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153-695: A Carnegie library is a library built with money donated by Scottish-American businessman and philanthropist Andrew Carnegie . A total of 2,509 Carnegie libraries were built between 1883 and 1929, including some belonging to public and university library systems. 1,689 were built in the United States, 660 in the United Kingdom and Ireland, 125 in Canada, and 25 others in Australia , South Africa , New Zealand , Serbia, Belgium, France,
306-502: A special library or academic library, for example. Libraries may also be community hubs, where programmes are made available and people engage in lifelong learning. Modern libraries extend their services beyond the physical walls of the building by providing material accessible by electronic means, including from home via the Internet. The services that libraries offer are variously described as library services, information services, or
459-591: A "Newcomers club" to ensure that the new faculty wives felt welcome and included at the university. Along with fostering relations, the various clubs volunteered their time and skills to benefit their wider community. At Emporia State University the Faculty Wives club made bandages for the Red Cross during World War I , and sewed regularly for the Red Cross during World War II . At Ball State University
612-495: A "Schedule of Questions". The schedule included: Name, status and population of town, Does it have a library? Where is it located and is it public or private? How many books? Is a town-owned site available? Estimation of the community's population at this stage was done by local officials, and Bertram later commented that if the population counts he received were accurate, "the nation's population had mysteriously doubled". The effects of Carnegie's library philanthropy coincided with
765-653: A Michigan women's club, would work to reforest parts of the state. In Idaho, women's clubs helped prevent logging in national forests . GFWC had been active since 1890 in areas related to forestry and had a forestry committee. This committee also disseminated information about conservation to the 800,000 members of the group. The GFWC later sponsored "a natural scenic area survey" of the United States in 1915 in order to discover areas that needed conservation. As women saw environmentally fragile areas start to be developed, many objected. Women worked within existing clubs, and also formed new conservation-based clubs, to protect
918-639: A black member, Fannie Barrier Williams , only after a long approval process, which included the club deciding not to exclude anyone based on race. Few clubs worked together across racial boundaries, although the YWCA and the Association of Southern Women for the Prevention of Lynching (ASWPL) did sometimes welcome bi-racial collaboration. The Woman's Missionary Council for the southern Methodist church spoke out against lynching . Women's clubs, like
1071-459: A closed stacks policy, the method of operation common to libraries at that time. Patrons requested a book from a library staffer, who would fetch the book from closed stacks off limits to the public, and bring it to a delivery desk. To reduce operating costs, Carnegie created a revolutionary open-shelf or self-service policy, beginning with the Pittsburgh neighborhood branches that opened after
1224-543: A gift that has shaped the minds and lives of millions." In 1897, Carnegie hired James Bertram as his personal assistant. Bertram was responsible for fielding requests from municipalities for funds and overseeing the dispensing of grants for libraries. When Bertram received a letter requesting a library, he sent the applicant a questionnaire inquiring about the town's population, whether it had any other libraries, how large its book collection was, and what its circulation figures were. If initial requirements were met, Bertram asked
1377-400: A ladder, as well as sheltered galleries and niches, reminiscent of sixteenth-century Europe, largely because modern librarians could not supervise such spaces efficiently. Bertram 's architectural criteria included a lecture room, reading rooms for adults and children, a staff room, a centrally located librarian's desk, twelve-to-fifteen-foot ceilings, and large windows six to seven feet above
1530-676: A large library, the card catalogue often filled a large room. The emergence of desktop computers and the Internet , however, has led to the adoption of electronic catalogue databases (often referred to as "webcats" or as online public access catalogues , OPACs), which allow users to search the library's holdings from any location with Internet access. This style of catalogue maintenance is compatible with new types of libraries, such as digital libraries and distributed libraries , as well as older libraries that have been retrofitted . Large libraries may be scattered within multiple buildings across
1683-538: A larger facility. Lamba (2019) reinforced this idea by observing that "today's libraries have become increasingly multi-disciplinary, collaborative and networked" and that applying Web 2.0 tools to libraries would "not only connect the users with their community and enhance communication but will also help the librarians to promote their library's activities, services, and products to target both their actual and potential users". Academic libraries are generally located on college and university campuses and primarily serve
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#17327649337061836-526: A library anywhere, a room for children.... The reading rooms were separated by walls that became glass partitions above waist level—the better to see you with, my dear. Walter E. Langsam, an architectural historian and teacher at the University of Cincinnati , wrote "The Carnegie libraries were important because they had open stacks which encouraged people to browse .... People could choose for themselves what books they wanted to read." This open stacks policy
1989-475: A library, the group petitioned for and received funds from Carnegie. U.S. Supreme Court Justice Clarence Thomas wrote in his 2008 memoirs that he frequently used that library as a boy, before the public library system was desegregated. The library buildings were constructed in a number of styles, including Beaux-Arts , Italian Renaissance , Baroque , Classical Revival , and Spanish Colonial , to enhance their appearance as public buildings. Scottish Baronial
2142-510: A literary club, women in Galveston created a scientific club, which also focused on learning. Croly notes that women's clubs were not created to copy men's groups; instead, they were often created to give women a space to share ideas as equals; these ideas often developed into practical action. As Mary I. Wood and Anna J. H. (Mrs. Percy V.) Pennybacker described it: "Very early the club women became unwilling to discuss Dante and Browning over
2295-484: A love of books. One of the most popular programs offered in public libraries are summer reading programs for children, families, and adults. Another popular reading program for children is PAWS TO READ or similar programs where children can read to certified therapy dogs. Since animals are a calming influence and there is no judgment, children learn confidence and a love of reading. Many states have these types of programs: parents need simply ask their librarian to see if it
2448-459: A marketing venture in support of his publications, Woman's Magazine and the Woman's Farm Journal , which formed local women's "Chapter Houses". Many evolved into prominent women's clubs and the network later became a more traditional organization with dues paid to its national office, the "American Woman's Republic". Women's clubs were very active in women's suffrage (see below) and helped support
2601-450: A million and a half by 1914. The creation of an umbrella organization for the many women's clubs allowed them to work together in a more coordinated fashion. However, the GFWC excluded African-American clubs from its membership, and many white clubs during the late 1800s excluded black women as well as Jewish women from membership. White women's clubs ignored racial inequalities because of
2754-793: A national library, putting less emphasis on the repository character. The first national libraries had their origins in the royal collections of the sovereign or some other supreme body of the state. Many national libraries cooperate within the National Libraries Section of the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) to discuss their common tasks, define and promote common standards, and carry out projects helping them to fulfill their duties. The national libraries of Europe participate in The European Library which
2907-915: A parent organization and may serve only members of that organization. Examples of research libraries include the British Library , the Bodleian Library at Oxford University and the New York Public Library Main Branch on 42nd Street in Manhattan, State Public Scientific Technological Library of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Science . Digital libraries are libraries that house digital resources, such as text, photographs, and audio. These are curated by digital librarians. In
