The Carnegie Library of Homestead is a public library in Munhall, Pennsylvania founded by Andrew Carnegie in 1898.
137-583: It is one of 2,509 Carnegie libraries worldwide; 1,689 built in the United States. It was the sixth library commissioned by Carnegie in the U.S. and the seventh to open. Completed in November 1898, it is the third oldest Carnegie library in continuous operation in its original structure in the U.S. after the Main Branch and Lawrenceville Branch of Pittsburgh. The library is an independent entity; it
274-473: A unit of distance . The most widely accepted inception date for the Ancient Olympics is 776 BC; this is based on inscriptions, found at Olympia , listing the winners of a footrace held every four years starting in 776 BC. For the first thirteen Olympics, the stadion footrace was the only event contested, and victory in that sprint was so valued that the next Olympiad was named after
411-496: A "Schedule of Questions". The schedule included: Name, status and population of town, Does it have a library? Where is it located and is it public or private? How many books? Is a town-owned site available? Estimation of the community's population at this stage was done by local officials, and Bertram later commented that if the population counts he received were accurate, "the nation's population had mysteriously doubled". The effects of Carnegie's library philanthropy coincided with
548-459: A closed stacks policy, the method of operation common to libraries at that time. Patrons requested a book from a library staffer, who would fetch the book from closed stacks off limits to the public, and bring it to a delivery desk. To reduce operating costs, Carnegie created a revolutionary open-shelf or self-service policy, beginning with the Pittsburgh neighborhood branches that opened after
685-471: A cost overrun of 76%, Sochi 2014 of 289%. It has been documented that cost and cost overrun for the Games follow a power-law distribution , which means that, first, the Games are prone to large cost overruns and, second, it is only a matter of time until an overrun occurs that is larger than the largest to date. In short, hosting the Games is economically and financially extremely risky. The final cost for
822-543: A gift that has shaped the minds and lives of millions." In 1897, Carnegie hired James Bertram as his personal assistant. Bertram was responsible for fielding requests from municipalities for funds and overseeing the dispensing of grants for libraries. When Bertram received a letter requesting a library, he sent the applicant a questionnaire inquiring about the town's population, whether it had any other libraries, how large its book collection was, and what its circulation figures were. If initial requirements were met, Bertram asked
959-401: A ladder, as well as sheltered galleries and niches, reminiscent of sixteenth-century Europe, largely because modern librarians could not supervise such spaces efficiently. Bertram 's architectural criteria included a lecture room, reading rooms for adults and children, a staff room, a centrally located librarian's desk, twelve-to-fifteen-foot ceilings, and large windows six to seven feet above
1096-528: A library anywhere, a room for children.... The reading rooms were separated by walls that became glass partitions above waist level—the better to see you with, my dear. Walter E. Langsam, an architectural historian and teacher at the University of Cincinnati , wrote "The Carnegie libraries were important because they had open stacks which encouraged people to browse .... People could choose for themselves what books they wanted to read." This open stacks policy
1233-478: A library, the group petitioned for and received funds from Carnegie. U.S. Supreme Court Justice Clarence Thomas wrote in his 2008 memoirs that he frequently used that library as a boy, before the public library system was desegregated. The library buildings were constructed in a number of styles, including Beaux-Arts , Italian Renaissance , Baroque , Classical Revival , and Spanish Colonial , to enhance their appearance as public buildings. Scottish Baronial
1370-458: A model for future Games. Budget overruns are common for the Games. Average overrun for Games since 1960 is 156% in real terms, which means that actual costs turned out to be on average 2.56 times the budget that was estimated at the time of winning the bid to host the Games. Montreal 1976 had the highest cost overrun for Summer Games, and for any Games, at 720%; Lake Placid 1980 had the highest cost overrun for Winter Games, at 324%. London 2012 had
1507-710: A national Olympic festival held annually from 1796 to 1798 in Revolutionary France also attempted to emulate the ancient Olympic Games. The competition included several disciplines from the ancient Greek Olympics. The 1796 Games also marked the introduction of the metric system into sport. In 1834 and 1836, the Olympic games were held in Ramlösa, Sweden , and in Stockholm , in 1843, organised by Gustaf Johan Schartau and others. At most 25,000 spectators saw
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#17327756020471644-524: A particular candidate city. After being narrowly defeated in their bid for the 2012 Games, Parisian mayor Bertrand Delanoë specifically accused the British prime minister Tony Blair and the London bid committee , headed by former Olympic champion Sebastian Coe , of breaking the bid rules. He cited French president Jacques Chirac as a witness; Chirac gave guarded interviews concerning his involvement but
1781-631: A peak in new town development and library expansion in the US. By 1890, many states had begun to take an active role in organizing public libraries, and the new buildings filled a tremendous need. It was also a time of rapid development of institutions of higher learning. Interest in libraries was also heightened at a crucial time in their early development by Carnegie's high profile and his genuine belief in their importance. In Canada in 1901, Carnegie offered more than $ 2.5 million to build 125 libraries. Most cities at first turned him down—then relented and took
1918-637: A prominent doorway, nearly always accessed via a staircase from the ground level. The entry staircase symbolized a person's elevation by learning. Similarly, most libraries had a lamp post or lantern installed near the entrance, meant as a symbol of enlightenment . Carnegie's grants were very large for the era, and his library philanthropy was one of the most costly philanthropic activities, by value, in history. Carnegie continued funding new libraries until shortly before his death in 1919. Libraries were given to towns and cities in Great Britain and much of
2055-544: A reduced number of disciplines and events. Over 14,000 athletes competed at the 2020 Summer Olympics and 2022 Winter Olympics combined, in 40 different sports and 448 events. The Summer Olympics have grown from 241 participants representing 14 nations in 1896, to more than 11,300 competitors representing 206 nations in 2020 . The scope and scale of the Winter Olympics is smaller; for example, Beijing hosted 2,971 athletes from 91 nations in 2022 . Most of
2192-443: A religious viewpoint, arguing that it did not offset his "immoral" accumulation of wealth, and that his contributions did not justify the "evils" Tucker claimed existed in capitalism itself. Carnegie's own steel workers echoed this sentiment, arguing that his wealth would be better spent on improving working conditions for his own employees, rather than on library buildings across the country. Carnegie's response to those criticisms and
