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70-565: The district is named “High Sauerland” because two of the highest mountains of the Sauerland mountainous landscape , Langenberg and Kahler Asten are in its territory. With 2,766 ft / 843 m (Langenberg) and 2,762 ft / 842 m (Kahler Asten) these are also the highest mountains of North Rhine-Westphalia . The district was established in 1975 in the reorganization of the districts in North Rhine-Westphalia by merging

140-414: A concept of physiographic regions while a conflicting trend among geographers was to equate physiography with "pure morphology", separated from its geological heritage. In the period following World War II, the emergence of process, climatic, and quantitative studies led to a preference by many earth scientists for the term "geomorphology" in order to suggest an analytical approach to landscapes rather than

210-491: A decline in the popularity of climatic geomorphology in the late 20th century. Stoddart criticized climatic geomorphology for applying supposedly "trivial" methodologies in establishing landform differences between morphoclimatic zones, being linked to Davisian geomorphology and by allegedly neglecting the fact that physical laws governing processes are the same across the globe. In addition some conceptions of climatic geomorphology, like that which holds that chemical weathering

280-438: A descriptive one. During the age of New Imperialism in the late 19th century European explorers and scientists traveled across the globe bringing descriptions of landscapes and landforms. As geographical knowledge increased over time these observations were systematized in a search for regional patterns. Climate emerged thus as prime factor for explaining landform distribution at a grand scale. The rise of climatic geomorphology

350-574: A fictional dialogue where the immortal Magu explained that the territory of the East China Sea was once a land filled with mulberry trees . The term geomorphology seems to have been first used by Laumann in an 1858 work written in German. Keith Tinkler has suggested that the word came into general use in English, German and French after John Wesley Powell and W. J. McGee used it during

420-435: A mountain belt to promote further erosion as mass is removed from the chain and the belt uplifts. Long-term plate tectonic dynamics give rise to orogenic belts , large mountain chains with typical lifetimes of many tens of millions of years, which form focal points for high rates of fluvial and hillslope processes and thus long-term sediment production. Features of deeper mantle dynamics such as plumes and delamination of

490-490: A valley causes abrasion and plucking of the underlying rock . Abrasion produces fine sediment, termed glacial flour . The debris transported by the glacier, when the glacier recedes, is termed a moraine . Glacial erosion is responsible for U-shaped valleys, as opposed to the V-shaped valleys of fluvial origin. The way glacial processes interact with other landscape elements, particularly hillslope and fluvial processes,

560-659: A very brief outline of some of the major figures and events in its development. The study of landforms and the evolution of the Earth's surface can be dated back to scholars of Classical Greece . In the 5th century BC, Greek historian Herodotus argued from observations of soils that the Nile delta was actively growing into the Mediterranean Sea , and estimated its age. In the 4th century BC, Greek philosopher Aristotle speculated that due to sediment transport into

630-549: Is a major winter sport resort. The name Sauerland is first mentioned as Suderland in an official document from 1266. After 1400 the letter 'd' started to disappear. Therefore, Sauerland = southern country is the most convincing meaning, opposed to the theory that Sauer is from the German word sauer meaning sour (poor "sour" soil). Linguistically, "suder-“ is similar to the Old Saxon sûðar (southbound). Before 1800

700-558: Is a rural, hilly area spreading across most of the south-eastern part of North Rhine-Westphalia , in parts heavily forested and, apart from the major valleys, sparsely inhabited. The Sauerland is the largest tourist region in North Rhine-Westphalia, in particular for mountain biking and cycling, water sports and scenic recreation. The town and Skiliftkarussell of Winterberg in the Hochsauerlandkreis

770-603: Is an important aspect of Plio-Pleistocene landscape evolution and its sedimentary record in many high mountain environments. Environments that have been relatively recently glaciated but are no longer may still show elevated landscape change rates compared to those that have never been glaciated. Nonglacial geomorphic processes which nevertheless have been conditioned by past glaciation are termed paraglacial processes. This concept contrasts with periglacial processes, which are directly driven by formation or melting of ice or frost. Soil , regolith , and rock move downslope under