3060-629: A peak in new town development and library expansion in the US. By 1890, many states had begun to take an active role in organizing public libraries, and the new buildings filled a tremendous need. It was also a time of rapid development of institutions of higher learning. Interest in libraries was also heightened at a crucial time in their early development by Carnegie's high profile and his genuine belief in their importance. In Canada in 1901, Carnegie offered more than $ 2.5 million to build 125 libraries. Most cities at first turned him down—then relented and took
3213-636: A prominent doorway, nearly always accessed via a staircase from the ground level. The entry staircase symbolized a person's elevation by learning. Similarly, most libraries had a lamp post or lantern installed near the entrance, meant as a symbol of enlightenment . Carnegie's grants were very large for the era, and his library philanthropy was one of the most costly philanthropic activities, by value, in history. Carnegie continued funding new libraries until shortly before his death in 1919. Libraries were given to towns and cities in Great Britain and much of
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#17327649337063366-436: A public body such as a government, an institution (such as a school or museum), a corporation, or a private individual. In addition to providing materials, libraries also provide the services of librarians who are trained experts in finding, selecting, circulating and organising information while interpreting information needs and navigating and analysing large amounts of information with a variety of resources. The area of study
3519-456: A reference library, which does not lend its holdings, or a lending library, which does lend all or some of its holdings. Some extremely large or traditional research libraries are entirely reference in this sense, lending none of their materials; most academic research libraries, at least in the US and the UK, now lend books, but not periodicals or other materials. Many research libraries are attached to
3672-527: A reference section of publications which may only be utilized inside the premises. Resources such as commercial releases of films, television programmes, other video recordings, radio, music and audio recordings may be available in many formats. These include DVDs , Blu-rays , CDs , cassettes , or other applicable formats such as microform . They may also provide access to information, music or other content held on bibliographic databases . Libraries can vary widely in size and may be organised and maintained by
3825-441: A religious viewpoint, arguing that it did not offset his "immoral" accumulation of wealth, and that his contributions did not justify the "evils" Tucker claimed existed in capitalism itself. Carnegie's own steel workers echoed this sentiment, arguing that his wealth would be better spent on improving working conditions for his own employees, rather than on library buildings across the country. Carnegie's response to those criticisms and
3978-430: A separate room or area for children. They are an educational agency seeking to acquaint the young with the world's literature and to cultivate a love for reading. Their work supplements that of the public schools. Services commonly provided by public libraries may include storytelling sessions for infants, toddlers, preschool children, or after-school programs, all with an intention of developing early literacy skills and
4131-444: A staff member. Ways in which a library's content is displayed or accessed may have an impact on use. An antiquated or clumsy search system, or staff unwilling or not properly trained to engage their patrons, will limit a library's usefulness. In the public libraries of the United States, beginning in the 19th century, these problems drove the emergence of the library instruction movement, which advocated library user education. One of
4284-424: A town, each having multiple floors, with multiple rooms housing their resources across a series of shelves called bays . Once a user has located a resource within the catalogue, they must then use navigational guidance to retrieve the resource physically, a process that may be assisted through signage, maps, GPS systems, or RFID tagging. Finland has the highest number of registered book borrowers per capita in
4437-405: A university. Some items at reference libraries may be historical and even unique. Many lending libraries contain a "reference section", which holds books, such as dictionaries, which are common reference books, and are therefore not lent out. Such reference sections may be referred to as "reading rooms" or "study rooms", which may also include newspapers and periodicals. An example of a reading room
4590-491: A way to facilitate change in their communities. It was also one of the few ways that women were initially allowed to contribute outside of the home. Some of the earliest women-led organizations were started as religious groups in the early part of the nineteenth century. White women were involved in church charity groups as early as the 1790s. Later, women also started to become involved in antislavery groups, temperance groups and women's suffrage organizations starting in
4743-616: A women's organization, the Mount Vernon Ladies' Association , began the process of restoring and preserving Mount Vernon . In addition to their preservation and conservation efforts, women's clubs in the United States (especially women in the African American Club movement) pioneered environmental activism strategies that laid the foundation for later environmental justice organizing. In fact, many black women created "redemptive spaces" for black immigrants from
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4896-487: Is a service of the Conference of European National Librarians (CENL). A public library provides services to the general public. If the library is part of a countywide library system, citizens with an active library card from around that county can use the library branches associated with the library system. A library can serve only their city, however, if they are not a member of the county public library system. Much of
5049-470: Is an attempt to make the library a more user-driven institution. Despite the importance ascribed to public libraries, their budgets are often cut by legislatures. In some cases, funding has dwindled so much that libraries have been forced to cut their hours and release employees. A reference library does not lend books and other items; instead, they can only be read at the library itself. Typically, such libraries are used for research purposes, for example at
5202-476: Is available at their local library. A national or state library serves as a national repository of information, and has the right of legal deposit , which is a legal requirement that publishers in the country need to deposit a copy of each publication with the library. Unlike a public library, a national library rarely allows citizens to borrow books. Often, their collections include numerous rare, valuable, or significant works. There are wider definitions of
5355-435: Is known as library and information science . Library buildings often provide quiet areas for studying, as well as common areas for group study and collaboration, and may provide public facilities for access to their electronic resources, such as computers and access to the Internet . The library's clientele and general services offered vary depending on its type: users of a public library have different needs from those of
5508-440: Is liable to become the prey of a clique. The public ceases to take interest in it, or, rather, never acquires interest in it. The rule has been violated which requires the recipients to help themselves. Everything has been done for the community instead of its being only helped to help itself. Carnegie required the elected officials—the local government—to: Carnegie assigned the decisions to his assistant James Bertram . He created
5661-701: Is most often an academic or national library , but a large special library may have a research library within its special field, and a very few of the largest public libraries also serve as research libraries. A large university library may be considered a research library; and in North America, such libraries may belong to the Association of Research Libraries . In the United Kingdom, they may be members of Research Libraries UK (RLUK) . Particularly important collections in England may be designated by Arts Council England . A research library can be either
5814-497: Is not lent out. Travelling libraries, such as the early horseback libraries of eastern Kentucky and bookmobiles , are generally of the lending type. Modern libraries are often a mixture of both, containing a general collection for circulation, and a reference collection which is restricted to the library premises. Also, increasingly, digital collections enable broader access to material that may not circulate in print, and enables libraries to expand their collections even without building
5967-454: Is not practical to have available as hard copies. Furthermore, most libraries collaborate with other libraries in exchange of books. Specific course-related resources are usually provided by the library, such as copies of textbooks and article readings held on 'reserve' (meaning that they are loaned out only on a short-term basis, usually a matter of hours). Some academic libraries provide resources not usually associated with libraries, such as
