Admiral is one of the highest ranks in some navies . In the Commonwealth nations and the United States , a "full" admiral is equivalent to a "full" general in the army or the air force. Admiral is ranked above vice admiral and below admiral of the fleet , or fleet admiral.
122-525: Miklós Horthy de Nagybánya (18 June 1868 – 9 February 1957) was a Hungarian admiral and statesman who was the regent of the Kingdom of Hungary during the interwar period and most of World War II , from 1 March 1920 to 15 October 1944. Horthy began his career as a sub-lieutenant in the Austro-Hungarian Navy in 1896 and attained the rank of rear admiral by 1918. He participated in
244-493: A Hungarian Soviet Republic and promised the restoration of Hungary's former grandeur. Instead, his efforts at reconquest failed, and Hungarians were treated to Soviet-style repression in the form of armed gangs who intimidated or murdered enemies of the regime. This period of violence came to be known as the Red Terror . Within weeks of his coup, Kun's popularity plummeted. On May 30, 1919, anti-communist politicians formed
366-548: A change of command ceremony aboard aircraft carrier USS Enterprise (CVN 65) , while docked at Khalifa Bin Salman Port, Bahrain , U.S. Marine Corps Gen . James Mattis , Commander, U.S. Central Command , introduced Vice Admiral Mark I. Fox as "Admiral Fox, the prince of the sea, emir of the sea – to translate 'admiral' from the Arabic to English;" On 04 Feb 2021, in an announcement of his coronavirus -related death,
488-521: A fascist . In the late 1930s, Horthy's foreign policy led him into an alliance with Nazi Germany against the Soviet Union . With the support of Adolf Hitler , Hungary succeeded in reoccupying certain areas ceded to neighbouring countries by the Treaty of Trianon. Under Horthy's leadership, Hungary provided support to Polish refugees when Germany attacked their country in 1939 and participated in
610-488: A bulwark against Soviet encroachment or invasion. Horthy was obsessed with the Communist threat. One American diplomat remarked that Horthy's anti-communist tirades were so common and ferocious that diplomats "discounted it as a phobia". Horthy clearly saw his country as trapped between two stronger powers, both of them dangerous; evidently, he considered Hitler to be the more manageable of the two, at least at first. Hitler
732-462: A closer look, he discovered that: two or three men were on the floor and he [Horthy] had another by the throat, slapping his face and shouting what I learned afterward was: "So you would betray your country, would you?" The Regent was alone, but he had the situation in hand.... The whole incident was typical not only of the Regent's deep hatred of alien doctrine, but of the kind of man he is. Although he
854-702: A counter-revolutionary government in the southern city of Szeged , which was occupied by French forces at the time. There, Gyula Károlyi , the prime minister of the counter-revolutionary government, asked former Admiral Horthy, still considered a war hero, to be the Minister of War in the new government and take command of a counter-revolutionary force that would be named the National Army ( Hungarian : Nemzeti Hadsereg ). Horthy consented, and he arrived in Szeged on June 6 June. Soon afterward, because of orders from
976-553: A distinct culture, largely because of its Catholic heritage and conservative traditions, which includes a language , cuisine , architecture, festivals and elements of Alpine symbolism. It also has the second-largest economy among the German states by GDP figures , giving it the status of a wealthy German region. Contemporary Bavaria also includes parts of the historical regions of Franconia and Swabia , in addition to Altbayern . Though Bavaria has been occupied by humans since
1098-651: A fateful alliance with Adolf Hitler. The nation of the Hungarians loved and admired Budapest, which became its polluter in the last years. Here, on the banks of the Danube, I arraign her. This city has disowned her thousand years of tradition, she has dragged the Holy Crown and the national colors in the dust, she has clothed herself in red rags. The finest of the nation she threw into dungeons or drove into exile. She laid in ruin our property and wasted our wealth. Yet
1220-523: A generation at least. Admiral The word admiral in Middle English comes from Anglo-French amiral , "commander", from Medieval Latin admiralis , admirallus . These evolved from the Arabic amīral ( أمير الـ ) – amīr ( أمير ) [ʔmjr] ( listen ), " king , prince , chief, leader, nobleman , lord , a governor , commander , or person who rules over
1342-413: A meeting with Hitler in 1935, Horthy was well pleased that Hitler informed him that he wanted Germany and Hungary to partition Czechoslovakia, but Horthy went on to tell Hitler that he must be careful not to do anything that might cause an Anglo-German war because British sea power would sooner or later cause the defeat of Nazi Germany . Horthy was always torn between his belief that an alliance with Germany
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#17327805713761464-593: A number of people" and al ( الـ ), the Arabic definite article meaning "the." In Arabic, admiral is also represented as Amīr al-Baḥr ( أمير البحر ), where al-Baḥr (البحر) means the sea . The 1818 edition of Samuel Johnson 's A Dictionary of the English Language , edited and revised by the Rev. Henry John Todd , states that the term "has been traced to the Arab. emir or amir, lord or commander, and
1586-536: A one-party state modeled on the Nazi party control of Germany. Gömbös died in 1936 before he realized his most extreme goals, but he left his nation headed into a firm partnership with the German dictator. Hungary now entered into intricate political maneuvers with the regime of Adolf Hitler, and Horthy began to play a greater and more public role in navigating Hungary along this dangerous path. For Horthy, Hitler served as
1708-492: A total of 2,056 municipalities in Bavaria. In 44 of the 71 rural districts, there are a total of 215 unincorporated areas (as of 1 January 2005, called gemeindefreie Gebiete , singular gemeindefreies Gebiet ), not belonging to any municipality, all uninhabited, mostly forested areas, but also four lakes ( Chiemsee -without islands, Starnberger See -without island Roseninsel , Ammersee , which are
1830-421: A town hall or temple, and continued in different forms up to 1000 AD. In Manching , Upper Bavaria, an unfortified and semi-urban society appears to have prospered between the 3rd century BC until the early 1st Century AD . The settlement featured food ovens, pottery kilns and metallurgical furnaces. By 200 BC the community there was active in trade—finds of coins, along with an icon-like golden tree suggest it