2329-512: A surplus in part by selling exclusive sponsorship rights to select companies. The IOC sought to gain control of these sponsorship rights. Samaranch helped to establish The Olympic Programme (TOP) in 1985, in order to create an Olympic brand. Membership in TOP was, and is, very exclusive and expensive. Fees cost US$ 50 million for a four-year membership. Members of TOP received exclusive global advertising rights for their product category, and use of
2466-674: A surplus of $ 40 million. This excess revenue was used to create the Utah Athletic Foundation (also known as the Utah Olympic Legacy Foundation), which maintains and operates many of the surviving Olympic venues. It was reported in 1999 that the Nagano Olympic bid committee had spent approximately $ 14 million on entertaining the 62 IOC members and many of their associates. The precise figures are unknown since Nagano destroyed
2603-550: A survey conducted by George Bobinski, dean of the School of Information and Library Studies at the State University at Buffalo , 1,554 of the 1,681 original Carnegie library buildings in the United States still existed, and 911 were still used as libraries. He found that 276 were unchanged, 286 had been expanded, 175 had been remodeled, 243 had been demolished, and others had been converted to other uses. While hundreds of
2740-431: A trust to fund future Olympic Games. This trust was used to help finance the 1896 Games. George Averoff contributed generously for the refurbishment of the stadium in preparation for the Games. The Greek government also provided funding, which was expected to be recouped through the sale of tickets and from the sale of the first Olympic commemorative stamp set. Greek officials and the public were enthusiastic about
2877-521: A two-city race between Almaty , Kazakhstan and Beijing, China who hosted the 2008 Summer Olympics . The Guardian stated that the biggest threat to the future of the Olympics is few cities or countries want to host them. Bidding for the 2024 Summer Olympics became a two-city race between Paris and Los Angeles, so the IOC took the unusual step of simultaneously awarding both the 2024 Games to Paris and
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#17327756020473014-566: A wealthy Greek-Romanian philanthropist, first wrote to King Otto of Greece , in 1856, offering to fund a permanent revival of the Olympic Games. Zappas sponsored the first Olympic Games in 1859, which was held in an Athens city square. Athletes participated from Greece and the Ottoman Empire. Zappas funded the restoration of the ancient Panathenaic Stadium so that it could host all future Olympic Games. The stadium hosted
3151-611: Is a library built with money donated by Scottish-American businessman and philanthropist Andrew Carnegie . A total of 2,509 Carnegie libraries were built between 1883 and 1929, including some belonging to public and university library systems. 1,689 were built in the United States, 660 in the United Kingdom and Ireland, 125 in Canada, and 25 others in Australia , South Africa , New Zealand , Serbia, Belgium, France,
3288-441: Is liable to become the prey of a clique. The public ceases to take interest in it, or, rather, never acquires interest in it. The rule has been violated which requires the recipients to help themselves. Everything has been done for the community instead of its being only helped to help itself. Carnegie required the elected officials—the local government—to: Carnegie assigned the decisions to his assistant James Bertram . He created
3425-437: Is no scholarly consensus as to when the Games officially ended, the most commonly held date is 393 AD, when the emperor Theodosius I decreed that all pagan cults and practices be eliminated. Another date commonly cited is 426 AD, when his successor, Theodosius II , ordered the destruction of all Greek temples. Various uses of the term "Olympic" to describe athletic events in the modern era have been documented since
3562-585: Is not a "branch" of the Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh , which operates one main facility and 19 branches within the city of Pittsburgh. The building houses a library with a collection of over 34,000, the 1,047-seat "Carnegie Library Music Hall" and an athletic club with a heated indoor pool . The library was constructed on a hill in Mifflin Township, Pennsylvania (part of which became today's borough of Munhall ), overlooking Homestead and
3699-504: Is to put up a brown-stone buildin' in ivry town in th' counthry." The idea that a building would be the panacea to cure all of society's ills, they argued, was simply not sustainable. A further issue was the impact on pre-existing religious libraries that had promoted learning through free libraries for many years. A typical example is the United Presbyterian Library of Edinburgh, under Robert James Drummond which
3836-402: The 1932 Summer Olympics at age 16; and Lenore Kight won silver in 1932 and a bronze in 1936 . Gorman first swam in 1927 while on vacation. When she returned to Homestead she purchased a three-month membership at the library and pool for $ 1. At age 92 in 2008, Gorman still swam at the library. The building has rightfully in the center as the focus 'The Library'-- Music Hall upon the right and
3973-670: The 1988 Summer Games in Seoul, the host city for the Olympics has also played host to the Paralympics. The International Olympic Committee (IOC) and the International Paralympic Committee (IPC) signed an agreement in 2001 which guaranteed that host cities would be contracted to manage both the Olympic and Paralympic Games. The agreement came into effect at the 2008 Summer Games in Beijing, and at
4110-643: The 2010 Winter Games in Vancouver. Two years before the 2012 Games, the LOCOG chairman Lord Coe made the following statement about the Paralympics and Olympics in London: We want to change public attitudes towards disability, celebrate the excellence of Paralympic sport and to enshrine from the very outset that the two Games are an integrated whole. In 2010, the Olympic Games were complemented by
4247-542: The 2020 Summer Olympics and 2022 Winter Olympics combined, in 40 different sports and 448 events. The first-, second-, and third-place finishers in each event receive Olympic medals : gold, silver, and bronze, respectively. The Games have grown to the point that nearly every nation is now represented; colonies and overseas territories are often allowed to field their own teams. This growth has created numerous challenges and controversies , including boycotts , doping , match fixing , bribery, and terrorism. Every two years,
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4384-428: The 2028 Games to Los Angeles. Both of the bids were praised for high technical plans and innovative ways to use a record-breaking number of existing and temporary facilities. The Olympic Movement encompasses a large number of national and international sporting organisations and federations, recognised media partners, as well as athletes, officials, judges, and every other person and institution that agrees to abide by
4521-685: The Homestead Steel Works , the site of an 1892 labor strike where Pinkerton agents fought with union workers , resulting in 16 deaths. A library had been under consideration for several years before the strike, but unlike those at Carnegie's Homestead plant, laborers at the Edgar Thomson Works in Braddock had capitulated to his wage concession demands in 1887, and the Carnegie Free Library of Braddock
4658-561: The Paris Exposition in 1900 and the Louisiana Purchase Exposition at St. Louis in 1904 failed to attract much participation or notice. Of the 650 athletes in the 1904 Olympics, 580 were American; the winner of the marathon was later disqualified upon discovery of a photograph of him riding in a car during the race. The Games rebounded with the 1906 Intercalated Games (so-called because they were