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840-699: Is extremely important in sedimentology . Weathering is the chemical and physical disruption of earth materials in place on exposure to atmospheric or near surface agents, and is typically studied by soil scientists and environmental chemists , but is an essential component of geomorphology because it is what provides the material that can be moved in the first place. Civil and environmental engineers are concerned with erosion and sediment transport, especially related to canals , slope stability (and natural hazards ), water quality , coastal environmental management, transport of contaminants, and stream restoration . Glaciers can cause extensive erosion and deposition in

910-611: Is more rapid in tropical climates than in cold climates proved to not be straightforwardly true. Geomorphology was started to be put on a solid quantitative footing in the middle of the 20th century. Following the early work of Grove Karl Gilbert around the turn of the 20th century, a group of mainly American natural scientists, geologists and hydraulic engineers including William Walden Rubey , Ralph Alger Bagnold , Hans Albert Einstein , Frank Ahnert , John Hack , Luna Leopold , A. Shields , Thomas Maddock , Arthur Strahler , Stanley Schumm , and Ronald Shreve began to research

980-805: Is part of the Rhine Massif ( Rheinisches Schiefergebirge ) including 'Bergisches Land', Westerwald , Siegerland , and, separated by the Rhine valley, the Eifel , Hohes Venn and Hunsrück . The Rheinisches Schiefergebirge was subjected to folding and faulting in the Variscan orogeny in Carboniferous times and eroded to a peneplain in the Permian . The tectonic uplift to the present-day low mountain range began approximately 500,000 years ago and

1050-444: Is probably of profound importance for the terrestrial geomorphic system as a whole. Biology can influence very many geomorphic processes, ranging from biogeochemical processes controlling chemical weathering , to the influence of mechanical processes like burrowing and tree throw on soil development, to even controlling global erosion rates through modulation of climate through carbon dioxide balance. Terrestrial landscapes in which

1120-415: Is since the 1990s no longer accepted by mainstream scholarship as a basis for geomorphological studies. Albeit having its importance diminished, climatic geomorphology continues to exist as field of study producing relevant research. More recently concerns over global warming have led to a renewed interest in the field. Despite considerable criticism, the cycle of erosion model has remained part of

1190-469: Is still going on. Most of the bedrock underneath the Sauerland originates from a Middle and Upper Devonian period, when it was under a marginal and shallow sea. This has meant that slates , sandstones and greywackes are the most abundant rock types in the Sauerland. In some areas limestones from an ancient reef fringe prevail and are karstified . The Sauerland has several caves, especially in

1260-705: Is the scientific study of the origin and evolution of topographic and bathymetric features generated by physical, chemical or biological processes operating at or near Earth's surface . Geomorphologists seek to understand why landscapes look the way they do, to understand landform and terrain history and dynamics and to predict changes through a combination of field observations, physical experiments and numerical modeling . Geomorphologists work within disciplines such as physical geography , geology , geodesy , engineering geology , archaeology , climatology , and geotechnical engineering . This broad base of interests contributes to many research styles and interests within

1330-597: The Bulletin of the Geological Society of America , and received only few citations prior to 2000 (they are examples of "sleeping beauties" ) when a marked increase in quantitative geomorphology research occurred. Quantitative geomorphology can involve fluid dynamics and solid mechanics , geomorphometry , laboratory studies, field measurements, theoretical work, and full landscape evolution modeling . These approaches are used to understand weathering and

1400-543: The Eurasian eagle-owl , the great grey shrike , the red-backed shrike and the whinchat . There have been reports of free-roaming wolves , which had been wiped out in Germany until a few specimens returned to the country in 2000. In 2007, Cyclone Kyrill caused severe damage to the coniferous forests. In addition, massive outbreaks of bark beetles have been killing up to 60 % by area of forest in some regions of