6120-471: Is particularly attractive to younger library users. Digitization of books, particularly those that are out-of-print , in projects such as Google Books provides resources for library and other online users. Due to their holdings of valuable material, some libraries are important partners for search engines such as Google in realizing the potential of such projects and have received reciprocal benefits in cases where they have negotiated effectively. As
6273-614: Is the Hazel H. Ransom Reading Room at the Harry Ransom Center of the University of Texas at Austin , which maintains the papers of literary agent Audrey Wood . A research library is a collection of materials on one or more subjects. A research library supports scholarly or scientific research and will generally include primary as well as secondary sources ; it will maintain permanent collections and attempt to provide access to all necessary materials. A research library
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6426-503: Is to put up a brown-stone buildin' in ivry town in th' counthry." The idea that a building would be the panacea to cure all of society's ills, they argued, was simply not sustainable. A further issue was the impact on pre-existing religious libraries that had promoted learning through free libraries for many years. A typical example is the United Presbyterian Library of Edinburgh, under Robert James Drummond which
6579-911: The Crockett State School which was originally meant to help "delinquent" black girls. Women's clubs were involved in vocational training and pushing for additional educational options for all young people. The Woman's City Club worked with the Chicago Woman's Club and the Association of Collegiate Alumnae to create a Bureau of Vocational Supervision which could take a "personal interest in schoolchildren, working directly to place them in appropriate jobs when they left school". The Bureau also created scholarships for needy students. The Chicago Woman's Club raised $ 40,000 to create an industrial school for boys in Glenwood, Illinois. Hester C. Jeffrey established woman's clubs which helped raise
6732-667: The Ebell Club in Los Angeles , emphasizes what makes women's clubs unique: "It is a wondrous thing to be constantly surrounded by three generations of women." Women's clubs continue their original missions of concern for the welfare of their communities. The GFWC gives out the Croly Award for excellence in journalism on topics relating to women. The GFWC also provides scholarships for women, especially those who have survived domestic violence. The NACWC continues to be one of
6885-570: The Great Depression , black women's clubs began to move towards "structural change and electoral politics". The National Council of Negro Women (NCNW) became a dominant group in the women's club movement in African-American circles. After World War II, working class and poor black women took the place of upper-class black women in organizing communities. Faculty Wives clubs began to be formed in many American universities in
7038-680: The Internet in a number of ways, from creating its own library website to making the contents of its catalogues searchable online . Some specialised search engines such as Google Scholar offer a way to facilitate searching for academic resources such as journal articles and research papers. The Online Computer Library Center allows anyone to search the world's largest repository of library records through its WorldCat online database. Websites such as LibraryThing and Amazon provide abstracts, reviews, and recommendations of books. Libraries provide computers and Internet access to allow people to search for information online. Online information access
7191-413: The Internet . Public and institutional collections and services may be intended for use by people who choose not to—or cannot afford to—purchase an extensive collection themselves, who need material no individual can reasonably be expected to have, or who require professional assistance with their research. Services offered by a library are variously described as library services, information services, or
7344-881: The Montgomery bus boycott in 1955 was the Woman's Political Council of Montgomery. Women's clubs were noted for promoting educational efforts around the country by their contemporaries. Putting women onto school boards was part of many women's club agendas in the late 1800s and early 1900s. Women's groups also influenced discussions about classroom size; the Chicago Woman's City Club asking that there be no more than thirty children per class. Chicago clubs also helped sponsor school lunches for students. Clubwomen have also protested cuts in teacher's salaries. Black women's clubs worked to create educational opportunities for their communities when these areas were ignored by white people. Kindergartens and nursery schools in
7497-612: The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1909 and were often involved in much of the organization's local work. By 1900, almost every black community had a women's club. By 1910, in proportion to population size, African-American women's clubs outpaced white women's clubs in the number of clubs created. By 1914, the NACW had fifty-thousand members and over a thousand clubs participating in
7650-464: The Progressive era and served the same functions of community, cultural education, and service that characterized larger groups. One of the clubs' primary functions was fostering community among those affiliated with the university. The wives at Ball State University held regular dinners for their husbands, both to relieve stress and build relationships. At University of Washington the wives formed
7803-551: The State University at Buffalo , 1,554 of the 1,681 original Carnegie library buildings in the United States still existed, and 911 were still used as libraries. He found that 276 were unchanged, 286 had been expanded, 175 had been remodeled, 243 had been demolished, and others had been converted to other uses. While hundreds of the library buildings have been adapted for use as museums, community centers, office buildings, residences, or other uses, more than half of those in
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#17327649337067956-570: The Texas Association of Women's Clubs also denounced lynching. The purpose of the ASWPL was to end lynching in the United States. Women's groups, like the NACWC, began to support desegregation in the 1950s. The Montana Federation of Colored Women's Clubs led campaigns for civil rights between 1949 and 1955. They also helped draft anti-segregation legislation. The initial organizer of
8109-401: The education of librarians and allied staff include accessibility of the collection, acquisition of materials, arrangement and finding tools, the book trade, the influence of the physical properties of the different writing materials, language distribution, role in education, rates of literacy, budgets, staffing, libraries for specially targeted audiences, architectural merit, patterns of usage,
8262-736: The 1840s. African-American women helped organize many anti-slavery groups, the earliest founded in 1832, and white women followed black women's lead in creating abolition groups. As women began to have more leisure time, they started woman's clubs. Initially, most women's clubs focused on literary endeavors, self-improvement and created social opportunities for white middle-class women. These clubs allowed women to share ideas and helped them realize that their thoughts were important, and that together they could act on them. Literary women's clubs in pioneer areas gave women an outlet to explore reading and make friends. Many women's clubs maintained book collections for use by club members. Instead of forming
8415-635: The 1930s, women's clubs hosted programs in concert with the Works Progress Administration . When World War II broke out, women's clubs were involved in volunteering. In 1964, Congress passed the Civil Rights Act , then, in 1966, the National Organization for Women (NOW) was formed, and women's clubs again grew in size. While there were many organizations that encouraged change around child labor,
8568-648: The 21st century, there has been increasing use of the internet to gather and retrieve data. The shift to digital libraries has greatly impacted the way people use physical libraries. Between 2002 and 2004, the average American academic library saw the overall number of transactions decline approximately 2.2%. The University of California Library System saw a 54% decline in circulation between 1991 and 2001 of 8,377,000 books to 3,832,000. Many private businesses and public organizations, including hospitals, churches, museums, research laboratories, law firms, and many government departments and agencies, maintain their own libraries for
8721-596: The Anderson Memorial Library, in memory of Colonel John Byers Anderson , at the College of Emporia . Nearly all of Carnegie's libraries were built according to "the Carnegie formula", which required financial commitments for maintenance and operation from the town that received the donation. Carnegie required public support rather than making endowments because, as he wrote: an endowed institution
