Ghetto ( Litzmannstadt ) followed them in April 1940, and the Warsaw Ghetto in October. Most Jewish ghettos were established in 1940 and 1941. Subsequently, many ghettos were sealed from the outside, walled off with brickwork, or enclosed with barbed wire. In the case of sealed ghettos, any Jew caught leaving could be shot. The Warsaw Ghetto, located in

5220-646: The making for the film, Burkhut told of a young girl wearing a pink coat, no older than four, who was shot by a Nazi officer right before his eyes. Oskar Schindler was portrayed in the Thomas Keneally novel Schindler's Ark (the basis for Steven Spielberg 's film Schindler's List ). In an especially dramatic event, 300 of Schindler's workers were deported to the Auschwitz death camp despite his efforts, and he personally intervened to return them to him. Other notable people include Mordechai Gebirtig , who

5307-546: The nearby ghetto of Brzesko . All non-Jewish residents of the area were required to relocate in other districts by 20 March 1941. The ghetto was guarded by the German police (Schutzpolizei), the Polish police ( Blue Police ), and the Kraków Ghetto Jewish Police (J üdischer Ordnungsdienst – OD), but the only police force inside the ghetto was the Jewish Police. With the formation of the ghetto,

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5394-514: The occupation of the town, the Germans would come to the town and shoot citizens. These citizens were both random and targeted by the Order Police . Some of the police involved included Wilhelm Rommelmann, Lapsch, and Beck. German gendarmerie from Brzesko also murdered Jews from Brzesko and region and ethnic Poles. Some Jews from Kraków Ghetto were resettled in Brzesko in March 1941. When

5481-594: The onset of Nazism ; these measures did not include ghettoizing German Jews: such plans were rejected in the post- Kristallnacht period. However, soon after the 1939 German invasion of Poland , the Nazis began to designate areas of larger Polish cities and towns as exclusively Jewish, and within weeks, embarked on a massive programme of uprooting Polish Jews from their homes and businesses through forcible expulsions . Entire Jewish communities were deported into these closed off zones by train from their places of origin systematically, using Order Police battalions , first in

5568-675: The open ghetto became a closed ghetto surrounded by a fence. It spread across three areas: Berka Joselewicza Street, all the buildings north of the Market Square up to the Rynek Sienny (known today as Sobieskiego Street and Frédéric Chopin Street), and finally Głowackiego Street up to Trzcianka and the Kazimierz Wielki Square. Initially 3,000 Jews lived there. However, 6,000 Jews had to live in this small part of

5655-434: The overall health of the Volksgemeinschaft , the German racial community. German doctors and public health officials helped advance these racist fearmongering ideas. The German invasion of Poland (Sept. 1, 1939) and the formation of Jewish ghettos caused hunger and poverty, crowding and unsanitary conditions, which in turn actually created typhus epidemics in occupied Poland. German physicians and public health officials in

5742-409: The second, of additional 4,000 Jews deported to Bełżec death camp on 5 June 1942. On 13–14 March 1943, the final 'liquidation' of the ghetto was carried out under the command of SS - Untersturmführer Amon Göth . Two thousand Jews deemed able to work were transported to the Płaszów labor camp . Those deemed unfit for work – some 2,000 Jews – were killed in the streets of the ghetto on those days with

5829-429: The street. The ghetto was surrounded by the newly built walls that kept it separated from the rest of the city. In a grim foreshadowing of the near future, these walls contained brick panels in the shape of tombstones. All windows and doors that opened onto the " Aryan " side were ordered to be bricked up. Only four guarded entrances allowed traffic to pass in or out. Small sections of the wall still remain today, one part

5916-445: The streets and 560 deported to the Belzec extermination camp for the third Aktion. In December 1942, fifteen Jews were brought from Zakliczyn and shot at the cemetery. On 17 September 1942 (or on the 12th ), the Nazis liquidated the ghetto.  About 2,000 Jewish people were sent to the Belzec extermination camp , about 150 miles from Brzesko. Another 4,000 Jewish people were sent to Auschwitz that year. In order to accomplish

6003-434: The theater was relatively unsuccessful due to poor planning and a refusal to harm innocent Poles in attendance; however, Esplanada Café and the Officers’ club attacks were successful. The relative success of the Resistance groups was hindered by Julek Appel and Natek Waisman who betrayed the resistance. Hahalutz Halochem was quickly subdued by the Nazis – due to Appel and Waisman – but better security habits protected Iskra for

6090-518: The time of the German invasion, only 15,000 workers and their families were permitted to remain. All other Jews were ordered out of the city, to be resettled into surrounding rural areas of the General Government. In April 1940, Hans Frank proposed the removal of 50,000 Jews from the city of Kraków . Frank's reason for removing Jews from the Jewish quarter was that the area "...will be cleansed and it will be possible to establish pure German neighborhoods..." within Kraków. From May 1940 to 15 August 1940,

6177-409: The time, songs were sung throughout the work day. Mordechai Gebirtig , who is “known for his beautiful and prescient songs and poems” in Yiddish emerged from the Kraków ghetto. His song “Our Town Is Burning” which was written in 1938 became “one of the most popular songs in the ghettos and concentration camps." Unfortunately, Gebirtig was shot and killed in the Kraków ghetto. Another individual who

6264-428: The town by summer 1942. Overpopulation became a problem when the ghetto was fenced off. The camp had about ten people per window which decreased sanitation throughout the camp. This led to an outbreak of typhoid, one of the major causes of death within the ghetto along with starvation. One of the doctors treating those with typhoid fever was Maurycy Gross. Even with the outbreak of typhoid. the main cause of death within