1470-845: The Ruhr area industrialisation and the mining of its coal took place. Today there are only a few remains of this early heavy industry ; wire production is still important in Altena and a number of small factories still occupy the old industrial areas. Warsteiner is Germany's largest privately owned brewery. Sauerland has become a popular tourist area, attracting many visitors from the Ruhr Area and relatively close Netherlands. The forests and picturesque small towns are attractive for hikers and outdoor sports. There are more than 30,000 km (19,000 mi) of tagged hiking trails in Sauerland region maintained by Sauerland hiking association (SGV). Some of

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1540-679: The Alps is the Atta Cave in Attendorn . The Sauerland can be reached by car or train. The drive either via the BAB 4 from Cologne or via the BAB 45 and BAB 46 from Dortmund , takes about one hour; from Kassel or Frankfurt - Rhine-Main (via the Sauerlandlinie ) the journey takes about two hours. The closest commercial airport is Dortmund Airport . In the region, railways were once

1610-667: The Earth illustrate this intersection of surface and subsurface action. Mountain belts are uplifted due to geologic processes. Denudation of these high uplifted regions produces sediment that is transported and deposited elsewhere within the landscape or off the coast. On progressively smaller scales, similar ideas apply, where individual landforms evolve in response to the balance of additive processes (uplift and deposition) and subtractive processes ( subsidence and erosion ). Often, these processes directly affect each other: ice sheets, water, and sediment are all loads that change topography through flexural isostasy . Topography can modify

1680-655: The Earth, biological processes such as burrowing or tree throw may play important roles in setting the rates of some hillslope processes. Both volcanic (eruptive) and plutonic (intrusive) igneous processes can have important impacts on geomorphology. The action of volcanoes tends to rejuvenize landscapes, covering the old land surface with lava and tephra , releasing pyroclastic material and forcing rivers through new paths. The cones built by eruptions also build substantial new topography, which can be acted upon by other surface processes. Plutonic rocks intruding then solidifying at depth can cause both uplift or subsidence of

1750-530: The International Geological Conference of 1891. John Edward Marr in his The Scientific Study of Scenery considered his book as, 'an Introductory Treatise on Geomorphology, a subject which has sprung from the union of Geology and Geography'. An early popular geomorphic model was the geographical cycle or cycle of erosion model of broad-scale landscape evolution developed by William Morris Davis between 1884 and 1899. It

1820-401: The Sauerland as well as, to a minor extent, the limestones are still exploited in numerous quarries. Some of these caves are now becoming modest attractions to tourists. Several areas of the Sauerland have the status of biological reserves. The biodiversity of the Sauerland is significant. It is the main habitat of many species within Germany, for example for the wisent , the black stork ,

1890-403: The Sauerland. The largest town of the Sauerland is Iserlohn ; other larger towns are Lüdenscheid and Arnsberg . Meschede is the home of an abbey. Another abbey is placed at Bestwig . Parts of the Sauerland, especially the major valleys in the northwest, represent an old industrial region. The availability of iron ore and the abundance of wood and water allowed iron production long before

1960-441: The availability of sediment itself and on the river's discharge . Rivers are also capable of eroding into rock and forming new sediment, both from their own beds and also by coupling to the surrounding hillslopes. In this way, rivers are thought of as setting the base level for large-scale landscape evolution in nonglacial environments. Rivers are key links in the connectivity of different landscape elements. As rivers flow across

2030-657: The biggest reservoirs being the Möhne and Bigge . Although the highest elevation of the Sauerland is the Langenberg (843 m) near Olsberg , the much more renowned summit, which is well known for the nearby skiing facilities, its weather station and observation tower, is the slightly lower Kahler Asten (842 m) near Winterberg . Both Langenberg and Kahler Asten are peaks in the Rothaargebirge mountains. The Sauerland has six reservoir lakes. The Sauerland

2100-539: The centuries. He inferred that the land was reshaped and formed by soil erosion of the mountains and by deposition of silt , after observing strange natural erosions of the Taihang Mountains and the Yandang Mountain near Wenzhou . Furthermore, he promoted the theory of gradual climate change over centuries of time once ancient petrified bamboos were found to be preserved underground in