1952-676: A two-year wave of violent repression known today as the White Terror . These reprisals were organized and carried out by officers of Horthy's National Army , particularly Pál Prónay , Gyula Ostenburg-Moravek and Iván Héjjas . Their victims were primarily communists , social democrats , and Jews . Most Hungarian Jews were not supporters of the Bolsheviks, but much of the leadership of the Hungarian Soviet Republic had been young Jewish intellectuals, and anger about
2074-664: Is a king in the Arabian language.' Amrayl is used by Robert of Gloucester, in the sense of a prince, or governour." The quote from John Minsheu 's Dictionarie in Spanish and English (1599), given in Johnson's Dictionary, has been confirmed as being accurate. Additionally, the definition of Amīr (أمير), as given in Edward William Lane 's Arabic-English Lexicon , concurs, in part, with Minsheu's definition, stating that
2196-606: Is divided into seven administrative regions called Regierungsbezirke (singular Regierungsbezirk ). Each of these regions has a state agency called the Bezirksregierung (district government). Bezirke (regional districts) are the third communal layer in Bavaria; the others are the Landkreise and the Gemeinden or Städte . The Bezirke in Bavaria are territorially identical with
2318-496: Is in effect the guardian of constitutionalism and what vestigial democracy remains in the country, because it is largely his influence that prevents any prime minister from abolishing parliament and setting up a dictatorial rule. Gömbös rescued the failing economy by securing trade guarantees from Germany – a strategy that positioned Germany as Hungary's primary trading partner and tied Hungary's future even more tightly to Hitler's. He also assured Hitler that Hungary would quickly become
2440-600: The Regierungsbezirke , but they are self-governing regional corporation, having their own parliaments. In the other larger states of Germany, there are only Regierungsbezirke as administrative divisions and no self-governing entities at the level of the Regierungsbezirke as the Bezirke in Bavaria. The second communal layer is made up of 71 rural districts (called Landkreise , singular Landkreis ) that are comparable to counties, as well as
2562-692: The Anif declaration , releasing both civil and military officers from their oaths, which the Eisner government interpreted as an abdication. After losing the January 1919 elections , Eisner was assassinated in February 1919, ultimately leading to a Communist revolt and the short-lived Bavarian Soviet Republic being proclaimed 6 April 1919. After violent suppression by elements of the German Army and notably
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#17327805713762684-809: The Axis powers ' invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941. Some historians view Horthy as unenthusiastic about contributing to the German war effort and the Holocaust in Hungary (out of fear that it may sabotage peace deals with Allied forces), in addition to several attempts to strike a secret deal with the Allies of World War II after it had become obvious that the Axis would lose the war, therefore eventually leading
2806-623: The Battle of the Strait of Otranto and ascended to the position of commander-in-chief of the Navy in the final year of World War I . Following mutinies, Emperor-King Charles appointed him as vice admiral and commander of the Fleet, dismissing the previous admiral. During the revolutions and interventions in Hungary from Czechoslovakia , Romania , and Yugoslavia , Horthy returned to Budapest with
2928-541: The Congress of Vienna . In return, Bavaria was allowed to annex the modern-day region of Palatinate to the west of the Rhine and Franconia in 1815. Between 1799 and 1817, the leading minister, Count Montgelas , followed a strict policy of modernization copying Napoleonic France; he laid the foundations of centralized administrative structures that survived the monarchy and, in part, have retained core validity through to
3050-750: The Czech Republic ( Karlovy Vary , Plzeň and South Bohemian Regions ), as well as with Switzerland (across Lake Constance to the Canton of St. Gallen ). Neighboring states within Germany are Baden-Württemberg , Hesse , Thuringia , and Saxony . Two major rivers flow through the state: the Danube ( Donau ) and the Main . The Bavarian Forest and the Bohemian Forest form the vast majority of
3172-738: The Duchy of Bavaria (a stem duchy ) in the 6th century AD following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire . It was later incorporated into the Holy Roman Empire , became the independent Kingdom of Bavaria after 1806, joined the Prussian-led German Empire in 1871 while retaining its title of kingdom, and finally became a state of the Federal Republic of Germany in 1949. Bavaria has
3294-659: The First Hungarian Republic , Count Mihály Károlyi began vigorous propaganda activities against the emerging Horthy regime. Károlyi mainly tried to negotiate with the creators of the hostile Little Entente , Masaryk and Beneš, as well as with the Austrian Social Democratic Chancellor, Karl Renner . They wanted to achieve the disarmament of the Hungarian National Army and the removal of Horthy, even with
3416-708: The Freikorps , the Bavarian Soviet Republic fell in May 1919. The Bamberg Constitution ( Bamberger Verfassung ) was enacted on 12 or 14 August 1919 and came into force on 15 September 1919, placing Bavaria inside the Weimar Republic . Extremist activity further increased, notably the 1923 Beer Hall Putsch led by the Nazis , and Munich and Nuremberg became seen as strongholds of Nazism during
3538-470: The German cruiser Prinz Eugen . During his ensuing state visit, Hitler asked Horthy for troops and matériel to participate in Germany's planned invasion of Czechoslovakia. In exchange, Horthy later reported, "He gave me to understand that as a reward we should be allowed to keep the territory we had invaded." Horthy said he declined, insisting to Hitler that Hungary's claims on the disputed lands should be settled by peaceful means. Three months later, after
3660-539: The Germans to invade and take control of the country in March 1944 (Operation Margarethe). However, prior to the Nazi occupation of Hungary, 63,000 Jews were killed. In late 1944, 437,000 Jews were deported to Auschwitz II-Birkenau , where the majority were gassed on arrival. Serbian historian Zvonimir Golubović has claimed that not only was Horthy aware of these genocidal massacres, but had approved of them, such as those in
3782-484: The Gr . ἄλιος , the sea, q. d. prince of the sea . The word is written both with and without the d, in other languages, as well as our own. Barb. Lat. admirallus and amiralius. V. Ducange. Barb. Græc. ἄμηρχλιος. V. Meursii Gloss. Græco-Barbarum, edit. 1610. p. 29. Fr. admiral and amiral. Dan. the same. Germ. ammiral. Dutch, admirael or ammirael. Ital. ammiraglio. Sp. almirante. Minsheu, in his Spanish Dictionary, says 'almiralle