6351-512: The town of Brzesko became a ghetto, about half of the population (2,119) was Jewish. When the Wehrmacht arrived on 5 September 1939, they took Jewish hostages and demanded money from the town. The synagogue was burned down the same month. Businesses owned by Jews were forced to put signs up announcing that they were owned by Jews, which discouraged new business. Many Jews were forced to leave their line of work and do work given to them by

6438-473: The underground movements published a paper called “Hechalutz Halochem” which was edited by Simon Dranger. This paper served to combat the German work of “Zydowska Gazeta”; this was an underground work which attempted to conceal the Nazis' genocidal aims and thus stem any opposition. The Cyganeria Bombing is one of the more discussed attacks conducted by the Kraków Resistance movements. It was one of

6525-537: The use of " Trawniki men " police auxiliaries. The remaining 3,000 were sent to Auschwitz . A 24-person Jewish board was formed in the city of Kraków and later in the Krakow Ghetto, when the ghetto was formed on March 3, 1941. This Jewish Council was in charge of the inhabitants of the ghetto but received many orders from local Nazi officials, even though it retained some degree of autonomy. Some of its functions included overseeing labor and welfare, conducting

6612-555: The youth movements involved had significant, but realistic aims. It is suggested that Nazi intentions were evident to the youth and they consequently decided to fight the Nazis vision, even though they knew success would be limited. Significantly, composed of members of the Akiva Zionist youth movement, Hahalutz Halochem worked with Iskra along with communist to stage the Cyganeria bombing. Aligning with Hahalutz Halochem motivated Akiva to transition to armed resistance. Furthermore,

6699-538: The “Aryan” portion of the city rather than fight a futile war from within. To strengthen itself, Iskra merged with Hahalutz Halochem – thus mixing communist leanings with a Zionist group and subsequently forming the Jewish fighting Organization (Zydowska Organizacja Bojowa; ZOB) Despite the similarity in name this ZOB was independent from the ZOB involved in Warsaw Ghetto Uprising. Historians will argue that

6786-407: Was a rarity in the Kraków ghetto, was another way numerous victims attempted to cope with their strong hatred for the enemy. Sometimes prisoners performed ghetto songs, while other times small groups performed them with various instruments. Street songs are a sub-genre of ghetto music with four dominant themes: hunger, corrupt administration, hope for freedom and a call for revolt. Music has always been

6873-469: Was a suburb of Kraków at the time. Wächter claimed that formation of the ghetto was necessary for public health and order. The Kraków ghetto was officially established on 20 March 1941. When relocating to the ghetto, Jews were only allowed to bring 25 kg of their belongings. The rest of their possessions were taken by the German Trust Office (Treuhandstelle). Some Jews were resettled to

6960-559: Was caught outside the ghetto by the Blue Police guarding the ghetto was turned over to the Gestapo . During the deportation, Dr. Jan Brzeski helped some of the Jews who had escaped by keeping them healthy until they could come out of hiding. An estimated 200 Jews from Brzesko survived. The Judenrat was formed to meet the demands of the Germans for forced labor. Though the council was made up of Jews who believed they were making

7047-539: Was in the Kraków ghetto was Roman Polanski , who became a famous film director upon his survival of the Holocaust. Polanski eventually directed a film that told the story of the musician Władysław Szpilman who survived the Holocaust . In order to pass time while trapped in these horrendous conditions, a lot of Jewish children in the Kraków ghetto played the violin and any other instruments they had access to. Music proved to be an instrumental aspect of cultural life in

7134-525: Was led by Diestler, an ex-soldier of the Austrian army. Trades between the Jewish residents and the Jewish Police occurred at night. The Jewish people living in the ghetto were also low on winter apparel and supplies because the German troops seized them to support the invasion of Russia . In June 1942, 180 Jews were shot in the streets and 560 Jews sent to the Belzec extermination camp . In mid-July 1942,

7221-484: Was liquidated between June 1942 and March 1943, with most of its inhabitants deported to the Belzec extermination camp as well as to Płaszów slave-labor camp , and Auschwitz concentration camp , 60 kilometres (37 mi) rail distance. Before the German-Soviet invasion of 1939, Kraków was an influential centre for the 60,000–80,000 Polish Jews who had lived there since the 13th century . Persecution of

7308-588: Was liquidated. From 30 May 1942 onward, the Nazis began systematic deportations from the Ghetto to surrounding concentration camps. Thousands of Jews were transported in the succeeding months as part of the Aktion Krakau headed by SS - Oberführer Julian Scherner . Jews were assembled on Zgody Square first and then escorted to the railway station in Prokocim. The first transport consisted of 7,000 people,

7395-400: Was one of the most influential and popular writers of Yiddish songs and poems. He was shot there in 1942. Miriam Akavia , an Israeli writer, survived the Kraków ghetto and concentration camps. Renowned dermatologist and co-discoverer of Reyes Syndrome , Dr Jim Jacob Baral was also a Kraków Ghetto survivor; his mother pushed him and his brother Martin under the barbed wire to hide at the home of

7482-401: Was responsible for determining the new housing assignments. Within the Kraków ghetto, Yiddish was the official language, not Polish. On 1 December 1939, an order was announced mandating that all Jews within the General Government wear an armband identifying them as Jewish. The white armbands with the blue Star of David were still required once Jews were moved into the ghetto. On 15 October 1941,

7569-469: Was responsible for these apartments. In December 1942. the Kraków ghetto was divided into two parts: Ghetto "A" and Ghetto "B." Ghetto "A" was intended for people that were working and Ghetto "B" was for everyone else. This division was planned with future liquidations of the ghetto in mind. The Kraków Ghetto was formally established on 3 March 1941 in the Podgórze district and not, as often believed, in

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