2170-457: The cycle over. In the decades following Davis's development of this idea, many of those studying geomorphology sought to fit their findings into this framework, known today as "Davisian". Davis's ideas are of historical importance, but have been largely superseded today, mainly due to their lack of predictive power and qualitative nature. In the 1920s, Walther Penck developed an alternative model to Davis's. Penck thought that landform evolution

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2240-571: The dry, northern climate zone of Yanzhou , which is now modern day Yan'an , Shaanxi province. Previous Chinese authors also presented ideas about changing landforms. Scholar-official Du Yu (222–285) of the Western Jin dynasty predicted that two monumental stelae recording his achievements, one buried at the foot of a mountain and the other erected at the top, would eventually change their relative positions over time as would hills and valleys. Daoist alchemist Ge Hong (284–364) created

2310-413: The early 1900s, the study of regional-scale geomorphology was termed "physiography". Physiography later was considered to be a contraction of " physi cal" and "ge ography ", and therefore synonymous with physical geography , and the concept became embroiled in controversy surrounding the appropriate concerns of that discipline. Some geomorphologists held to a geological basis for physiography and emphasized

2380-495: The early 19th century, authors – especially in Europe – had tended to attribute the form of landscapes to local climate , and in particular to the specific effects of glaciation and periglacial processes. In contrast, both Davis and Penck were seeking to emphasize the importance of evolution of landscapes through time and the generality of the Earth's surface processes across different landscapes under different conditions. During

2450-430: The field of geomorphology encompasses a very wide range of different approaches and interests. Modern researchers aim to draw out quantitative "laws" that govern Earth surface processes, but equally, recognize the uniqueness of each landscape and environment in which these processes operate. Particularly important realizations in contemporary geomorphology include: According to Karna Lidmar-Bergström , regional geography

2520-451: The field. Earth 's surface is modified by a combination of surface processes that shape landscapes, and geologic processes that cause tectonic uplift and subsidence , and shape the coastal geography . Surface processes comprise the action of water, wind, ice, wildfire , and life on the surface of the Earth, along with chemical reactions that form soils and alter material properties, the stability and rate of change of topography under

2590-590: The force of gravity via creep , slides , flows, topples, and falls. Such mass wasting occurs on both terrestrial and submarine slopes, and has been observed on Earth , Mars , Venus , Titan and Iapetus . Ongoing hillslope processes can change the topology of the hillslope surface, which in turn can change the rates of those processes. Hillslopes that steepen up to certain critical thresholds are capable of shedding extremely large volumes of material very quickly, making hillslope processes an extremely important element of landscapes in tectonically active areas. On

2660-401: The force of gravity , and other factors, such as (in the very recent past) human alteration of the landscape. Many of these factors are strongly mediated by climate . Geologic processes include the uplift of mountain ranges , the growth of volcanoes , isostatic changes in land surface elevation (sometimes in response to surface processes), and the formation of deep sedimentary basins where

2730-494: The form of landscape elements such as rivers and hillslopes by taking systematic, direct, quantitative measurements of aspects of them and investigating the scaling of these measurements. These methods began to allow prediction of the past and future behavior of landscapes from present observations, and were later to develop into the modern trend of a highly quantitative approach to geomorphic problems. Many groundbreaking and widely cited early geomorphology studies appeared in

2800-670: The formation of soils , sediment transport , landscape change, and the interactions between climate, tectonics, erosion, and deposition. In Sweden Filip Hjulström 's doctoral thesis, "The River Fyris" (1935), contained one of the first quantitative studies of geomorphological processes ever published. His students followed in the same vein, making quantitative studies of mass transport ( Anders Rapp ), fluvial transport ( Åke Sundborg ), delta deposition ( Valter Axelsson ), and coastal processes ( John O. Norrman ). This developed into "the Uppsala School of Physical Geography ". Today,