8874-587: The Caribbean, Mauritius, Malaysia, and Fiji. At first, Carnegie libraries were almost exclusively in places with which he had a personal connection—namely his birthplace in Scotland and the Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania area, his adopted hometown. Yet, beginning in the middle of 1899, Carnegie substantially increased funding to libraries outside these areas. As Carnegie's library funding progressed, very few of
9027-738: The Carnegie library in Atlanta in 1902, the proposed library, a segregated one, was fought by numerous activists of the period, including W. E. B. Du Bois . In the years following, as the American Library Association continued to ignore the systematic implementation of Jim Crow in the South, the Carnegie Corporation also continued to acquiesce to the social norms of the day and even required communities seeking grants to base their appropriations "only upon
9180-706: The English-speaking world: Almost $ 56.2 million went for construction of 2,509 libraries worldwide. Of that, $ 40 million was given for construction of 1,670 public library buildings in 1,412 American communities. Small towns received grants of $ 10,000 that enabled them to build large libraries that immediately were among the most significant town amenities in hundreds of communities. Books and libraries were important to Carnegie, from his early childhood in Scotland and his teen years in Allegheny and Pittsburgh. There he listened to readings and discussions of books from
9333-589: The Epiphany library in New York City. Library A library is a collection of books , and possibly other materials and media , that is accessible for use by its members and members of allied institutions. Libraries provide physical (hard copies) or digital (soft copies) materials, and may be a physical location, a virtual space, or both. A library's collection normally includes printed materials which may be borrowed, and usually also includes
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#17327649337069486-525: The Florida Federation of Women's Clubs campaigned to create Florida's first state park in 1916, Royal Palm State Park which became the nucleus of Everglades National Park ". Idaho women's clubs also helped establish some of the first national parks; and in Utah, women's clubs "were instrumental in preserving Monument Valley ". Pennsylvanian women's clubs successfully lobbied for the creation of
9639-659: The GFWC became advocates for some of the first child labor laws. Children were hired because they were cheaper and more manageable than adults. During the early 1900s, women's labor organizations were formed to protect their rights. Among them, was Lenora O'Reilly who helped develop the WTUL that supported wage requests and promoted the end of child labor. Even before African Americans were freed from slavery , black women had started to come together to create organizations which looked after their community's welfare. Black women were very quick to "organize themselves for self-help". One of
9792-618: The Internet age is a matter of growing concern and advocacy; privacy workshops are run by the Library Freedom Project which teach librarians about digital tools (such as the Tor network ) to thwart mass surveillance. Libraries can have several different spaces for different functions such as: Libraries are usually staffed by a combination of professionally trained librarians, paraprofessional staff sometimes called library technicians , and support staff. Some topics related to
9945-859: The Pennsylvania Department of Forestry. In 1916, the GFWC supported the creation of the National Park Service . In the 1930s, clubwomen involved in the PEO Sisterhood , protected the Great Sand Dunes in Colorado. In New Mexico, the Valley of Fires Recreation Area was created through the work of the Carrizozo Woman's Club. Women's clubs also helped preserve historical areas. As early as 1856,
10098-495: The Progressive Era. A number of clubs, named after her, were created in large cities across the country. In Chicago, the wealthy former abolitionist Mary Jane Richardson Jones supported the development of several clubs, serving as the first chair of Wells's. Other influential woman's club organizers were Josephine St. Pierre Ruffin and Mary Church Terrell . In 1896, the National Association of Colored Women (NACW)
10251-748: The Progressive era, many black women migrated to the Northern United States and into more urban areas . The club movement for black women in the 1890s began to focus on "social and political reform" and were more secular. Black women had to face the same issues as white women during this period but were often excluded from services and help that benefited whites only. Black women were not only excluded from white clubs but also from clubs created by black men. In addition, many black women felt as though they were defying stereotypes for their community. Woman's clubs allowed black women to combat
10404-545: The South. For example, in Houston he funded a separate Colored Carnegie Library. The Carnegie Library in Savannah, Georgia , opened in 1914 to serve Black residents, who had been excluded from the segregated White public library. The privately organized Colored Library Association of Savannah had raised money and collected books to establish a small Library for Colored Citizens . Having demonstrated their willingness to support
10557-636: The Tradesman's Subscription Library, which his father had helped create. Later in Pennsylvania, while working for the local telegraph company in Pittsburgh, Carnegie borrowed books from the personal library of Colonel James Anderson (1785-1861). He opened his collection to his workers every Saturday. Anderson, like Carnegie, resided in Allegheny. In his autobiography, Carnegie credited Anderson with providing an opportunity for "working boys" (that some people said should not be "entitled to books") to acquire
10710-472: The US. Patricia Lowry describes located just beyond the lobby, the circulation desk—no longer a delivery desk—took center stage in Lawrenceville, flanked by turnstiles that admitted readers to the open stacks one at a time, under the librarian's watchful eye. To thwart thievery, the stacks were arranged in a radial pattern. On each side of the lobby were a general reading room and, for the first time in
10863-582: The United States still serve their communities as libraries over a century after their construction. Many are located in what are now middle- to low-income neighborhoods. For example, Carnegie libraries still form the nucleus of the New York Public Library system in New York City , with 31 of the original 39 buildings still in operation; Carnegie Libraries operate in all 5 Boroughs of New York City across its three library systems. Also,
11016-506: The United States were the creation of women's clubs. The first nursery school in the United States was created through women's clubs and club members in Chicago. The Woman's Club of El Paso started the first kindergarten in the state of Texas in 1893. Women's clubs were often involved with creating schools for delinquent boys and girls. The Texas Association of Women's Clubs (TAWC) worked for several decades to create what would later become
11169-500: The University of Washington. African-American women's clubs began to decline in the 1920s. By the 1960s, interest and membership in white women's clubs started to decline. As women had more opportunities to socialize, many clubs found their members were aging and were unable to recruit newer members. Woman's clubs began to turn over their work to city entities and became less influential. In addition, more women began to enter
11322-606: The White population of the towns." Carnegie established charitable trusts which have continued his philanthropic work. But they had reduced their investment in libraries even before his death. There has continued to be support for library projects, for example in South Africa . In 1992, The New York Times reported that, according to a survey conducted by George Bobinski, dean of the School of Information and Library Studies at
11475-572: The ability to check out laptop computers, web cameras, or scientific calculators. Academic libraries offer workshops and courses outside of formal, graded coursework, which are meant to provide students with the tools necessary to succeed in their programs. These workshops may include help with citations, effective search techniques, journal databases, and electronic citation software. These workshops provide students with skills that can help them achieve success in their academic careers (and often, in their future occupations), which they may not learn inside
11628-493: The amount the town was willing to pledge for the library's annual maintenance, whether a site was being provided, and the amount of money already available. Until 1898, only one library was commissioned in the United States outside Southwestern Pennsylvania : a library in Fairfield, Iowa , commissioned in 1892. It was the first project in which Carnegie had funded a library to which he had no personal ties. The Fairfield project
11781-634: The article List of Carnegie libraries in Europe ). Beginning in the 1930s during the Great Depression, some libraries were meticulously measured, documented and photographed under the Historic American Buildings Survey (HABS) program of the National Park Service . This was part of an effort to record and preserve significant buildings.. Other documentation has been collected by local historical societies. In 1935,