4795-595: The Stoke Mandeville Games , Guttmann's event became an annual sports festival. Over the next 12 years, Guttmann and others continued their efforts to use sports as an avenue to healing. In 1960, Guttmann brought 400 athletes to Rome to compete in the "Parallel Olympics", which ran in parallel with the Summer Olympics and came to be known as the first Paralympics . Since then, the Paralympics have been held in every Olympic year and, starting with
4932-590: The World Games for sports that are not contested in the Olympic Games. The IOC also endorses the Deaflympics and the Special Olympics . The IOC need to adapt to a variety of economic, political, and technological advancements. The abuse of amateur rules prompted the IOC to shift away from pure amateurism , as envisioned by Coubertin, to the acceptance of professional athletes participating at
5069-486: The summer solstice —usually late August or early September. This "came after the annual harvest but before the picking of the olives." Heralds were sent from Elis to announce the dates. Competition at first was among only "legitimate sons of free-born Greek parents." However, after Macedonia, and then Rome, conquered Greece, the ten Olympic judges loosened the earlier standard and permitted anyone who spoke Greek to participate. Tens of thousands of Greeks would make
5206-629: The 17th century. The first such event was the Cotswold Games or "Cotswold Olimpick Games", an annual meeting near Chipping Campden , England, involving various sports. It was first organised by the lawyer Robert Dover between 1612 and 1642, with several later celebrations leading up to the present day. The British Olympic Association , in its bid for the 2012 Olympic Games in London, mentioned these games as "the first stirrings of Britain's Olympic beginnings". L'Olympiade de la République ,
5343-632: The 1930s during the Great Depression, some libraries were meticulously measured, documented and photographed under the Historic American Buildings Survey (HABS) program of the National Park Service . This was part of an effort to record and preserve significant buildings.. Other documentation has been collected by local historical societies. In 1935, the centennial of Carnegie's birth, a copy of
5480-561: The 1984 Summer Games by using existing facilities and only two new that were paid for by corporate sponsors. The Organizing Committee led by Peter Ueberroth used some of the profits to endow the LA84 Foundation to promote youth sports in Southern California , educate coaches and maintain a sports library. The 1984 Summer Olympics are often considered until that date, the most financially successful modern Olympics and
5617-604: The 8th century BC to the 4th century AD. Baron Pierre de Coubertin founded the International Olympic Committee (IOC) in 1894, leading to the first modern Games in Athens in 1896. The IOC is the governing body of the Olympic Movement , which encompasses all entities and individuals involved in the Olympic Games. The Olympic Charter defines their structure and authority. The evolution of
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5754-529: The American rights. In the following decades, the Olympics became one of the ideological fronts of the Cold War, and the International Olympic Committee wanted to take advantage of this heightened interest via the broadcast medium. The sale of broadcast rights enabled the IOC to increase the exposure of the Olympic Games, thereby generating more interest, which in turn enhanced the appeal of TV air time to
5891-598: The Anderson Memorial Library, in memory of Colonel John Byers Anderson , at the College of Emporia . Nearly all of Carnegie's libraries were built according to "the Carnegie formula", which required financial commitments for maintenance and operation from the town that received the donation. Carnegie required public support rather than making endowments because, as he wrote: an endowed institution
6028-587: The Caribbean, Mauritius, Malaysia, and Fiji. At first, Carnegie libraries were almost exclusively in places with which he had a personal connection—namely his birthplace in Scotland and the Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania area, his adopted hometown. Yet, beginning in the middle of 1899, Carnegie substantially increased funding to libraries outside these areas. As Carnegie's library funding progressed, very few of
6165-606: The Carnegie Libraries. The number and nature of documents within the correspondence files varies widely. Such documents may include correspondence, completed applications and questionnaires, newspaper clippings, illustrations, and building dedication programs. UK correspondence files relating to individual libraries have been preserved in Edinburgh (see the article List of Carnegie libraries in Europe ). Beginning in
6302-708: The English-speaking world: Almost $ 56.2 million went for construction of 2,509 libraries worldwide. Of that, $ 40 million was given for construction of 1,670 public library buildings in 1,412 American communities. Small towns received grants of $ 10,000 that enabled them to build large libraries that immediately were among the most significant town amenities in hundreds of communities. Books and libraries were important to Carnegie, from his early childhood in Scotland and his teen years in Allegheny and Pittsburgh. There he listened to readings and discussions of books from
6439-635: The Epiphany library in New York City. Olympics The modern Olympic Games ( Olympics ; French : Jeux olympiques, ) are the world's leading international sporting events. They feature summer and winter sports competitions in which thousands of athletes from around the world participate in a variety of competitions . The Olympic Games are considered the world's foremost sports competition, with more than 200 teams, representing sovereign states and territories, participating. By default,
6576-527: The Games generally substitute for any world championships during the year in which they take place (however, each class usually maintains its own records). The Olympics are staged every four years. Since 1994 , they have alternated between the Summer and Winter Olympics every two years during the four-year Olympiad . Their creation was inspired by the ancient Olympic Games , held in Olympia, Greece from
6713-710: The Games. The growing importance of mass media has created the issue of corporate sponsorship and general commercialisation of the Games. World Wars I and II led to the cancellation of the 1916 , 1940 , and 1944 Olympics; large-scale boycotts during the Cold War limited participation in the 1980 and 1984 Olympics; and the 2020 Olympics were postponed until 2021 because of the COVID-19 restrictions . The Olympic Movement consists of international sports federations (IFs), National Olympic Committees (NOCs), and organising committees for each specific Olympic Games. As
6850-472: The IOC took control of sponsorship, the NOCs had responsibility for negotiating their own contracts for sponsorship and use of the Olympic symbols. The IOC originally resisted funding by corporate sponsors. It was not until the retirement of IOC President Avery Brundage , in 1972, that the IOC began to explore the potential of the television medium and the lucrative advertising markets available to them. Under
6987-424: The IOC's decision-making. His resistance to this revenue stream meant the IOC left organising committees to negotiate their own sponsorship contracts and use the Olympic symbols. When Brundage retired, the IOC had US$ 2 million in assets; eight years later the IOC coffers had swelled to US$ 45 million. This was primarily due to a shift in ideology toward expansion of the Games through corporate sponsorship and