2870-427: The geologic and atmospheric history of those planets but also extends geomorphological study of the Earth. Planetary geomorphologists often use Earth analogues to aid in their study of surfaces of other planets. Other than some notable exceptions in antiquity, geomorphology is a relatively young science, growing along with interest in other aspects of the earth sciences in the mid-19th century. This section provides

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2940-677: The landscape, they generally increase in size, merging with other rivers. The network of rivers thus formed is a drainage system . These systems take on four general patterns: dendritic, radial, rectangular, and trellis. Dendritic happens to be the most common, occurring when the underlying stratum is stable (without faulting). Drainage systems have four primary components: drainage basin , alluvial valley, delta plain, and receiving basin. Some geomorphic examples of fluvial landforms are alluvial fans , oxbow lakes , and fluvial terraces . Glaciers , while geographically restricted, are effective agents of landscape change. The gradual movement of ice down

3010-474: The landscape. Fluvial geomorphologists focus on rivers , how they transport sediment , migrate across the landscape , cut into bedrock , respond to environmental and tectonic changes, and interact with humans. Soils geomorphologists investigate soil profiles and chemistry to learn about the history of a particular landscape and understand how climate, biota, and rock interact. Other geomorphologists study how hillslopes form and change. Still others investigate

3080-691: The local climate, for example through orographic precipitation , which in turn modifies the topography by changing the hydrologic regime in which it evolves. Many geomorphologists are particularly interested in the potential for feedbacks between climate and tectonics , mediated by geomorphic processes. In addition to these broad-scale questions, geomorphologists address issues that are more specific or more local. Glacial geomorphologists investigate glacial deposits such as moraines , eskers , and proglacial lakes , as well as glacial erosional features, to build chronologies of both small glaciers and large ice sheets and understand their motions and effects upon

3150-465: The lower lithosphere have also been hypothesised to play important roles in the long term (> million year), large scale (thousands of km) evolution of the Earth's topography (see dynamic topography ). Both can promote surface uplift through isostasy as hotter, less dense, mantle rocks displace cooler, denser, mantle rocks at depth in the Earth. Marine processes are those associated with the action of waves, marine currents and seepage of fluids through

3220-516: The mid-20th century considered both un-innovative and dubious. Early climatic geomorphology developed primarily in continental Europe while in the English-speaking world the tendency was not explicit until L.C. Peltier's 1950 publication on a periglacial cycle of erosion. Climatic geomorphology was criticized in a 1969 review article by process geomorphologist D.R. Stoddart . The criticism by Stoddart proved "devastating" sparking

3290-464: The most important means of transportation, but between 1950 and 1990 many smaller branch lines were closed and rail travel is now only present in the major valleys. The most important lines are: 51°15′00″N 8°00′00″E  /  51.2500°N 8.0000°E  / 51.2500; 8.0000 Geomorphology Geomorphology (from Ancient Greek : γῆ , gê , 'earth'; μορφή , morphḗ , 'form'; and λόγος , lógos , 'study')

3360-426: The northern part, the biggest caves being in Attendorn and Balve . In some areas of the Sauerland the occurrence of lead - zinc - silver - ores lead to the development of a considerable mining industry, the center of which was the town of Meggen . Mining in this area lasted until the late second half of the 20th century, today there is no active mining in the Sauerland. The sandstones, greywackes and quartzites of

3430-857: The physics of landscapes. Geomorphologists may rely on geochronology , using dating methods to measure the rate of changes to the surface. Terrain measurement techniques are vital to quantitatively describe the form of the Earth's surface, and include differential GPS , remotely sensed digital terrain models and laser scanning , to quantify, study, and to generate illustrations and maps. Practical applications of geomorphology include hazard assessment (such as landslide prediction and mitigation ), river control and stream restoration , and coastal protection. Planetary geomorphology studies landforms on other terrestrial planets such as Mars. Indications of effects of wind , fluvial , glacial , mass wasting , meteor impact , tectonics and volcanic processes are studied. This effort not only helps better understand