11934-424: The bookshelves also supported the floors, which often were built of translucent blocks to permit the passage of light (but were not transparent, for reasons of modesty). The introduction of electric lights had a huge impact on lighting in libraries . The use of glass floors was largely discontinued, though floors were still often composed of metal grating to allow air to circulate in multi-story stacks. As more space
12087-766: The centennial of Carnegie's birth, a copy of the portrait of him originally painted by F. Luis Mora was given to libraries which he had helped fund. Many of the Carnegie libraries in the United States, whatever their current uses, have been recognized by listing on the National Register of Historic Places . The first, the Carnegie Library in Braddock, Pennsylvania , was designated as a National Historic Landmark in March 2012. Some Carnegie Libraries, have been replaced in name with that of city libraries such as
12240-418: The cities stocked and maintained them. As a result, small communities often struggled with maintenance costs associated with Carnegie libraries; towns were often happy to accept funding for new library buildings, but often unwilling to allocate taxes for upkeep. In fact, this was the most frequent complaint about Carnegie libraries in hindsight: gifting libraries to towns too small to support them actually slowed
12393-951: The classroom. The academic library provides a quiet study space for students on campus; it may also provide group study space, such as meeting rooms. In North America, Europe, and other parts of the world, academic libraries are becoming increasingly digitally oriented. The library provides a "gateway" for students and researchers to access various resources, both print/physical and digital. Academic institutions are subscribing to electronic journals databases, providing research and scholarly writing software, and usually provide computer workstations or computer labs for students to access journals, library search databases and portals, institutional electronic resources, Internet access, and course- or task-related software (i.e. word processing and spreadsheet software). Some academic libraries take on new roles, for instance, acting as an electronic repository for institutional scholarly research and academic knowledge, such as
12546-405: The club sewed regularly at the local hospital. The Faculty Wives clubs were prominent throughout much of the 20th century. During the latter half, some of the clubs merged with other groups to form University Women's club, reflecting the change in faculty diversity and gender roles in the United States. Other wives clubs have remained independent and vibrant in their community, like the one at
12699-537: The collection and curation of digital copies of students' theses and dissertations. Moreover, academic libraries are increasingly acting as publishers on their own on a not-for-profit basis, especially in the form of fully Open Access institutional publishers. Children's libraries are special collections of books intended for juvenile readers and usually kept in separate rooms of general public libraries. Some children's libraries have entire floors or wings dedicated to them in bigger libraries while smaller ones may have
12852-682: The combination "library and information services", although different institutions and sources define such terminology differently. The term library is based on the Latin word liber for 'book' or 'document', contained in Latin libraria 'collection of books' and librarium 'container for books'. Other modern languages use derivations from Ancient Greek βιβλιοθήκη ( bibliothēkē ), originally meaning 'book container', via Latin bibliotheca ( cf. French bibliothèque or German Bibliothek ). The history of libraries began with
13005-441: The combination "library and information services", although different institutions and sources define such terminology differently. Organizations or departments are often called by one of these names. Most libraries have materials arranged in a specified order according to a library classification system, so that items may be located quickly and collections browsed efficiently. Some libraries have additional galleries beyond
13158-427: The community as recently as 2007 with the creation of an evening group. Some clubs have had success with creating programs that are meant to be attractive to younger women. The Des Moines Women's Club established in 1885, continues to support the community today with scholarships, an annual art exhibition, and continued support to its historic club house and museum, Hoyt Sherman Place . Shirlee Haizlip , president of
13311-654: The construction of new libraries or extensions to existing ones, and the development and implementation of outreach services and reading-enhancement services (such as adult literacy and children's programming). Library materials like books, magazines, periodicals, CDs, etc. are managed using a library classification system such as the Dewey Decimal Classification Theory, though libraries will usually adjust their classification system to fit their needs. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has published several standards regarding
13464-472: The controversy surrounding the issue, and even if they addressed racial inequalities, they did so "tactfully in order to gain members and support". Some white women's clubs were frankly unconcerned with issues relating to African Americans because they "supported the racist ideology and practices of their era". In 1907, magazine publisher Edward Gardner Lewis created the American Woman's League as
13617-507: The country. Clubwomen would often donate art to schools. Other clubs created traveling art collections and art libraries for communities. Clubs also hosted arts exhibits. The FFWC promoted Old Folks at Home by Stephen Foster as the state song. African-American women promoted the arts, focusing on "celebrating African American traditions and culture." These included African-American music, theater and dance. Clubwomen saw themselves as carrying on both art and tradition of their lives in
13770-403: The country. Woman's clubs in the late 1800s described themselves as attempting to "exert a refining and ennobling influence" on their communities. They also saw woman's clubs as an intellectual and practical good which would create better women and a better country. Sorosis and the GFWC saw large increases in membership in 1889 and 1890. The GFWC grew to around a million women by 1910, and to
13923-518: The destruction of libraries has been critical for conquerors who wish to destroy every trace of the vanquished community's recorded memory. A prominent example of this can be found in the Mongol massacre of the Nizaris at Alamut in 1256 and the torching of their library, "the fame of which", boasts the conqueror Juwayni, "had spread throughout the world". The libraries of Timbuktu were established in
14076-460: The development of cooperative regional libraries that those communities now rely on. Some critics also saw his massive donations as insulting to communities that would be content to fund their own public works. Others saw his push for public libraries as merely an attempt at social control. Mark Twain , a supporter of Carnegie, claimed that Carnegie used philanthropy as a tool to buy fame. William Jewett Tucker criticized Carnegie's philanthropy from
14229-581: The early 20th century. They were brought together through the careers of the members' spouses. The clubs were localized around their particular affiliation and geographically restricted, thus most of their clubs did not receive the same volume of members nor the publicity of some of the earlier groups. However, their existence can still be seen in various archives at universities across the United States such as University of Washington , Kent State University , Emporia State University , and Ball State University . These Faculty Wives clubs were formed during
14382-454: The early leaders was John Cotton Dana . The basic form of library instruction is sometimes known as information literacy . Libraries should inform their users of what materials are available in their collections and how to access that information. Before the computer age, this was accomplished by the card catalogue —a cabinet (or multiple cabinets) containing many drawers filled with index cards that identified books and other materials. In
14535-414: The educational institution. Academic libraries house current, reliable and relevant information resources spread through all the disciplines which serve to assuage the information requirements of students and faculty. In cases where not all books are housed some libraries have E-resources, where they subscribe for a given institution they are serving, in order to provide backups and additional information that
14688-466: The ensuing Homestead Steel Strike was telling of what he thought of his workers' concerns: "If I had raised your wages, you would have spent that money by buying a better cut of meat or more drink for your dinner. But what you needed, though you didn't know it, was my libraries and concert halls." Carnegie's critics can be most efficiently summed up in the words of Finley Peter Dunne 's parody of Carnegie himself: "Th' way to abolish poverty an' bust crime