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#17327756020477124-875: The IOC, the United States Olympic Committee (USOC), the Salt Lake Organizing Committee (SLOC), and the United States Department of Justice (DOJ). Although nothing strictly illegal had occurred, it was felt that the acceptance of the gifts was morally dubious. As a result of the investigation, ten members of the IOC were expelled and a further ten sanctioned. Stricter rules were adopted for future bids, and caps were introduced to define how much IOC members could accept from bid cities. Additionally, new term and age limits were put into place for IOC membership, and fifteen former Olympic athletes were added to
7261-519: The Olympic Games. He felt that the Olympics "is worthy of study because it is one of the biggest meetings in a global context and has many political, economic, and other problems associated with it". He began Olympika in 1992, the first peer-reviewed academic journal focused on the Olympic Games. The International Society of Olympic Historians was founded in 1991, which publishes the Journal of Olympic History . Some economists are sceptical about
7398-690: The Olympic Movement during the 20th and 21st centuries has resulted in numerous changes to the Olympic Games. Some of these adjustments include the creation of the Winter Olympic Games for snow and ice sports, the Paralympic Games for athletes with disabilities, the Youth Olympic Games for athletes aged 14 to 18, the five Continental Games ( Pan American , African , Asian , European , and Pacific ), and
7535-648: The Olympic symbol, the interlocking rings , in their publications and advertisements. The 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin were the first Games to be broadcast on television, though only to local audiences. The 1956 Winter Olympics in Italy were the first internationally televised Olympic Games, and the broadcasting rights for the following Winter Games in California were sold for the first time to specialised television broadcasting networks— CBS paid US$ 394,000 for
7672-443: The Olympics and its media exposure provide athletes with the chance to attain national and international fame. The Games also provide an opportunity for the host city and country to showcase themselves to the world. The Olympic Games have become a significant global event, fostering international cooperation and cultural exchange. At the same time, hosting the Olympic Games can also bring significant economic benefits and challenges to
7809-576: The Olympics displaced more than two million people over two decades, often disproportionately affecting disadvantaged groups. The 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi were the most expensive Olympic Games in history, costing in excess of US$ 50 billion. According to a report by the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development released at the time of the games, the cost would not boost Russia's national economy, but could attract business to Sochi and
7946-570: The Olympics in 1870 and 1875. Thirty thousand spectators attended that Games in 1870, though no official attendance records are available for the 1875 Games. In 1890, after attending the Olympian Games of the Wenlock Olympian Society , Baron Pierre de Coubertin , who aimed to promote international peace and friendship through sports, was inspired to found the International Olympic Committee (IOC). Coubertin built on
8083-598: The South. For example, in Houston he funded a separate Colored Carnegie Library. The Carnegie Library in Savannah, Georgia , opened in 1914 to serve Black residents, who had been excluded from the segregated White public library. The privately organized Colored Library Association of Savannah had raised money and collected books to establish a small Library for Colored Citizens . Having demonstrated their willingness to support
8220-565: The Summer Olympics has a positive effect on the philanthropic contributions of corporations headquartered in the host city, which seems to benefit the local nonprofit sector. This effect begins in the years leading up to the Games and might persist for several years afterwards, though not permanently. The Games have had significant negative effects on host communities; for example, the Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions reports that
8357-521: The Tokyo 2020 Olympics was reported to be JPY 1,423.8 billion (US$ 13 billion). This was achieved by balancing revenues and expenditures through various efforts to increase revenue and continuously review expenditures. The primary sources of revenue included the International Olympic Committee (IOC) contribution of JPY 86.8 billion (US$ 0.8 billion), TOP sponsorship of JPY 56.9 billion (US$ 0.5 billion), local sponsorship of JPY 376.1 billion (US$ 3.4 billion), an insurance payout of JPY 50 billion (US$ 0.5 billion) for
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#17327756020478494-520: The Tradesman's Subscription Library, which his father had helped create. Later in Pennsylvania, while working for the local telegraph company in Pittsburgh, Carnegie borrowed books from the personal library of Colonel James Anderson (1785-1861). He opened his collection to his workers every Saturday. Anderson, like Carnegie, resided in Allegheny. In his autobiography, Carnegie credited Anderson with providing an opportunity for "working boys" (that some people said should not be "entitled to books") to acquire
8631-409: The US. Patricia Lowry describes located just beyond the lobby, the circulation desk—no longer a delivery desk—took center stage in Lawrenceville, flanked by turnstiles that admitted readers to the open stacks one at a time, under the librarian's watchful eye. To thwart thievery, the stacks were arranged in a radial pattern. On each side of the lobby were a general reading room and, for the first time in
8768-499: The Working Man's Club upon the left. These three foundations from which healing waters are to flow for the Instruction, Entertainment and Happiness of the people. Recreation of the working man has an important bearing upon his character and development as his hours of work. —Andrew Carnegie on the Homestead Library 40°24′25.49″N 79°54′10.72″W / 40.4070806°N 79.9029778°W / 40.4070806; -79.9029778 Carnegie library A Carnegie library
8905-426: The Youth Games, which give athletes between the ages of 14 and 18 the chance to compete. The Youth Olympic Games were conceived by IOC president Jacques Rogge in 2001 and approved during the 119th Congress of the IOC. The first Summer Youth Games were held in Singapore from 14 to 26 August 2010, while the inaugural Winter Games were hosted in Innsbruck , Austria, two years later. These Games will be shorter than
9042-447: The allegation was never fully explored. Turin 's bid to host the 2006 Winter Olympics was also clouded by controversy; a prominent IOC member, Marc Hodler , closely connected to the rival bid of Sion , alleged bribery of IOC officials by members of the Turin Organising Committee. These accusations led to a wide-ranging investigation, and also served to sour many IOC members against Sion's bid which potentially helped Turin to capture
9179-438: The amount the town was willing to pledge for the library's annual maintenance, whether a site was being provided, and the amount of money already available. Until 1898, only one library was commissioned in the United States outside Southwestern Pennsylvania : a library in Fairfield, Iowa , commissioned in 1892. It was the first project in which Carnegie had funded a library to which he had no personal ties. The Fairfield project