3500-472: The previous districts Arnsberg, Brilon and Meschede. Geographically the district covers a big part of the Sauerland mountains, including the highest and third highest elevation – the Langenberg near Olsberg with 2,766 ft / 843 m, and the better known Kahler Asten with 2,762 ft / 842 m near Winterberg . These are also the two highest mountains of North Rhine-Westphalia . The coat of arms

3570-423: The relationships between ecology and geomorphology. Because geomorphology is defined to comprise everything related to the surface of the Earth and its modification, it is a broad field with many facets. Geomorphologists use a wide range of techniques in their work. These may include fieldwork and field data collection, the interpretation of remotely sensed data, geochemical analyses, and the numerical modelling of

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3640-487: The role of biology in mediating surface processes can be definitively excluded are extremely rare, but may hold important information for understanding the geomorphology of other planets, such as Mars . Rivers and streams are not only conduits of water, but also of sediment . The water, as it flows over the channel bed, is able to mobilize sediment and transport it downstream, either as bed load , suspended load or dissolved load . The rate of sediment transport depends on

3710-760: The science of historical geology . While acknowledging its shortcomings, modern geomorphologists Andrew Goudie and Karna Lidmar-Bergström have praised it for its elegance and pedagogical value respectively. Geomorphically relevant processes generally fall into (1) the production of regolith by weathering and erosion , (2) the transport of that material, and (3) its eventual deposition . Primary surface processes responsible for most topographic features include wind , waves , chemical dissolution , mass wasting , groundwater movement, surface water flow, glacial action , tectonism , and volcanism . Other more exotic geomorphic processes might include periglacial (freeze-thaw) processes, salt-mediated action, changes to

3780-409: The science of geomorphology. The model or theory has never been proved wrong, but neither has it been proven. The inherent difficulties of the model have instead made geomorphological research to advance along other lines. In contrast to its disputed status in geomorphology, the cycle of erosion model is a common approach used to establish denudation chronologies , and is thus an important concept in

3850-532: The sea, eventually those seas would fill while the land lowered. He claimed that this would mean that land and water would eventually swap places, whereupon the process would begin again in an endless cycle. The Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity published in Arabic at Basra during the 10th century also discussed the cyclical changing positions of land and sea with rocks breaking down and being washed into

3920-525: The sea, their sediment eventually rising to form new continents. The medieval Persian Muslim scholar Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī (973–1048), after observing rock formations at the mouths of rivers, hypothesized that the Indian Ocean once covered all of India . In his De Natura Fossilium of 1546, German metallurgist and mineralogist Georgius Agricola (1494–1555) wrote about erosion and natural weathering . Another early theory of geomorphology

3990-755: The seabed caused by marine currents, seepage of fluids through the seafloor or extraterrestrial impact. Aeolian processes pertain to the activity of the winds and more specifically, to the winds' ability to shape the surface of the Earth . Winds may erode, transport, and deposit materials, and are effective agents in regions with sparse vegetation and a large supply of fine, unconsolidated sediments . Although water and mass flow tend to mobilize more material than wind in most environments, aeolian processes are important in arid environments such as deserts . The interaction of living organisms with landforms, or biogeomorphologic processes , can be of many different forms, and

4060-459: The seafloor. Mass wasting and submarine landsliding are also important processes for some aspects of marine geomorphology. Because ocean basins are the ultimate sinks for a large fraction of terrestrial sediments, depositional processes and their related forms (e.g., sediment fans, deltas ) are particularly important as elements of marine geomorphology. There is a considerable overlap between geomorphology and other fields. Deposition of material

4130-641: The stark contrast to the rest of the adjoining Hessian landscape. To the west the hills continue into the Bergisches Land , to the south into the Siegerland , and to the north-east into the Teutoburg Forest . The major rivers of the Sauerland are the Ruhr and the Lenne . Several artificial lakes were created on the smaller rivers by building dams to store water for the nearby Ruhr area ,

4200-407: The surface of the Earth drops and is filled with material eroded from other parts of the landscape. The Earth's surface and its topography therefore are an intersection of climatic , hydrologic , and biologic action with geologic processes, or alternatively stated, the intersection of the Earth's lithosphere with its hydrosphere , atmosphere , and biosphere . The broad-scale topographies of