14841-699: The environment. Women's clubs helped in the creation of the Mesa Verde National Park . Under the direction of Virginia McClurg , women's organizations in Colorado supported the creation of the park. The Colorado Federation of Women's Clubs (CFWC) helped McClurg, and created a committee that would eventually become the Colorado Cliff Dwellings Association. In California, women's clubs helped preserve Sequoia trees and protested against "the environmentally destructive Hetch Hetchy Dam ". May Mann Jennings and
14994-625: The establishment of 75–80 percent of the libraries in communities across the country. Carnegie believed in giving to the "industrious and ambitious; not those who need everything done for them, but those who, being most anxious and able to help themselves, deserve and will be benefited by help from others." Under segregation, Black people were generally denied access to public libraries in the Southern United States . Rather than insisting on his libraries being racially integrated, Carnegie funded separate libraries for African Americans in
15147-828: The first African-American women's club was the Female Benevolent Society of St. Thomas, in Philadelphia, which was started in 1793. At the time, Philadelphia had numerous black organizations. After the African Benevolent Society in Newport, Rhode Island , would not allow women to be officers or vote, women created their own group. Another group, the Colored Female Religious and Moral Society in Salem, Massachusetts
15300-508: The first efforts to organize collections of documents. The first libraries consisted of archives of the earliest form of writing —the clay tablets in cuneiform script discovered in Sumer , some dating back to 2600 BC. Private or personal libraries made up of written books appeared in classical Greece in the 5th century BC. In the 6th century, at the very close of the Classical period ,
15453-564: The floor. No architectural style was recommended for the exterior, nor was it necessary to put Andrew Carnegie's name on the building. In the interests of efficiency, fireplaces were discouraged, since that wall space could be used to house more books. There were no strict requirements about furniture, but most of it came from the Library Bureau , established by Melvil Dewey in 1888. It sold standardized chairs, tables, catalogs, and bookshelves. The first five Carnegie libraries followed
15606-504: The forefront of various civil rights issues, denouncing lynching, promoting women's rights and voting rights. Women's clubs helped promote civil rights , as well as improving conditions for black women in the country. Some women's clubs also worked to understand people's fear of immigrants during the late 1900s. Settlement houses , created by woman's clubs, helped settle and integrate European immigrants. The Fannie Jackson Coppin Club
15759-601: The founding of the first Progressive era women's clubs, Sorosis and the New England Women's Club , most organizations for women were auxiliaries of groups for men or were church-related. Jane Cunningham Croly of the General Federation of Women's Clubs (GFWC) wrote in 1898 that women were first able to reach out of their homes through religious institutions. By becoming involved in church or charitable groups, women were able to find companionship and
15912-721: The fourteenth century and attracted scholars from all over the world. Libraries may provide physical or digital access to material, and may be a physical location, virtual space, or both. A library's collection can include books , periodicals , newspapers , manuscripts , films , maps , prints , documents , microform , CDs , cassettes , videotapes , DVDs , Blu-ray Discs , e-books , audiobooks , databases , table games , video games , and other formats. Libraries range widely in size, up to millions of items. Libraries often provide quiet spaces for private studying, common areas to facilitate group study and collaboration, and public facilities for access to their electronic resources and
16065-514: The front door. Bigger and more daunting than those used in modern libraries, these desks spanned almost the width of the lobby and acted as a physical and psychological barrier between the front entrance and the book room. The first of these "open stack" branches was in Lawrenceville, the sixth Carnegie library to open in America. The next was in the West End branch, the eighth Carnegie library in
16218-599: The funds for young black women to take classes at what would later become the Rochester Institute of Technology . Clubs, like the Chicago Woman's Club, taught the blind and provided job skills. Many women's clubs believed that compulsory education for young people would help solve many child labor issues. In Chicago, the Woman's City Club worked with other clubs in order to help students stay in school past age 14. The Illinois Collegiate Alumnae association helped
16371-745: The government draw up a law in 1897 to ensure that children between the ages of seven and fourteen were in school for sixteen weeks of the year. Women's clubs helped support and influence the creation of higher education. The Texas Federation of Women's Clubs "was a significant force behind the establishment of Texas Woman's University ." Women's clubs helped raise money for new college buildings. Other clubs created scholarship funds for their communities. These organizations also helped produce research showing that higher education benefited women. Women's clubs today continue to sponsor scholarships for higher education. Women's club activities were seen by contemporaries as helping to spread art appreciation across
16524-477: The great libraries of the Mediterranean world remained those of Constantinople and Alexandria . The Fatimids (r. 909–1171) also possessed many great libraries within their domains. The historian Ibn Abi Tayyi’ describes their palace library, which probably contained the largest collection of literature on earth at the time, as a " wonder of the world ". Throughout history, along with bloody massacres,
16677-498: The idea of municipal housekeeping , women were also able to justify their involvement in government. Later, in 1921, Alice Ames Winter describes how women had begun to see "their homes as the units out of which society was built", and that home life and public life were linked. Women's clubs "established the idea that women had a moral duty and responsibility to transform, define and shape public policy". Women's clubs were also "training schools" for women who wanted to get involved in
16830-538: The isolation of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States . Women's clubs, especially during the Progressive era , helped shape their communities and the country. Many progressive ideals were pressed into action through the resources of women's clubs, including kindergartens, juvenile courts, and park conservation. Women's clubs, many with their literary backgrounds, helped promote and raise money for schools, universities and libraries. Women's clubs were often at
16983-441: The knowledge to improve themselves. Carnegie's personal experience as an immigrant, who with help from others worked his way and became wealthy, reinforced his belief in a society based on merit, where anyone who worked hard could become successful. This conviction was a major element of his philosophy of giving in general. His libraries were the best-known expression of this philanthropic goal. In 1900, Carnegie granted funds to build
17136-595: The late nineteenth century and early twentieth century. The Chicago and Northern District Association of Colored Women's Clubs (CNDA) hosted well-known singers such as Etta Moten . CNDA also hosted an exhibit of African art, literature, and music called The Negro in Art Week in 1927. Women's clubs were involved in protecting natural resources . Many women's clubs started out by beautifying their cities and states. Clubs would sponsor and maintain playgrounds , and dedicate and maintain cemeteries . Later, clubs, like
17289-434: The main branch. This streamlined process allowed patrons to have open access to shelves. Carnegie's architects designed the Pittsburgh neighborhood branches so that one librarian could oversee each entire operation. Theft of books and other items was a major concern. This concern resulted in the placement of the library's circulation desk—which replaced the delivery desk used in traditional closed stacks libraries—just inside
17442-555: The main library and eighteen branches of the Pittsburgh public library system are Carnegie libraries. The public library system there is named the Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh . In the late 1940s, the Carnegie Corporation of New York arranged for microfilming of the correspondence files relating to Andrew Carnegie's gifts and grants to communities for the public libraries and church organs. They discarded
17595-416: The management of libraries through its Technical Committee 46 (TC 46), which is focused on "libraries, documentation and information centers, publishing, archives, records management, museum documentation, indexing and abstracting services, and information science". The following is a partial list of some of them: Some patrons may not know how to fully utilize library resources, or feel unease in approaching