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3904-698: The Holy Roman Empire dissolved under Napoleon 's onslaught, Bavaria became a kingdom in 1806 and joined the Confederation of the Rhine . The Duchy of Jülich was ceded to France and the Electoral Palatinate was divided between France and the Grand Duchy of Baden . The Duchy of Berg was given to Joachim Murat . The County of Tyrol and the federal state of Salzburg were temporarily annexed with Bavaria but eventually ceded to Austria at
4026-651: The Indo-European languages were relative newcomers to the region. Evidence of the ancient Straubing culture , Únětice culture and La Tène culture may be found in what is Bavaria today. Archeologists know of a large Celtic Iron Age settlement which was founded in Feldmoching-Hasenbergl , in the North of suburban Munich. Evidence suggests up to 500 people lived in the village from 450 BC. Local life appears to have centred around what could be
4148-497: The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later Yugoslavia), created in 1921 not for Central Europe's cooperation nor to fight German expansion, but in a wrongly perceived notion that a completely powerless Hungary must be kept down". The first decade of Horthy's reign was primarily consumed by stabilizing the Hungarian economy and political system. Horthy's chief partner in these efforts was his prime minister István Bethlen . It
4270-526: The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes . The excisions, eventually ratified in the Treaty of Trianon of 1920, cost Hungary two-thirds of its territory and one-third of its native Hungarian speakers; this dealt the population a terrible psychological blow. The second trauma began in March 1919, when Communist leader Béla Kun seized power in the capital, Budapest , after the first proto-democratic government in Hungary faltered. Kun and his loyalists proclaimed
4392-786: The Munich Agreement put control of Czechoslovakia's Sudetenland in Hitler's hands, by the First Vienna Award Hungary annexed some of the south-eastern parts of Czechoslovakia. Horthy enthusiastically rode into the re-acquired territories at the head of his troops, greeted by emotional ethnic Hungarians: "As I passed along the roads, people embraced one another, fell upon their knees, and wept with joy because liberation had come to them at last, without war, without bloodshed." But as "peaceful" as this annexation was, and as just as it may have seemed to many Hungarians, it
4514-559: The National Army . Subsequently, the parliament invited him to become the regent of the kingdom. Throughout the interwar period , Horthy led an administration characterized by national conservatism and antisemitism . Under his leadership, Hungary banned the Hungarian Communist Party and the far-right Arrow Cross Party led by Ferenc Szálasi , and pursued an irredentist foreign policy in response to
4636-898: The Novi Sad raid . In October 1944, Horthy announced that Hungary had declared an armistice with the Soviets and had withdrawn from the Axis. He was forced to resign, placed under arrest and taken to Bavaria , while the Arrow Cross Party and Germany ruled Hungary. At the end of the war, he came under the custody of American troops. After providing evidence for the Ministries Trial of war crimes in 1948, Horthy settled and lived out his remaining years in exile in Portugal . His memoir, Ein Leben für Ungarn ( A Life for Hungary ),
4758-601: The Schwabing district in Munich, a center of international artistic activity at the time. World War I led to the abolition of monarchy all over Germany in 1918. The Bavarian monarchy was the first to fall when on 8 November 1918 Socialist politician Kurt Eisner proclaimed the Free State (i.e. republic) of Bavaria. Eisner headed a new, republican government as minister-president. On 12 November, King Ludwig III signed
4880-556: The Second Vienna Award . But despite their cooperation with the Nazi regime, Horthy and his government would be better described as " conservative authoritarian " than "fascist". Certainly, Horthy was as hostile to the home-grown fascist and ultra-nationalist movements that emerged in Hungary between the wars (particularly the Arrow Cross Party ) as he was to Communism. The Arrow Cross leader, Ferenc Szálasi ,
5002-463: The Treaty of Trianon . Furthermore, the three states with which Hungary had territorial disputes, namely Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, and Romania, were all allies of France, so a German-Hungarian alliance seemed logical. On the other hand, Admiral Horthy was a good navalist who believed that sea power was the most important factor in war. He felt that Britain, as the world's greatest sea power, would inevitably defeat Germany should another war begin. During
Miklós Horthy - Misplaced Pages Continue
5124-424: The Upper Palatinate for the Palatinate branch of the Wittelsbach in 1329. That time also Salzburg finally became independent from the Duchy of Bavaria . In the 14th and 15th centuries, upper and lower Bavaria were repeatedly subdivided. Four Duchies existed after the division of 1392: Bavaria-Straubing , Bavaria-Landshut , Bavaria-Ingolstadt and Bavaria-Munich . In 1506 with the Landshut War of Succession ,
5246-451: The Weimar Republic and Nazi dictatorship . However, in the crucial German federal election, March 1933 , the Nazis received less than 50% of the votes cast in Bavaria. As a manufacturing centre, Munich was heavily bombed during World War II and was occupied by United States Armed Forces , becoming a major part of the American Zone of Allied-occupied Germany , which lasted from 1945 to 1947, and then of Bizone . The Rhenish Palatinate
5368-552: The "d" and endured a series of different endings and spellings leading to the English spelling admyrall in the 14th century and to admiral by the 16th century. It is important to note that the etymology of a word does not suggest the antiquity of the word as it may have appeared in other languages with entirely different pronunciations. The Greek ναύαρχος, for instance, which is pronounced "naúarkhēs," existed from very ancient times in Greece. While ναύαρχος may be defined as "admiral" as used by Plutarch in his Parallel Lives ,
5490-428: The 1920 Treaty of Trianon . The former King of Hungary , Charles IV , attempted to return to Hungary twice before the Hungarian government yielded to Allied threats of renewed hostilities in 1921. Subsequently, Charles was escorted out of Hungary and into exile, while the House of Habsburg and Hungarian monarchy was formally dethroned. Ideologically a national conservative , Horthy has sometimes been labelled as