4270-596: The surface, depending on whether the new material is denser or less dense than the rock it displaces. Tectonic effects on geomorphology can range from scales of millions of years to minutes or less. The effects of tectonics on landscape are heavily dependent on the nature of the underlying bedrock fabric that more or less controls what kind of local morphology tectonics can shape. Earthquakes can, in terms of minutes, submerge large areas of land forming new wetlands. Isostatic rebound can account for significant changes over hundreds to thousands of years, and allows erosion of

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4340-617: The towns have the title Bad ( Spa ) because of their good air quality and stimulating climate. Winter sports are popular in the Sauerland. The bob sleigh track in Winterberg is widely known in Germany, as well as the ski jumping in Willingen . Sauerland also has a successful theme park called Fort Fun . Balve Cave is one of the biggest prehistorical caves of Europe and is situated in Balve . The largest accessible limestone cave outside

4410-735: The western part of the Sauerland was part of the County of the Mark based in Altena ; the eastern part adhered to the County of Arnsberg , later became known as the Duchy of Westphalia and was owned by the Archbishops and Electorate of Cologne . The Duchy of Limburg covered a very small area in the lower Lenne river valley. After the Napoleonic Wars the area became part of Prussia and

4480-434: Was German, and during his lifetime his ideas were at times rejected vigorously by the English-speaking geomorphology community. His early death, Davis' dislike for his work, and his at-times-confusing writing style likely all contributed to this rejection. Both Davis and Penck were trying to place the study of the evolution of the Earth's surface on a more generalized, globally relevant footing than it had been previously. In

4550-444: Was an elaboration of the uniformitarianism theory that had first been proposed by James Hutton (1726–1797). With regard to valley forms, for example, uniformitarianism posited a sequence in which a river runs through a flat terrain, gradually carving an increasingly deep valley, until the side valleys eventually erode, flattening the terrain again, though at a lower elevation. It was thought that tectonic uplift could then start

4620-416: Was better described as an alternation between ongoing processes of uplift and denudation, as opposed to Davis's model of a single uplift followed by decay. He also emphasised that in many landscapes slope evolution occurs by backwearing of rocks, not by Davisian-style surface lowering, and his science tended to emphasise surface process over understanding in detail the surface history of a given locality. Penck

4690-507: Was devised by Song dynasty Chinese scientist and statesman Shen Kuo (1031–1095). This was based on his observation of marine fossil shells in a geological stratum of a mountain hundreds of miles from the Pacific Ocean . Noticing bivalve shells running in a horizontal span along the cut section of a cliffside, he theorized that the cliff was once the pre-historic location of a seashore that had shifted hundreds of miles over

4760-402: Was foreshadowed by the work of Wladimir Köppen , Vasily Dokuchaev and Andreas Schimper . William Morris Davis , the leading geomorphologist of his time, recognized the role of climate by complementing his "normal" temperate climate cycle of erosion with arid and glacial ones. Nevertheless, interest in climatic geomorphology was also a reaction against Davisian geomorphology that was by

4830-673: Was inherited from the former district Arnsberg . It shows the eagle as the symbol of the Earls of Arnsberg. When their county lost independence in 1368 it fell to the bishops of Cologne , thus the sign on the breast of the eagle shows the Cologne cross. Hochsauerland is twinned with the following areas: [REDACTED] Media related to Hochsauerlandkreis at Wikimedia Commons 51°15′N 8°20′E  /  51.25°N 8.33°E  / 51.25; 8.33 Sauerland The Sauerland ( German: [ˈzaʊɐlant] )

4900-483: Was integrated into the new province of Westphalia . After World War II , Westphalia was merged with the new federal state of North Rhine-Westphalia . Today, the Sauerland consists of the districts Märkischer Kreis , Olpe and Hochsauerland . The western part of the Hessian district Waldeck-Frankenberg is also attributed to the Sauerland because of its geomorphological , as well as its sociocultural similarity, and

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