9316-407: The athletes and officials are housed in the Olympic Village for the duration of the Games. This accommodation centre is designed to be a self-contained home for all Olympic participants, and is furnished with cafeterias, health clinics, and locations for religious expression. The IOC has allowed the formation of National Olympic Committees (NOCs) to represent individual nations. These do not meet
9453-409: The auspices of the IOC would take place in Athens in 1896. The IOC elected the Greek writer Demetrius Vikelas as its first president. The first Games held under the auspices of the IOC were hosted in the Panathenaic Stadium in Athens in 1896. The Games brought together 14 nations and 241 athletes who competed in 43 events. Zappas and his cousin Konstantinos Zappas had left the Greek government
9590-433: The budget announced in December 2020, and JPY 29.2 billion (US$ 0.3 billion) from the estimated budget in December 2021. This successful financial management resulted in a balanced budget for the Tokyo 2020 Games. Seeking a scholarly institution to independently research the Games, Bob Barney led efforts to establish the International Centre for Olympic Studies in 1989, endeavouring to write about sociocultural impacts of
9727-421: The cities stocked and maintained them. As a result, small communities often struggled with maintenance costs associated with Carnegie libraries; towns were often happy to accept funding for new library buildings, but often unwilling to allocate taxes for upkeep. In fact, this was the most frequent complaint about Carnegie libraries in hindsight: gifting libraries to towns too small to support them actually slowed
9864-464: The commercialisation of the Olympic Games, even as these attitudes came to be seen as incongruous with the realities of modern sports. The advent of state-sponsored athletes from the Eastern Bloc countries further eroded the ideology of the pure amateur , as it placed self-financed amateurs of Western countries at a disadvantage. Brundage was accused of antisemitism and of racism in resisting
10001-419: The committee. Nevertheless, from sporting and business standpoints, the 2002 Olympics were one of the most successful Winter Games in history; records were set in both the broadcasting and marketing programs. Over 2 billion viewers watched more than 13 billion viewer-hours. The 2002 Games were also a financial success, raising more money with fewer sponsors than any prior Olympic Games, leaving SLOC with
10138-614: The construction of the Carnegie library in Atlanta in 1902, the proposed library, a segregated one, was fought by numerous activists of the period, including W. E. B. Du Bois . In the years following, as the American Library Association continued to ignore the systematic implementation of Jim Crow in the South, the Carnegie Corporation also continued to acquiesce to the social norms of
10275-478: The corporation terminated its regular donations and the Borough of Munhall assumed responsibility for the library. Despite the closing of the Homestead Steel Works two years earlier and the precipitous decline in employment and tax revenue, the library remained open and operational with grants secured by community volunteers and the investment income from Carnegie's endowment. When the financial crash of 2008 reduced
10412-402: The correspondence files relating to Andrew Carnegie's gifts and grants to communities for the public libraries and church organs. They discarded the original materials. The microfilms are open for research as part of the Carnegie Corporation of New York Records collection, residing at Columbia University Rare Book and Manuscript Library. Archivists did not microfilm photographs and blueprints of
10549-456: The country. Hall of Famer Rube Waddell played for the club's baseball team. The amateur teams at the library also won national championships in wrestling and track & field . In the 1920s and 1930s, four Olympians trained in the library's swimming pool. Susan Laird swam in 1928 , winning a gold medal with the 4 × 100 meter freestyle relay team; Josephine McKim won a bronze medal in 1928 and gold in 1932; Anna Mae Gorman competed in
10686-552: The day and even required communities seeking grants to base their appropriations "only upon the White population of the towns." Carnegie established charitable trusts which have continued his philanthropic work. But they had reduced their investment in libraries even before his death. There has continued to be support for library projects, for example in South Africa . In 1992, The New York Times reported that, according to
10823-538: The decision-making body, the IOC is responsible for choosing the host city for each Games, and organises and funds the Games according to the Olympic Charter . The IOC also determines the Olympic programme, consisting of the sports to be contested at the Games. There are several Olympic rituals and symbols, such as the Olympic flag , torch , and opening and closing ceremonies . Over 14,000 athletes competed at
10960-464: The development of cooperative regional libraries that those communities now rely on. Some critics also saw his massive donations as insulting to communities that would be content to fund their own public works. Others saw his push for public libraries as merely an attempt at social control. Mark Twain , a supporter of Carnegie, claimed that Carnegie used philanthropy as a tool to buy fame. William Jewett Tucker criticized Carnegie's philanthropy from
11097-403: The difficult journey to attend the festival. Some sources say as many as 40,000 attended. These Games featured mainly athletic but also combat sports such as wrestling and the pankration , horse and chariot racing events. It has been widely written that during the Games, all conflicts among the participating city-states were postponed until the Games were finished. This cessation of hostilities
11234-400: The economic benefits of hosting the Olympic Games, emphasising that such "mega-events" often have large costs while yielding relatively few tangible benefits in the long run. Hosting (or even bidding for) the Olympics appears to increase the host country's exports, as the host or candidate country sends a signal about trade openness when bidding to host the Games. Research suggests that hosting
11371-467: The ensuing Homestead Steel Strike was telling of what he thought of his workers' concerns: "If I had raised your wages, you would have spent that money by buying a better cut of meat or more drink for your dinner. But what you needed, though you didn't know it, was my libraries and concert halls." Carnegie's critics can be most efficiently summed up in the words of Finley Peter Dunne 's parody of Carnegie himself: "Th' way to abolish poverty an' bust crime
11508-627: The establishment of 75–80 percent of the libraries in communities across the country. Carnegie believed in giving to the "industrious and ambitious; not those who need everything done for them, but those who, being most anxious and able to help themselves, deserve and will be benefited by help from others." Under segregation, Black people were generally denied access to public libraries in the Southern United States . Rather than insisting on his libraries being racially integrated, Carnegie funded separate libraries for African Americans in
11645-511: The establishment of new NOCs to represent nations that qualify as "an independent State recognised by the international community". Consequently, the IOC did not allow the formation of NOCs for Sint Maarten and Curaçao when they gained the same constitutional status as Aruba in 2010, although the IOC had recognised the Aruban Olympic Committee in 1986. Since 2012, athletes from the former Netherlands Antilles have had