5612-469: The 1930s, he sought and failed to emulate the Nazis by generating a Hungarian fascist mass movement. In 1932, he was charged with incitement, sentenced to six months in prison, and stripped of his rank of lieutenant colonel. Prónay would support the pro-Nazi Arrow Cross and lead attacks on Jews before being captured by Soviet troops sometime during or after the Battle of Budapest of 1944–45, dying in captivity in 1947/48. Precisely how much Horthy knew about
5734-465: The 21st century. In May 1808, a first constitution was passed by Maximilian I , being modernized in 1818. This second version established a bicameral Parliament with a House of Lords ( Kammer der Reichsräte ) and a House of Commons ( Kammer der Abgeordneten ). That constitution was followed until the collapse of the monarchy at the end of World War I . After the rise of Prussia in the early 18th century, Bavaria preserved its independence by playing off
5856-496: The 25 independent cities ( Kreisfreie Städte , singular Kreisfreie Stadt ), both of which share the same administrative responsibilities. Rural districts: Independent cities: The 71 rural districts are on the lowest level divided into 2,031 regular municipalities (called Gemeinden , singular Gemeinde ). Together with the 25 independent cities ( kreisfreie Städte , which are in effect municipalities independent of Landkreis administrations), there are
5978-416: The Allied powers, a cabinet was reformed, and Horthy was not given a seat in it. Undaunted, Horthy managed to retain control of the National Army by detaching the army command from the War Ministry. After the Communist government collapsed and its leaders fled, French-supported Romanian forces entered Budapest on August 6, 1919. In retaliation for the Red Terror , reactionary crews have now exacted revenge in
6100-458: The Arabic Amīr (أمير), the literal meaning of the phrase Amīr al-Baḥr (أمير البحر) is "Prince of the Sea." This position, versus "commander of the sea," is demonstrated by legal practices prevailing in the Ottoman Empire , whereas it was only possible for Phanariots to qualify for attaining four princely positions, those being grand dragoman , dragoman of the fleet , and the voivodees of Moldavia and Wallachia . Those Phanariots who attained
6222-464: The Arabic news website Saudi 24 News referred to Admiral Edmond Chagoury by the title "Prince of the Sea." One alternate etymology proposes that the term admiral evolved, instead, from the title of Amīr al-Umarā ʾ (أمير الأمراء). Under the reign of the Buyid dynasty (934 to 1062) of Iraq and Iran , the title of Amīr al-Umarāʾ, which means prince of princes, came to denote the heir-apparent , or crown prince . This alternate etymology states that
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#17327805713766344-418: The Communist revolution easily translated into anti-Semitic hostility. In Budapest, Prónay installed his unit in the Hotel Britannia , where the group swelled to battalion size. Their program of vicious attacks continued; they planned a citywide pogrom against the Jews until Horthy found out and put a stop to it. In his diary, Prónay reported that Horthy: reproached me for the many Jewish corpses found in
6466-419: The German average . Major cities include Munich (its capital and largest city , which is also the third largest city in Germany ), Nuremberg , and Augsburg . The history of Bavaria includes its earliest settlement by Iron Age Celtic tribes, followed by the conquests of the Roman Empire in the 1st century BC, when the territory was incorporated into the provinces of Raetia and Noricum . It became
6588-418: The Jew should be the image reflected of Hungary, especially abroad. Since, however, one of the most important tasks of the government is to raise the standard of living, i.e., we have to acquire wealth, it is impossible, in a year or two, to replace the Jews, who have everything in their hands, and to replace them with incompetent, unworthy, mostly big-mouthed elements, for we should become bankrupt. This requires
6710-460: The Palatinate by Rhine ( Kurpfalz in German) was also acquired by the House of Wittelsbach in 1214, which they would subsequently hold for six centuries. The first of several divisions of the duchy of Bavaria occurred in 1255. With the extinction of the Hohenstaufen in 1268, Swabian territories were acquired by the Wittelsbach dukes. Emperor Louis the Bavarian acquired Brandenburg , Tyrol , Holland and Hainaut for his House but released
6832-436: The Paleolithic era, Celtic tribes of the Bronze Age, such as the Boii were the first documented inhabitants of the Bavarian Alps . In June 2023, Archeologists discovered a bronze sword, dated to the 14th century BC , in a former Celtic village; its workmanship so well-preserved "it almost shines." During the early modern era, these peoples were retrospectively romanticized as the most ancient culture of Bavaria, even though
6954-467: The Prussian forces and ultimately joined the Federation, which was renamed Deutsches Reich ( German Empire ) in 1871. Bavaria continued as a monarchy, and retained some special rights within the federation (such as railways and postal services and control of its army in peace times). When Bavaria became part of the newly formed German Empire , this action was considered controversial by Bavarian nationalists who had wanted to retain independence from
7076-487: The Strait of Otranto , the largest naval engagement of the war in the Adriatic Sea . A consolidated British, French, and Italian fleet met the Austro-Hungarian force. Despite the numerical superiority of the Allied fleet, the Austrian force emerged victorious from the battle. The Austrian fleet remained relatively unscathed; however, Horthy was wounded. After the Cattaro mutiny of February 1918, Emperor Charles I of Austria selected Horthy over many more senior commanders as
7198-400: The Trianon treaty continued to occupy a central place in Hungarian foreign policy and the popular imagination. The indignant anti-Trianon slogan "Nem, nem soha!" ("No, no never!") became a ubiquitous motto of Hungarian outrage. When in 1927 the British newspaper magnate Lord Rothermere denounced the partitions ratified at Trianon in the pages of his Daily Mail , an official letter of gratitude
7320-414: The beating of angels' wings"), remarking, "the Communists in Hungary, willing disciples of the Russian Bolshevists, had indeed let hell loose." The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) in an internal report by delegate George Burnier , stated the following in April 1920: There are two distinct military organizations in Hungary: the national army and a kind of civil guard which was formed when