17748-466: The materials located within a public library are available for borrowing. The library staff decides upon the number of items patrons are allowed to borrow, as well as the details of borrowing time allotted. Typically, libraries issue library cards to community members wishing to borrow books. Often visitors to a city are able to obtain a public library card. Many public libraries also serve as community organizations that provide free services and events to
17901-682: The modern era were adaptable in response to societal changes over time. The missions of women's clubs, like the Colony Club , founded in 1903, and the Cosmopolitan Club , founded in 1909, remain relevant today, and the clubs remain successful. During the early 21st century, numerous new private women's clubs formed in support of personal and professional affiliations and business networking , including AllBright , Belizean Grove , The Riveter , The Wing and Chief , with growth attributed to factors including advances in technology and
18054-618: The money. In 1902, Carnegie offered funds to build a library in Dunedin in New Zealand . Between 1908 and 1916, 18 Carnegie libraries were opened across New Zealand. The Lawrenceville Branch of the Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh signaled a break from the Richardsonian style of libraries which was popularized in the mid 1800s. The ALA discouraged Richardsonian characteristics such as alcoved book halls with high shelves requiring
18207-885: The necessity for these services in doubt. Library scholars have acknowledged that libraries need to address the ways that they market their services if they are to compete with the Internet and mitigate the risk of losing users. This includes promoting the information literacy skills training considered vital across the library profession. Many US-based research librarians rely on the ACRL Framework for Information Literacy in order to guide students and faculty in research. However, marketing of services has to be adequately supported financially in order to be successful. This can be problematic for library services that are publicly funded and find it difficult to justify diverting tight funds to apparently peripheral areas such as branding and marketing. The privacy aspect of library usage in
18360-426: The needs of the library. Basic tasks in library management include planning acquisitions (which materials the library should acquire, by purchase or otherwise), classifying and preserving items (especially rare and fragile archival materials such as manuscripts), deaccessioning materials, patron borrowing, and developing and administering library computer systems and technology. More long-term issues include planning
18513-421: The number of books in libraries have steadily increased since their inception, the need for compact storage and access with adequate lighting has grown. The stack system involves keeping a library's collection of books in a space separate from the reading room. This arrangement arose in the 19th century. Book stacks quickly evolved into a fairly standard form in which the cast iron and steel frameworks supporting
18666-741: The original materials. The microfilms are open for research as part of the Carnegie Corporation of New York Records collection, residing at Columbia University Rare Book and Manuscript Library. Archivists did not microfilm photographs and blueprints of the Carnegie Libraries. The number and nature of documents within the correspondence files varies widely. Such documents may include correspondence, completed applications and questionnaires, newspaper clippings, illustrations, and building dedication programs. UK correspondence files relating to individual libraries have been preserved in Edinburgh (see
18819-430: The period's stereotypes which "portrayed African American women as devoid of morality, sexually wanton and incapable of upholding marital and family responsibilities". Being a member of a woman's club also helped give black women greater social standing in their communities. Black colleges helped the creation of African-American women's clubs. Ida B. Wells was an important figure in the growth of these clubs during
18972-461: The prominence of and reliance on the Internet has grown, library services have moved the emphasis from mainly providing print resources to providing more computers and more Internet access . Libraries face a number of challenges in adapting to new ways of information seeking that may stress convenience over quality, reducing the priority of information literacy skills. The potential decline in library usage, particularly reference services , puts
19125-516: The public ones, where "reference" materials are stored. These reference stacks may be open to selected members of the public while others may require patrons to submit a "stack request" – a request for an assistant to retrieve the material from the closed stacks: see List of closed stack libraries . Larger libraries are often divided into departments staffed by both paraprofessionals and professional librarians. Their department names and occupational designations may change depending on their location and
19278-520: The public sphere. They helped women attain both social and political power. Many women's clubs increased their memberships by having other members sponsor or nominate new members to the group. Clubs often organized themselves by committee, or division. Many women's clubs created and occupied their own clubhouses. Today these clubhouses have continued to be the site of women's meetings and other gatherings. Some women's clubs created and continue to publish their own journals and newsletters. Prior to
19431-511: The public, such as reading groups and toddler story time. For many communities, the library is a source of connection to a vast world, obtainable knowledge and understanding, and entertainment. According to a study by the Pennsylvania Library Association , public library services play a major role in fighting rising illiteracy rates among youths. Public libraries are protected and funded by the public they serve. As
19584-624: The ratification of the 13th Amendment in 1865, black women continued to organize and often worked with churches to ensure their communities were taken care of. Many of these organizations were "so resilient that they were able to survive the twin disasters of bank failure and yellow fever ". In 1868, black women's clubs were formed in Harris County, Texas . Between 1880 and 1920, black women in Indianapolis, Indiana had created more than 500 clubs addressing various issues. During
19737-411: The role of libraries in a nation's cultural heritage, and the role of government, church, or private sponsorship. Since the 1960s, issues of computerization and digitization have arisen. Many institutions make a distinction between a circulating or lending library , where materials are expected and intended to be loaned to patrons, institutions, or other libraries, and a reference library where material
19890-653: The rural south in northern cities in the United States where they repurposed abandoned buildings as "community centers, settlement houses, parks and playgrounds." The Woman's City Club and the City Club of Chicago both worked on issues relating to waste disposal . The Woman's City Club was, in contrast, more interested in the health and safety of the city as opposed to the men's group who were more interested in making money from sanitation. The Carrizozo Woman's Club of New Mexico helped bring sanitation to their city. Women's club members were involved in hospital reform and
20043-752: The size of the building and included the third Carnegie Music Hall in the United States. Initially Carnegie limited his support to a few towns in which he had a personal interest. These were in Scotland and the Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania area. In the United States, nine of the first 13 libraries which he commissioned are all located in Southwestern Pennsylvania. The Braddock, Homestead , and Duquesne libraries were owned not by municipalities, but by Carnegie Steel, which constructed them, maintained them, and delivered coal for their heating systems. "To this day, Carnegie's free-to-the-people libraries remain Pittsburgh's most significant cultural export,
20196-623: The students and faculty of that and other academic institutions. Some academic libraries, especially those at public institutions, are accessible to members of the general public in whole or in part. Library services are sometimes extended to the general public at a fee; some academic libraries create such services in order to enhance literacy levels in their communities. Academic libraries are libraries that are hosted in post-secondary educational institutions, such as colleges and universities. Their main functions are to provide support in research, consultancy and resource linkage for students and faculty of
20349-578: The teacups, at meetings of their peers in some lady's drawing room, while unsightly heaps of rubbish flanked the paths over which they had passed in their journeys thither." Women justified their movement into social reform by using the Victorian idea that women were naturally morally superior to men. As clubs moved from self-improvement to community improvement, women's clubs in the Western U.S. lagged somewhat behind clubs formed in more developed parts of