11782-662: The exclusion of South Africa . Under the Samaranch presidency, the office was accused of both nepotism and corruption. Samaranch's ties with the Franco regime in Spain were also a source of criticism. In 1998, it was reported that several IOC members had taken gifts from members of the Salt Lake City bid committee for the hosting of the 2002 Winter Olympics . There were soon four independent investigations underway: by
11919-486: The experience of hosting an Olympic Games. This feeling was shared by many of the athletes, who even demanded that Athens be the permanent Olympic host city. The IOC intended for subsequent Games to be rotated to various host cities around the world. The second Olympics was held in Paris. After the success of the 1896 Games, the Olympics entered a period of stagnation which threatened its survival. The Olympic Games held at
12056-552: The festival's second day. (Pelops was famous for his chariot race with King Oenomaus of Pisatis . ) The winners of the events were admired and immortalised in poems and statues. Although a wreath made from the sacred olive tree in the precinct of Zeus was the only official prize at the Olympic Games, winners' fame brought them economic wealth, too, in the form of subsidies from their hometowns and wealthy sponsors. See, e.g., Finley and Pleket, and Perrottet The Games were held every four years, and this period, known as an Olympiad ,
12193-511: The financial records after the IOC requested that the entertainment expenditures should not be made public. In July 2000, when the Los Angeles Times reported on the tangled nature of how the IOC redistributes profits from sponsorships and broadcasting rights , Olympic historian Bob Barney stated that he had "yet to see matters of corruption in the IOC", but noted there were "matters of unaccountability". He later noted that when
12330-770: The first to be wholly amateur in nature and international in outlook, although only 'gentlemen amateurs' could compete. The programme of the first modern Olympiad in Athens in 1896 was almost identical to that of the Liverpool Olympics. In 1865 Hulley, Brookes and E.G. Ravenstein founded the National Olympian Association in Liverpool, a forerunner of the British Olympic Association . Its articles of foundation provided
12467-566: The floor. No architectural style was recommended for the exterior, nor was it necessary to put Andrew Carnegie's name on the building. In the interests of efficiency, fireplaces were discouraged, since that wall space could be used to house more books. There were no strict requirements about furniture, but most of it came from the Library Bureau , established by Melvil Dewey in 1888. It sold standardized chairs, tables, catalogs, and bookshelves. The first five Carnegie libraries followed
12604-742: The framework for the International Olympic Charter . In 1866, a national Olympic Games in Great Britain was organised at London's Crystal Palace . Greek interest in reviving the Olympic Games began with the Greek War of Independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1821. It was first proposed by poet and newspaper editor Panagiotis Soutsos in his poem "Dialogue of the Dead", published in 1833. Evangelos Zappas ,
12741-577: The front door. Bigger and more daunting than those used in modern libraries, these desks spanned almost the width of the lobby and acted as a physical and psychological barrier between the front entrance and the book room. The first of these "open stack" branches was in Lawrenceville, the sixth Carnegie library to open in America. The next was in the West End branch, the eighth Carnegie library in
12878-597: The games. In 1850, an Olympian Class was started by William Penny Brookes at Much Wenlock , in Shropshire , England. In 1859, Brookes changed the name to the Wenlock Olympian Games . This annual sports festival continues to this day. The Wenlock Olympian Society was founded by Brookes on 15 November 1860. Between 1862 and 1867, Liverpool held an annual Grand Olympic Festival. Devised by John Hulley and Charles Pierre Melly , these games were
13015-538: The host city nomination. The Olympic Games have been commercialised to various degrees since the inaugural 1896 Summer Olympics in Athens, when a number of companies paid for advertising, including Kodak . In 1908, Oxo , Odol [ de ] mouthwash, and Indian Foot Powder became official sponsors of the London Olympic Games . Coca-Cola first sponsored the Summer Olympics in 1928 , and has remained an Olympic sponsor ever since. Before
13152-414: The host city, affecting infrastructure, tourism and local communities. The Ancient Olympic Games ( Ancient Greek : τὰ Ὀλύμπια , ta Olympia ) were religious and athletic festivals held every four years at the sanctuary of Zeus in Olympia, Greece . The date of the festival was determined according to a complicated formula whereby the midpoint of the festival would occur during the second full moon after
13289-484: The host country is an English or French speaking country: French is always spoken first, followed by an English translation, and then the dominant language of the host nation (when this is not English or French). The IOC has often been accused of being an intractable organisation, with several life members on the committee. The presidential terms of Avery Brundage and Juan Antonio Samaranch were especially controversial. Brundage fought strongly for amateurism and against
13426-483: The ideas and work of Brookes and Zappas with the aim of establishing internationally rotating Olympic Games that would occur every four years. He presented these ideas during the first Olympic Congress of the newly created International Olympic Committee. This meeting was held from 16 to 23 June 1894, at the University of Paris . On the last day of the Congress, it was decided that the first Olympic Games to come under
13563-443: The knowledge to improve themselves. Carnegie's personal experience as an immigrant, who with help from others worked his way and became wealthy, reinforced his belief in a society based on merit, where anyone who worked hard could become successful. This conviction was a major element of his philosophy of giving in general. His libraries were the best-known expression of this philanthropic goal. In 1900, Carnegie granted funds to build
13700-432: The leadership of Juan Antonio Samaranch , the Games began to shift toward international sponsors who sought to link their products to the Olympic brand. During the first half of the 20th century, the IOC ran on a small budget. As president of the IOC from 1952 to 1972, Avery Brundage rejected all attempts to link the Olympics with commercial interest. He believed that the lobby of corporate interests would unduly impact
13837-586: The library buildings have been adapted for use as museums, community centers, office buildings, residences, or other uses, more than half of those in the United States still serve their communities as libraries over a century after their construction. Many are located in what are now middle- to low-income neighborhoods. For example, Carnegie libraries still form the nucleus of the New York Public Library system in New York City , with 31 of
13974-490: The lower level; an elevator was installed in the music hall, and a welcome center in the gymnasium. The next phase is renovating the library and meeting rooms, and the start of the seat replacement project in the music hall. In the early 20th century, the Homestead Library & Athletic Club football team, composed of many former star Ivy League players, was considered one of the top semi-professional teams in
14111-434: The main branch. This streamlined process allowed patrons to have open access to shelves. Carnegie's architects designed the Pittsburgh neighborhood branches so that one librarian could oversee each entire operation. Theft of books and other items was a major concern. This concern resulted in the placement of the library's circulation desk—which replaced the delivery desk used in traditional closed stacks libraries—just inside