7442-481: The communist régime fell. It is the latter that has been responsible for all the reprehensible acts committed. The Government managed to regain control of these organizations only a few weeks ago. They are now well-disciplined and collaborate with the municipal police forces. This deep hostility toward Communism would be the more lasting legacy of Kun's abortive revolution. It was a conviction shared by Horthy and his country's ruling class that would help drive Hungary into
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#17327805713767564-486: The conservatism of interwar Hungary. Historian István Deák states: Two national traumas that followed the First World War profoundly shaped the spirit and future of the Hungarian nation. The first was the loss, as dictated by the Allies of World War I , of large portions of Hungarian territory that had bordered other countries. These were lands that had belonged to Hungary (then part of Austria-Hungary ) but were now ceded mainly to Czechoslovakia , Romania , Austria and
7686-442: The dissolution of Austria-Hungary , with a prime minister appointed as head of government. As head of state, Horthy retained significant influence through his constitutional powers and the loyalty of his ministers to the crown. Although his involvement in drafting legislation was minuscule, he nevertheless had the ability to ensure that laws passed by the Hungarian parliament conformed to his political preferences. The ex-president of
7808-419: The early 8th century. Tassilo III of Bavaria succeeded to rule Bavaria. He initially ruled under Frankish oversight but began to function independently from 763 onward. He was particularly noted for founding new monasteries and for expanding eastwards, oppressing Slavs in the eastern Alps and along the Danube and colonizing these lands. After 781, however, Charlemagne began to exert pressure and Tassilo III
7930-449: The empire's laws. During the early and mid-18th century the ambitions of the Bavarian prince electors led to several wars with Austria as well as occupations by Austria ( War of the Spanish Succession , War of the Austrian Succession with the election of a Wittelsbach emperor instead of a Habsburg). To mark the unification of Bavaria and the Electoral Palatinate , both being principal Wittelsbach territories, Elector Maximilian IV Joseph
8052-551: The excesses of Prónay is disputed. On several occasions, Horthy reached out to stop Prónay from a particularly excessive burst of anti-Jewish cruelty, and the Jews of Pest went on record absolving Horthy of the White Terror as early as the autumn of 1919 when they released a statement disavowing the Kun revolution and blaming the terror on a few units within the National Army. Horthy has never been found to have personally engaged in White Terror atrocities. But his American biographer, Thomas L. Sakmyster concluded that he "tacitly supported
8174-405: The excesses of the White Terror is not known. Horthy himself declined to apologize for the savagery of his officer detachments, writing later, "I have no reason to gloss over deeds of injustice and atrocities committed when an iron broom alone could sweep the country clean." He endorsed Edgar von Schmidt-Pauli's poetic justification of the White reprisals ("Hell let loose on earth cannot be subdued by
8296-421: The floor of the Hungarian parliament. After serving short jail sentences, Prónay tried to convince Horthy to restore his battalion command. The Prónay Battalion lingered for a few months more under the command of a junior officer, but the government officially dissolved the unit in January 1922, and expelled its members from the army. Prónay entered politics as a member of the government's right-wing opposition. In
8418-399: The frontier with the Czech Republic and Bohemia. The geographic center of the European Union is located in the northwestern corner of Bavaria. At lower elevations the climate is classified according to Köppen's guide as " Cfb " or " Dfb ". At higher altitudes the climate becomes " Dfc " and " ET ". The summer months have been getting hotter in recent years. For example, June 2019 was
8540-467: The help of foreign troops and intervention. However, the effect has remained small: Renner and Beneš sent a memorandum to the Western Allied Powers, but the leadership of Entente Powers had already decided that Horthy should remain in power. Hungarian historian Ádám Magda wrote in her study Versailles System and Central Europe (2006): "Today we know that the bane of Central Europe was the Little Entente , military alliance of Czechoslovakia , Romania and
8662-424: The house of Agilolfing ruled the Duchy of Bavaria , ending with Tassilo III who was deposed by Charlemagne . Tassilo I of Bavaria tried unsuccessfully to hold the eastern frontier against the expansion of Slavic peoples and the Pannonian Avars around 600. Garibald II seems to have achieved a balance of power between 610 and 616. At Hugbert's death in 735, the duchy passed to Odilo of Bavaria from
8784-627: The naval academy was German , Horthy spoke Hungarian with a slight, but noticeable, Austro-German accent for the rest of his life. He also spoke Italian , Croatian , English , and French . As a young man, Horthy traveled around the world and was a diplomat for Austria-Hungary in the Ottoman Empire and other countries. Horthy married Magdolna Purgly de Jószáshely in Arad in 1901. They had four children: Magdolna (1902), Paula (1903), István (1904), and Miklós (1907). From 1911 until 1914, he
8906-701: The nearer we approached to this city, the more rapidly did the ice in our hearts melt. We are now ready to forgive her. Following the pressure of the Allied powers, Romanian troops finally evacuated Hungary on February 25 February 1920. On March 1, 1920, the National Assembly of Hungary re-established the Kingdom of Hungary . It was apparent that the Allies of World War I would not accept any return of King Charles IV (the former Austro-Hungarian emperor) from exile. Instead, with National Army officers controlling
9028-551: The neighboring Alemannia . Odilo issued a Lex Baiuvariorum for Bavaria, completed the process of church organization in partnership with Saint Boniface in 739, and tried to intervene in Frankish succession disputes by fighting for the claims of the Carolingian dynasty . He was defeated near Augsburg in 743 but continued to rule until his death in 748. Saint Boniface completed the people's conversion to Christianity in
9150-480: The new Commander-in-Chief of the Imperial Fleet in March 1918. In June, Horthy planned another attack on Otranto, and in a departure from the cautious strategy of his predecessors, he committed the empire's battleships to the mission. While sailing through the night, the dreadnought SMS Szent István met Italian MAS torpedo boats and was sunk, causing Horthy to abort the mission. He managed to preserve