20502-406: The time, to gain greater influence in their communities. As women gained more rights, the need for clubs to exercise political and social influence became less important. Over time, participation in women's clubs has waned in the United States. However, many clubs still continue to operate and influence their communities. The woman's club movement became part of Progressive era social reform, which
20655-463: The top ten non-profit organizations in the United States. It has adopted modern issues to tackle, such as fighting AIDS and violence against women. Many of today's women's clubs also provide cultural opportunities for their communities. Some groups continue to support their original missions, such as the Alpha Home, which provides care for elderly black people. Women's clubs that endured into
20808-442: The towns that requested a grant, committing to his terms for operation and maintenance, were refused. By the time the last grant was made, there were 3,500 libraries in the United States, nearly half of them Carnegie libraries. Carnegie started erecting libraries in places with which he had personal associations. The first of Carnegie's public libraries, Dunfermline Carnegie Library , was in his birthplace, Dunfermline , Scotland. It
20961-514: The umbrella organization. Black women wanted to be visible and NACW helped them organize to improve conditions in their communities. There were also many African-American versions of the WCTU and the YWCA . The NACW raised more than $ 5 million in war bonds during World War I . The Woman's Club of Norfolk wrote letters and sent care packages to the segregated black units sent to fight overseas. During
21114-553: The use of their employees in doing specialized research related to their work. Depending on the particular institution, special libraries may or may not be accessible to the general public or elements thereof. Women%27s club The woman's club movement was a social movement that took place throughout the United States that established the idea that women had a moral duty and responsibility to transform public policy. While women's organizations had existed earlier, it
21267-526: The war effort during World War I . Women in clubs raised money, worked with the Red Cross , financed the Home Guard and set up communications within the community to share information quickly. Woman's clubs also knitted socks, rolled bandages for soldiers and sold war bonds . In Texas, the Texas Federation of Women's Clubs (TFWC) helped create recreational canteens for soldiers. During
21420-655: The workforce during the 1960s and had less spare time to devote to club work. Many women today are working long hours or spending time with their children's extracurricular activities . By 2010, the number of women's clubs had significantly decreased across the country. This reflects a trend in all club memberships in the United States: most clubs are losing members because there is a lack of leisure time for younger people. Some clubs are still active. The Houston Heights Woman's Club and The Women's Club of Forest Hills have found ways to reach out to younger residents in
21573-552: The world. The first Carnegie library to open in the United States was in Braddock , Pennsylvania, about 9 miles up the Monongahela River from Pittsburgh. In 1889, it was also the site of one of the Carnegie Steel Company 's mills. It was the second Carnegie Library in the United States to be commissioned, in 1887, and was the first of the four libraries which he fully endowed. An 1893 addition doubled
21726-412: The world. Over half of Finland's population are registered borrowers. In the US, public library users have borrowed on average roughly 15 books per user per year from 1856 to 1978. From 1978 to 2004, book circulation per user declined approximately 50%. The growth of audiovisuals circulation, estimated at 25% of total circulation in 2004, accounts for about half of this decline. A library may make use of
21879-482: Was affected following the opening of the Carnegie Library in the city centre. In addition to the criticisms of his philanthropic interests and motivations, the construction of libraries in the American South was a highly contentious topic. State and local racial segregations laws across the South sought to bar African Americans access to public facilities, including libraries and when funding the construction of
22032-478: Was created in 1818. Black women's clubs helped raise money for the anti-slavery newspaper The North Star . Many black churches owed their existence to the dedicated work of African-American women organizing in their communities. Black women's literary clubs began to show up as early as 1831, with the Female Literary Society of Philadelphia. After slavery was ended in the United States with
22185-570: Was created in 1899 by members of the Beth Eden Baptist Church, one of the oldest African-American religious institutions in Oakland, California , to "provide hospitality and housing services to African-American visitors who were not welcomed in the segregated hotels and other businesses" in the state. Some white woman's clubs promoted desegregation early on, though these efforts were small in scope. The Chicago Woman's Club admitted
22338-465: Was first commissioned or granted by Carnegie in 1880 to James Campbell Walker and would open in 1883. The first library in the United States to be commissioned by Carnegie was in 1886 in his adopted hometown of Allegheny, Pennsylvania (now the North Side of Pittsburgh ). In 1890, it became the second of his libraries to open in the US. The building also contained the first Carnegie Music Hall in
22491-503: Was founded. The NACW grew out of anti-lynching campaigns spearheaded by Wells. Wells's anti-lynching campaign provoked the president of the Missouri Press Association who viciously attacked black women in a letter that was widely circulated among women's clubs by Ruffin. Ruffin eventually helped bring together the NACW, using the letter as a "call to action". Both black and white women were involved in creating
22644-475: Was later adopted by the libraries that previously had operated with closed stacks. The first secretary of the Iowa Library Commission, Alice S. Taylor, criticized the use of Carnegie funding for extravagant buildings rather than providing quality library services. Carnegie's funds covered only the library buildings themselves, and Carnegie gave library buildings to cities on the condition that
22797-489: Was needed, a method of moving shelves on tracks (compact shelving) was introduced to cut down on otherwise wasted aisle space. Library 2.0 , a term coined in 2005, is the library's response to the challenge of Google and an attempt to meet the changing needs of users by using Web 2.0 technology. Some of the aspects of Library 2.0 include, commenting, tagging, bookmarking, discussions, use of online social networks by libraries, plug-ins , and widgets . Inspired by Web 2.0, it
22950-870: Was not until the Progressive era (1896–1917) that they came to be considered a movement. The first wave of the club movement during the progressive era was started by white, middle-class, Protestant women, and a second phase was led by African-American women. These clubs, most of which had started out as socialiterary gatherings, eventually became a source of reform for various issues in the U.S. Both African-American and white women's clubs were involved with issues surrounding education, temperance , child labor , juvenile justice , legal reform, environmental protection, library creation and more. Women's clubs helped start many initiatives such as kindergartens and juvenile court systems. Later, women's clubs tackled issues like women's suffrage , lynching and family planning . The clubs allowed women, who had little political standing at
23103-418: Was one of the styles used for libraries in Carnegie's native Scotland. Each style was chosen by the community. As the years went by James Bertram , Carnegie's secretary, became less tolerant of approving designs that were not to his taste. Edward Lippincott Tilton , a friend often recommended by Bertram, designed many of the buildings. The architecture was typically simple and formal, welcoming patrons through
23256-487: Was part of a new funding model to be used by Carnegie (through Bertram) for thousands of additional libraries. Beginning in 1899, Carnegie's foundation funded a dramatic increase in the number of libraries. This coincided with the rise of women's clubs in the post-Civil War period. They primarily took the lead in organizing local efforts to establish libraries, including long-term fundraising and lobbying within their communities to support operations and collections. They led
23409-467: Was reflected by many of the reforms and issues addressed by club members. According to Maureen A. Flanagan, many women's clubs focused on the welfare of their community because of their shared experiences in tending to the well-being of home-life. Tending to the community was often called "municipal housekeeping" during the Progressive era and reflected a shared belief by many club members that home and city life were linked through city hall. By constructing
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