14248-687: The money. In 1902, Carnegie offered funds to build a library in Dunedin in New Zealand . Between 1908 and 1916, 18 Carnegie libraries were opened across New Zealand. The Lawrenceville Branch of the Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh signaled a break from the Richardsonian style of libraries which was popularized in the mid 1800s. The ALA discouraged Richardsonian characteristics such as alcoved book halls with high shelves requiring
14385-763: The most expensive Winter Games were Sochi 2014 at US$ 51 billion. As of 2016, costs per athlete were, on average, US$ 599,000 for the Summer Games and $ 1.3 million for the Winter Games; for London 2012, the cost per athlete was $ 1.4 million, and the figure was $ 7.9 million for Sochi 2014. Where ambitious construction for the 1976 Summer Games in Montreal and the 1980 Summer Games in Moscow had burdened organisers with expenses greatly in excess of revenues, Los Angeles strictly controlled expenses for
14522-422: The official languages of the Olympic Movement. The other language used at each Olympic Games is the language of the host country (or languages, if a country has more than one official language apart from French or English). Every proclamation (such as the announcement of each country during the parade of nations in the opening ceremony) is spoken in these three (or more) languages, or the main two depending on whether
14659-538: The option to represent either the Netherlands or Aruba . The Oxford Olympics Study 2016 found that, since 1960, sports-related costs for the Summer Games were on average US$ 5.2 billion and for the Winter Games $ 3.1 billion. These figures do not include wider infrastructure costs like roads, urban rail, and airports, which often cost as much or more than the sports-related costs. The most expensive Summer Games were Beijing 2008 at US$ 40–44 billion, and
14796-492: The original 39 buildings still in operation; Carnegie Libraries operate in all 5 Boroughs of New York City across its three library systems. Also, the main library and eighteen branches of the Pittsburgh public library system are Carnegie libraries. The public library system there is named the Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh . In the late 1940s, the Carnegie Corporation of New York arranged for microfilming of
14933-413: The original physical arrangement of the building, that of three separate facilities- library, music hall and athletic club- under one roof. While Carnegie required communities to use public funds to subsidize the operation of his libraries, Homestead was one of the few exceptions. Operation of the libraries in Braddock, Homestead and Duquesne were originally funded by Carnegie's plants in those towns. After
15070-654: The portrait of him originally painted by F. Luis Mora was given to libraries which he had helped fund. Many of the Carnegie libraries in the United States, whatever their current uses, have been recognized by listing on the National Register of Historic Places . The first, the Carnegie Library in Braddock, Pennsylvania , was designated as a National Historic Landmark in March 2012. Some Carnegie Libraries, have been replaced in name with that of city libraries such as
15207-421: The postponement of the Games, and other sources including licensing. The expenditures included JPY 195.5 billion (US$ 1.8 billion) for venue-related costs and JPY 444.9 billion (US$ 4 billion) for service expenditures. The total cost also accounted for COVID-19 countermeasures amounting to JPY 35.3 billion (US$ 0.3 billion). Despite initial estimates, the total costs were reduced by JPY 220.2 billion (US$ 2 billion) from
15344-545: The progenitors of the Games. According to legend, it was Heracles who first called the Games "Olympic" and established the custom of holding them every four years. The myth continues that after Heracles completed his twelve labours , he built the Olympic Stadium as an honour to Zeus. Following its completion, he walked in a straight line for 200 steps and called this distance a " stadion " (Ancient Greek: στάδιον , Latin : stadium , "stage"), which later became
15481-475: The rules of the Olympic Charter. As the umbrella organisation of the Olympic Movement, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) is responsible for selecting the host city, overseeing the planning of the Olympic Games, updating and approving the Olympic sports programme, and negotiating sponsorship and broadcasting rights. The Olympic Movement is made of three major elements: French and English are
15618-642: The sale of his business to U.S. Steel in 1901, Carnegie established a $ 1 million trust to support the three facilities. In the 1960s, the Braddock and Duquesne libraries were turned over to the school districts in those communities by the Board of the Endowment for the Monongahela Valley. The Homestead library is now the sole beneficiary of Carnegie's gift. USX Corporation , the successor to U.S. Steel, continued to provide major support until 1988, when
15755-456: The sale of television rights. When Juan Antonio Samaranch was elected IOC president in 1980, his desire was to make the IOC financially independent. The 1984 Summer Olympics became a watershed moment in Olympic history. The Los Angeles-based organising committee, led by Peter Ueberroth , was able to generate a surplus of US$ 225 million, which was an unprecedented amount at that time. The organising committee had been able to create such
15892-449: The second Olympics to take place within the third Olympiad), which were held in Athens. These Games attracted a broad international field of participants and generated a great deal of public interest, marking the beginning of a rise in both the popularity and the size of the Olympics. The 1906 Games were officially recognised by the IOC at the time (although not any longer), and no Intercalated Games have been held since. The Winter Olympics
16029-583: The senior Games; the summer version will last twelve days, while the winter version will last nine days. The IOC allows 3,500 athletes and 875 officials to participate at the Summer Youth Games, and 970 athletes and 580 officials at the Winter Youth Games. The sports to be contested will coincide with those scheduled for the senior Games, however there will be variations on the sports including mixed NOC and mixed gender teams as well as
16166-753: The size of the building and included the third Carnegie Music Hall in the United States. Initially Carnegie limited his support to a few towns in which he had a personal interest. These were in Scotland and the Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania area. In the United States, nine of the first 13 libraries which he commissioned are all located in Southwestern Pennsylvania. The Braddock, Homestead , and Duquesne libraries were owned not by municipalities, but by Carnegie Steel, which constructed them, maintained them, and delivered coal for their heating systems. "To this day, Carnegie's free-to-the-people libraries remain Pittsburgh's most significant cultural export,
16303-430: The southern Krasnodar region of Russia as a result of improved services. But by December 2014, eight months after the games The Guardian stated that Sochi "now feels like a ghost town", citing the spread-out nature of the stadiums and arenas and the still-unfinished infrastructure. At least four cities withdrew their bids for the 2022 Winter Olympics , citing the high costs or lack of local support, resulting in only