9272-642: The oath of office. He was styled His Serene Highness the Regent of the Kingdom of Hungary ( Hungarian : Ő Főméltósága a Magyar Királyság Kormányzója ). In any case, the previous monarch, Charles I (Charles IV in Hungary) did try to regain his throne twice . The Hungarian state was legally a kingdom, but it had no king, as the Allied powers would not have tolerated any reinstatement of the Habsburg dynasty. The country retained its parliamentary system following
9394-461: The other Länder ratified it. All of the other states ratified it, so it became law. Thus, during the Cold War , Bavaria was part of West Germany . Bavarians have often emphasized a separate national identity and considered themselves as "Bavarians" first, "Germans" second. In the 19th-century sense, an independent Kingdom of Bavaria existed from only 1806 to 1871. A separate Bavarian identity
9516-790: The other parts of Bavaria were reunited, and Munich became the sole capital. The country became a center of the Jesuit-inspired Counter-Reformation . In 1623, the Bavarian duke replaced his relative of the Palatinate branch, the Electorate of the Palatinate in the early days of the Thirty Years' War and acquired the powerful prince-elector dignity in the Holy Roman Empire , determining its Emperor thence forward, as well as special legal status under
9638-480: The other with white and blue diamond-shaped lozenges . Either may be used by civilians and government offices, who are free to choose between them. Unofficial versions of the flag, especially a lozenge style with coat of arms, are sometimes used by civilians. The modern coat of arms of Bavaria was designed by Eduard Ege in 1946, following heraldic traditions. Bavaria shares international borders with Austria ( Salzburg , Tyrol , Upper Austria and Vorarlberg ) and
9760-435: The parliament building, the assembly voted to install Horthy as Regent ; he defeated Count Albert Apponyi by a vote of 131 to 7. Bishop Ottokár Prohászka then led a small delegation to meet Horthy, announcing, "Hungary's Parliament has elected you Regent! Would it please you to accept the office of Regent of Hungary ?" To their astonishment, Horthy declined, unless the powers of the office were expanded. As Horthy stalled,
9882-480: The past. Extreme weather like the 2013 European floods or the 2019 European heavy snowfalls is occurring more and more often. One effect of the continuing warming is the melting of almost all Bavarian Alpine glaciers : Of the five glaciers of Bavaria only the Höllentalferner is predicted to exist over a longer time perspective. The Südliche Schneeferner has almost vanished since the 1980s. Bavaria
10004-453: The politicians gave in to his demands and granted him "the general prerogatives of the king, with the exception of the right to name titles of nobility and of the patronage of the Church." The prerogatives he was given included the power to appoint and dismiss prime ministers, to convene and dissolve parliament, and to command the armed forces . With those sweeping powers guaranteed, Horthy took
10126-625: The princely position of dragoman of the fleet served under the Ottoman admiral having administration of the Aegean islands and the Anatolian coast. Modern acknowledgement of the phrase Amīr -al-Baḥr (أمير البحر) meaning "Prince of the Sea" includes a speech made in an official U.S. military ceremony conducted in an Arabic port, and a news article published by an Arabic news outlet: On 24 May 2012, in
10248-518: The reactionary battalions. Prónay managed to undermine these measures, but only for a short time. Prónay was put on trial for extorting a wealthy Jewish politician and for "insulting the President of the Parliament" by trying to cover up the extortion. Found guilty on both charges, Prónay was now a liability and an embarrassment. His command was revoked, and he was denounced as a common criminal on
10370-410: The regions forming the historic Bavaria before further acquisitions in 1806–1815, speak a Bavarian dialect of German, Franconia in the north and Bavarian Swabia in the south west, have their unique culture, including different dialects of German, East Franconian and Swabian , respectively. Uniquely among German states, Bavaria has two official flags of equal status, one with a white and blue stripe,
10492-577: The rest of Germany, as had Austria. As Bavaria had a heavily Catholic majority population, many people resented being ruled by the mostly Protestant northerners in Prussia . As a direct result of the Bavarian-Prussian feud, political parties formed to encourage Bavaria to break away and regain its independence. In the early 20th century, Wassily Kandinsky , Paul Klee , Henrik Ibsen , and other artists were drawn to Bavaria, especially to
10614-412: The rest of the empire's fleet until he was ordered by Emperor Charles to surrender it to the new State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs (the predecessor of Yugoslavia) on 31 October. The end of the war saw Hungary turn into a landlocked nation, and with that, the new government had little need for Horthy's naval expertise. He retired with his family to his private estate at Kenderes . Historians agree on
10736-419: The right-wing officer detachments" who carried out the terror; Horthy called them "my best men." The admiral also had practical reasons for overlooking the terror his officers wrought, since he needed the dedicated officers to help stabilize the country. Nevertheless, it was at least another year before the terror died down. In the summer of 1920, Horthy's government took measures to rein in and eventually disperse
10858-481: The rivalry of Prussia and Austria . Allied to Austria, it was defeated along with Austria in the 1866 Austro-Prussian War and was not incorporated into the North German Confederation of 1867, but the question of German unity was still alive. When France declared war on Prussia in 1870 , all the south German states (Baden, Württemberg, Hessen-Darmstadt and Bavaria) aside from Austria, joined
10980-541: The ruler of two duchies. When in 1180, Henry the Lion was deposed as Duke of Saxony and Bavaria by his cousin, Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor (a.k.a. "Barbarossa" for his red beard), Bavaria was awarded as fief to the Wittelsbach family, counts palatinate of Schyren ("Scheyern" in modern German). They ruled for 738 years, from 1180 to 1918. In 1180, however, Styria was also separated from Bavaria. The Electorate of
11102-409: The second biggest political party in the 2018 Bavarian state elections , and the center-left Social Democrats (SPD), who have dominated the city of Munich until 2020. Hitherto, Wilhelm Hoegner has been the only SPD candidate to ever become Minister-President; notable successors in office include multi-term Federal Minister Franz Josef Strauss , a key figure among West German conservatives during