16440-420: The spotlight is on the athletes, it has "the power to eclipse impressions of scandal or corruption", with respect to the Olympic bid process. An August 2004, a BBC documentary, Panorama : Buying the Games , reported the results of an investigation into bribes allegedly used in the bidding process for the 2012 Summer Olympics . The documentary claimed that it was possible to bribe IOC members into voting for
16577-405: The strict requirements for political sovereignty that other international organisations demand. As a result, colonies and dependencies are permitted to compete at Olympic Games, examples being territories such as Puerto Rico , Bermuda , and Hong Kong , all of which compete as separate nations despite being legally a part of another country. The current version of the Olympic Charter allows for
16714-443: The towns that requested a grant, committing to his terms for operation and maintenance, were refused. By the time the last grant was made, there were 3,500 libraries in the United States, nearly half of them Carnegie libraries. Carnegie started erecting libraries in places with which he had personal associations. The first of Carnegie's public libraries, Dunfermline Carnegie Library , was in his birthplace, Dunfermline , Scotland. It
16851-515: The value of the endowment by $ 300,000, the library board furloughed its executive employees and assumed management responsibilities rather than cut services. Fundraising efforts, revenue from athletic club memberships, music hall rentals, and concession sales have maintained the library's viability. In 2017, the Carnegie launched a 10-year capital renovation campaign to restore areas in the building, preserving its historical features with modernized amenities. New locker rooms and classrooms were added to
16988-405: The winner, e.g. "the third year of the eighteenth Olympiad when Ladas of Argos won the stadion." The Ancient Games varied over time, but they came to feature running events, a pentathlon (consisting of a jumping event, discus and javelin throws, a foot race, and wrestling), boxing, wrestling, pankration , and equestrian events. Tradition has it that Coroebus , a cook from the city of Elis ,
17125-552: The world. The first Carnegie library to open in the United States was in Braddock , Pennsylvania, about 9 miles up the Monongahela River from Pittsburgh. In 1889, it was also the site of one of the Carnegie Steel Company 's mills. It was the second Carnegie Library in the United States to be commissioned, in 1887, and was the first of the four libraries which he fully endowed. An 1893 addition doubled
17262-620: Was actually 11 days) was held in 1924 in Chamonix , France, in connection with the Paris Games held three months later; this event became the first Winter Olympic Games . Although, it was intended that the same country host both the Winter and Summer Games in a given year, this idea was quickly abandoned. The IOC mandated that the Winter Games be celebrated every four years in the same year as their summer counterpart. This tradition
17399-463: Was affected following the opening of the Carnegie Library in the city centre. In addition to the criticisms of his philanthropic interests and motivations, the construction of libraries in the American South was a highly contentious topic. State and local racial segregations laws across the South sought to bar African Americans access to public facilities, including libraries and when funding
17536-497: Was created to feature snow and ice sports that were logistically impossible to hold during the Summer Games. Figure skating (in 1908 and 1920) and ice hockey (in 1920) were featured as Olympic events at the Summer Olympics. The IOC desired to expand this list of sports to encompass other winter activities. At the 1921 Olympic Congress in Lausanne , it was decided to hold a winter version of the Olympic Games. A winter sports week (it
17673-466: Was first commissioned or granted by Carnegie in 1880 to James Campbell Walker and would open in 1883. The first library in the United States to be commissioned by Carnegie was in 1886 in his adopted hometown of Allegheny, Pennsylvania (now the North Side of Pittsburgh ). In 1890, it became the second of his libraries to open in the US. The building also contained the first Carnegie Music Hall in
17810-525: Was founded the following year. "Our works at Homestead are not to us as our works at Edgar Thomson. Our men there are not partners," Carnegie said. Groundbreaking for the $ 300,000 project took place in April 1896. The French Renaissance design was the work of Pittsburgh architects Frank Alden and Alfred Harlow . Contractor William Miller and Sons used Pompeian brick for construction of the 220 by 132 foot facility. Renovations and modifications have not altered
17947-503: Was known as the Olympic peace or truce. This idea is a modern myth because the Greeks never suspended their wars. The truce did allow those religious pilgrims who were traveling to Olympia to pass through warring territories unmolested because they were protected by Zeus. See also Finley and Pleket. The origin of the Olympics is shrouded in mystery and legend; one of the most popular myths identifies Heracles and his father Zeus as
18084-476: Was later adopted by the libraries that previously had operated with closed stacks. The first secretary of the Iowa Library Commission, Alice S. Taylor, criticized the use of Carnegie funding for extravagant buildings rather than providing quality library services. Carnegie's funds covered only the library buildings themselves, and Carnegie gave library buildings to cities on the condition that
18221-420: Was one of the styles used for libraries in Carnegie's native Scotland. Each style was chosen by the community. As the years went by James Bertram , Carnegie's secretary, became less tolerant of approving designs that were not to his taste. Edward Lippincott Tilton , a friend often recommended by Bertram, designed many of the buildings. The architecture was typically simple and formal, welcoming patrons through
18358-489: Was part of a new funding model to be used by Carnegie (through Bertram) for thousands of additional libraries. Beginning in 1899, Carnegie's foundation funded a dramatic increase in the number of libraries. This coincided with the rise of women's clubs in the post-Civil War period. They primarily took the lead in organizing local efforts to establish libraries, including long-term fundraising and lobbying within their communities to support operations and collections. They led
18495-400: Was the first Olympic champion, which indicates that the competition was not limited to the aristocracy. The Olympics were of fundamental religious importance, and the sporting events, which were held alongside ritual sacrifices honouring both Zeus (whose famous statue by Phidias stood in his temple at Olympia ) and Pelops (divine hero and mythical king of Olympia), did not start until
18632-483: Was upheld through the 1992 Games in Albertville , France; after that, beginning with the 1994 Games , the Winter Olympics were held every four years, two years after each Summer Olympics. In 1948, Sir Ludwig Guttmann , determined to promote the rehabilitation of soldiers after World War II , organised a multi-sport event between several hospitals to coincide with the 1948 London Olympics . Originally known as
18769-773: Was used by Greeks as one of their units of time measurement. The Games were part of a cycle known as the Panhellenic Games , which included the Pythian Games , the Nemean Games , and the Isthmian Games . The Olympic Games reached the height of their success in the 6th and 5th centuries BC, but then gradually declined in importance as the Romans gained power and influence in Greece. While there
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