11224-466: The second reduced it to five percent the following year; 250,000 Hungarian Jews lost their jobs as a result. A "Third Jewish Law" of August 1941 prohibited Jews from marrying non-Jews and defined anyone having two Jewish grandparents as "racially Jewish". A Jewish man who had non-marital sex with a "decent non-Jewish woman resident in Hungary" could be sentenced to three years in prison. Horthy's personal views on Jews and their role in Hungarian society are
11346-401: The southeast of Germany . With an area of 70,550.19 km (27,239.58 sq mi), it is the largest German state by land area , comprising roughly a fifth of the total land area of Germany, and with over 13.08 million inhabitants, it is the second most populous German state , behind only North Rhine-Westphalia ; however, due to its large land area, its population density is below
11468-669: The status of a Nazi client state. In March 1939, when Hitler took what remained of Czechoslovakia by force, Hungary was allowed to annex the Carpathian Ruthenia . After a conflict with the First Slovak Republic during the Slovak–Hungarian War of 1939, Hungary gained further territories. In August 1940, Hitler intervened on Hungary's behalf once again. After the failed Hungarian-Romanian negotiations, Hungary annexed Northern Transylvania from Romania by
11590-600: The subject of some debate. In an October 1940 letter to Prime Minister Count Pál Teleki , Horthy echoed a widespread national sentiment: that Jews enjoyed too much success in commerce, the professions, and industry—success that needed to be curtailed: As regards the Jewish problem, I have been an anti-Semite throughout my life. I have never had contact with Jews. I have considered it intolerable that here in Hungary everything, every factory, bank, large fortune, business, theatre, press, commerce, etc. should be in Jewish hands, and that
11712-410: The term means "One having, holding, or possessing, command; a commander; a governor; a lord; a prince, or king." While other Greek words of the period existed to indicate "belonging to the sea," or "of the sea," the now obsolete Gr. ἄλιος mentioned in Johnson's Dictionary is expressly defined as "of the sea, Lat. marinus, epith. of sea-gods , nymphs , etc." Though there are multiple meanings for
11834-757: The term was in use for the Greco-Arab naval leaders (e.g. Christodulus ) in the Norman-Arab-Byzantine culture of Norman Sicily , which had formerly been ruled by Arabs, at least by the early 11th century. During this time, the Norman Roger II of Sicily (1095–1154) employed a Greek Christian, known as George of Antioch , who previously had served as a naval commander for several North African Muslim rulers. Roger styled George in Abbasid fashion as Amir of Amirs , or Amīr al-Umarāʾ, with
11956-516: The three largest lakes of Bavaria, and Waginger See ). Source: Bayerisches Landesamt für Statistik und Datenverarbeitung Bavaria has a multiparty system dominated by the conservative Christian Social Union (CSU), which has won every election since 1945 with the exception of the 1950 ballot. Other important parties are the Free Voters , which became the second largest party in the 2023 Bavarian state election , The Greens , which became
12078-554: The title becoming Latinized in the 13th century as ammiratus ammiratorum . The Sicilians and later the Genoese took the first two parts of the term from their Aragon opponents and used them as one word, amiral . . The French gave their sea commanders similar titles while in Portuguese and Spanish the word changed to almirante . As the word was used by people speaking Latin or Latin-based languages it gained
12200-417: The treatment of Hungary's Jews, remain the central criteria by which his career has been judged. Horthy's relationship with Hitler was, by his own account, a tense one – largely due, he said, to his unwillingness to bend his nation's policies to the German leader's desires. Horthy's attitude to Hitler was ambivalent. On one hand, Hungary was an irredentist state that refused to accept the frontiers imposed by
12322-535: The upper chamber of the Diet of Hungary , and lord of a 610-hectare (1,500-acre) estate. He married Hungarian noblewoman Paula Halassy de Dévaványa in 1857. Miklós was the fourth of their eight children raised as Protestants. Horthy entered the Austro-Hungarian Imperial and Royal Naval Academy ( k.u.k. Marine-Akademie) at Fiume (now Rijeka , Croatia ) at age 14. Because the official language of
12444-583: The various parts of the country, especially in the Transdanubia. This, he emphasized, gave the foreign press extra ammunition against us. He told me that we should stop harassing small Jews; instead, we should kill some big (Kun government) Jews such as Somogyi or Vázsonyi – these people deserve punishment much more... in vain, I tried to convince him that the liberal papers would be against us anyway, and it did not matter that we killed only one Jew or we killed them all The degree of Horthy's responsibility for
12566-467: The very pronunciation of ναύαρχος demonstrates that it is not a part of the etymology for the English word "admiral." The word "admiral" has come to be almost exclusively associated with the highest naval rank in most of the world's navies , equivalent to the army rank of general . However, this was not always the case; for example, in some European countries prior to the end of World War II , admiral
12688-470: The warmest June in Bavaria since weather observations have been recorded and the winter 2019/2020 was 3 degrees Celsius warmer than the average temperature for many years all over Bavaria. On 20 December 2019 a record temperature of 20.2 °C (68.4 °F) was recorded in Piding . In general winter months are seeing more precipitation which is taking the form of rain more often than that of snow compared to
12810-584: The year 500 AD, some elements of that victorious Marcomanni people would help to form the Bavarii confederation, which incorporated Bohemia and Bavaria. In the 530s, the Merovingian dynasty incorporated the kingdom of Thuringia after their defeat by the Franks . The Baiuvarii were Frankicised a century later. The Lex Thuringorum documents an upper class nobility of adalingi . From about 554 to 788,
12932-535: Was a dividend of Hitler's brinksmanship and threats of war, in which Hungary was now inextricably complicit. Hungary was now committed to the Axis agenda: on February 24, 1939, it joined the Anti-Comintern Pact , and on April 11, it withdrew from the League of Nations . American journalists began to refer to Hungary as "the jackal of Europe". This combination of menace and reward drifted Hungary closer to
13054-467: Was a naval aide-de-camp to Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria , for whom he had a great respect. At the beginning of World War I, Horthy was commander of the pre-dreadnought battleship SMS Habsburg . In 1915, he earned a reputation for boldness while commanding the new light cruiser SMS Novara . He planned the 1917 attack on the Otranto Barrage , which resulted in the Battle of
13176-500: Was able to wield greater influence over Hungary than the Soviet Union could—not only as the country's major trading partner but also because he could assist with two of Horthy's key ambitions: maintaining Hungarian sovereignty and satisfying the nationwide yearning to recover former Hungarian lands. Horthy's strategy was one of cautious, sometimes even grudging, alliances. The means by which the regent granted or resisted Hitler's demands, especially with regard to Hungarian military action and
13298-459: Was around seventy-two years of age, it did not occur to him to ask for help; he went right ahead like a skipper with a mutiny on his hands. And yet, by the time of this episode, Horthy had allowed his government to give in to Nazi demands that the Hungarians enact laws restricting the lives of the country's Jews. The first Hungarian anti-Jewish Law , in 1938, limited the number of Jews in the professions, government, and commerce to twenty percent, and
13420-427: Was commonly known that Horthy was an Anglophile , and British political and economic support played a significant role in the stabilization and consolidation of the early Horthy era in the Kingdom of Hungary. Bethlen sought to stabilize the economy while building alliances with weaker nations that could advance Hungary's cause. That cause was, primarily, reversing the losses of the Treaty of Trianon. The humiliations of
13542-419: Was crowned king of Bavaria. King Maximilian Joseph was quick to change the coat of arms. The various heraldic symbols were replaced and a classical Wittelsbach pattern introduced. The white and blue lozenges symbolized the unity of the territories within the Bavarian kingdom. The new state also comprised the Duchy of Jülich and Berg as these on their part were in personal union with the Palatinate. When
13664-468: Was deposed in 788. Dissenters attempted a coup against Charlemagne at Regensburg in 792, led by Pepin the Hunchback . With the revolt of Henry II, Duke of Bavaria in 976, Bavaria lost large territories in the south and southeast. One of the most important dukes of Bavaria was Henry the Lion of the house of Welf , founder of Munich , and de facto the second most powerful man in the empire as
13786-536: Was detached from Bavaria in 1946 and made part of the new state Rhineland-Palatinate . In 1949, Bavaria became part of the Federal Republic of Germany , despite the Bavarian Parliament voting against adopting the Basic Law of Germany , mainly because it was seen as not granting sufficient powers to the individual states ( Länder ), but at the same time declared that it would accept it if two-thirds of
13908-707: Was eagerly signed by 1.2 million Hungarians. But Hungary's stability was precarious, and the Great Depression derailed much of Bethlen's economic balance. Horthy replaced him with an old reactionary confederate from his Szeged days: Gyula Gömbös . Gömbös was an outspoken anti-Semite and a budding fascist. Although he agreed to Horthy's demands that he temper his anti-Jewish rhetoric and work amicably with Hungary's large Jewish professional class, Gömbös's tenure began swinging Hungary's political mood powerfully rightward. John Gunther stated that Horthy, though reactionary as far as social or economic ideas are concerned,
14030-542: Was emphasized more strongly when Bavaria joined the Prussia-dominated German Empire in 1871, while the Bavarian nationalists wanted to keep Bavaria as Catholic and an independent state. Aside from the minority Bavaria Party , most Bavarians now accept Bavaria as part of Germany. Another consideration is that Bavaria is not culturally uniform. While inhabitants Altbayern ("Old Bavaria"),
14152-462: Was first published in 1953. He has a reputation as a controversial historical figure in contemporary Hungary. Miklós Horthy de Nagybánya was born at Kenderes to an untitled lower nobility, descended from István Horti, ennobled by King Ferdinand II in 1635. His father, István Horthy de Nagybánya (not to be confused with István Horthy , Horthy's eldest son) , was a member of the House of Magnates ,
14274-514: Was founded in 60 AD, west of modern-day Manching, as evidenced by a legionnaire's sandal found near remains of an ancient fort. By the late 2nd Century AD , Germanic tribes, including Marcomanni people, were pushing back on Roman forces of Marcus Aurelius and later, Commodus in the Marcomannic Wars . By 180 AD, Commodus had decided to abandon the annexed positions in Bavaria, leaving its control to Celtic and Germanic tribes. Around
14396-555: Was repeatedly imprisoned at Horthy's command. John F. Montgomery , who served in Budapest as U.S. ambassador from 1933 to 1941, openly admired this side of Horthy's character and reported the following incident in his memoir: in March 1939, Arrow Cross supporters disrupted a performance at the Budapest opera house by chanting "Justice for Szálasi!" loud enough for the regent to hear. A fight broke out, and when Montgomery went to take
14518-462: Was the only way to revise Trianon and his belief that war against the international order could only end in defeat. In August 1938, when Horthy, his wife, and some Hungarian politicians took a special train from Budapest to Germany, SA and other National Socialist formations ceremonially welcomed the delegation at the Passau train station. The train then continued to Kiel for the christening of
14640-416: Was the third highest naval rank after general admiral and grand admiral . The rank of admiral has also been subdivided into various grades, several of which are historically extinct while others remain in use in most present-day navies. The Royal Navy used the colours red, white, and blue, in descending order to indicate seniority of its admirals until 1864; for example, Horatio Nelson 's highest rank
14762-512: Was trading with distant Italo-Greek communities. In the 1st Century BC, Bavaria was conquered by the Roman Empire . An imperial military camp was built 60 km north-west of where Munich sits today, under orders of Augustus Caesar , between 8 and 5 BC. The camp later became the town of Augusta Vindelicorum , which would become the capital of the Roman province of Raetia . Another fort
14884-464: Was vice-admiral of the white. The generic term for these naval equivalents of army generals is flag officer . Some navies have also used army-type titles for them, such as the Cromwellian "general at sea". While the rank is used in most of NATO countries, it is ranked differently depending on the country. Bavaria Bavaria , officially the Free State of Bavaria , is a state in
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