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92-580: The Handley Page H.P.42 and H.P.45 were four-engine biplane airliners designed and manufactured by British aviation company Handley Page , based in Radlett , Hertfordshire . They held the distinction of being the largest airliners in regular use in the world on the type's introduction in 1931. The H.P.42/45 were designed in response to a specification issued during 1928 by the British flag airline Imperial Airways . The two models are very similar, with

184-466: A '42' at Lympne to take on sufficient fuel to complete the flight (from Paris) to London against a headwind – 90 mph (140 km/h) was its normal cruising speed." However, while that was three times faster than a combination of steamships and trains used prior to airplanes, several French aircraft types on the same route were significantly faster, including the Wibault 280 , which first flew in

276-468: A 767 that weighs over 10 times as much). During 1951, Peter Masefield wrote, "The trouble about a slow aeroplane with a really low wing loading is the way it insists on wallowing about in turbulent air ... One of the reasons why seven times as many people fly to Paris to-day, compared with 1931, is that the incidence of airsickness in modern aircraft is only one-hundredth of that in the pre-War types." Another writer remembered "I had quite often been landed in

368-653: A W shape cabane, however as it does not connect the wings to each other, it does not add to the number of bays. Large transport and bombing biplanes often needed still more bays to provide sufficient strength. These are often referred to as multi-bay biplanes . A small number of biplanes, such as the Zeppelin-Lindau D.I have no interplane struts and are referred to as being strutless . Because most biplanes do not have cantilever structures, they require rigging wires to maintain their rigidity. Early aircraft used simple wire (either braided or plain), however during

460-412: A biplane aircraft, two wings are placed one above the other. Each provides part of the lift, although they are not able to produce twice as much lift as a single wing of similar size and shape because the upper and the lower are working on nearly the same portion of the atmosphere and thus interfere with each other's behaviour. In a biplane configuration with no stagger from the upper wing to the lower wing,

552-625: A crucial role in determining the mechanical properties of duralumin. Optimal aging conditions lead to the formation of finely dispersed precipitates, resulting in peak strength and hardness. Aluminium alloyed with copper (Al-Cu alloys), which can be precipitation hardened , are designated by the International Alloy Designation System as the 2000 series. Typical uses for wrought Al-Cu alloys include: German scientific literature openly published information about duralumin, its composition and heat treatment, before

644-624: A documented jet-kill, as one Lockheed F-94 Starfire was lost while slowing down to 161 km/h (100 mph) – below its stall speed – during an intercept in order to engage the low flying Po-2. Later biplane trainers included the de Havilland Tiger Moth in the Royal Air Force (RAF), Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) and others and the Stampe SV.4 , which saw service postwar in the French and Belgian Air Forces. The Stearman PT-13

736-513: A faster and more comfortable successor to the Dragon. As the available engine power and speed increased, the drag penalty of external bracing increasingly limited aircraft performance. To fly faster, it would be necessary to reduce external bracing to create an aerodynamically clean design; however, early cantilever designs were either too weak or too heavy. The 1917 Junkers J.I sesquiplane utilized corrugated aluminum for all flying surfaces, with

828-535: A forced landing also at Lympne. The aircraft was repaired and returned to service, before being impressed by the RAF in the Second World War. Returning from France on 7 November 1939, the aircraft was unable to find its destination at Exeter due to bad weather and was forced to make an emergency landing at Tiverton Golf Course during which, it hit two trees and was destroyed. A four-bladed wooden propeller from

920-453: A gale, cartwheeled, and ended up inverted on a railway track next to the airport. The aircraft was too badly damaged to be worth repairing. The H.P.45 carried more passengers at the expense of range and baggage capacity, and was intended for Imperial Airways' European routes. G-AAXC was named after Heracles , also known as Hercules, from Greek mythology who was noted for his strength. On 8 August 1931, Heracles made its first flight and tt

1012-455: A given range. They also specified that the average passenger would be assumed to weigh 165 lb (75 kg). Imperial Airways offered bonuses for exceeding the specifications and penalties for under performance and late delivery. Aircraft were to be delivered from September 1930 to the end of the year (Eastern type) and December 1930 to end of March 1931 (Western type). British aircraft manufacturer Handley Page , who had already established

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1104-422: A given wing area. However, interference between the airflow over each wing increases drag substantially, and biplanes generally need extensive bracing, which causes additional drag. Biplanes are distinguished from tandem wing arrangements, where the wings are placed forward and aft, instead of above and below. The term is also occasionally used in biology , to describe the wings of some flying animals . In

1196-571: A hard landing at Entebbe, but was recovered, refurbished and returned to service. It appeared in the fifteen-minute 1937 Strand Film Company documentary Air Outpost, landing at Al Mahatta in Sharjah , now in the United Arab Emirates . The aircraft was impressed into No. 271 Squadron RAF and was damaged beyond repair in a gale at Whitchurch Airport , Bristol along with Heracles on 19 March 1940. G-AAUE, production number 42/2,

1288-460: A hard landing, the aircraft was grounded later that year; post-accident inspection condemned the airframe due to corrosion, and it was scrapped in 1941, except for the front fuselage section which was used as an office by the Royal Navy for several years. Several efforts have been made to produce an H.P.42 for heritage/preservation purposes. During 2015, a fundraising campaign was launched with

1380-620: A heavier-than-air aircraft structure occurred in 1916, when Hugo Junkers first introduced its use in the airframe of the Junkers J 3 , a single-engined monoplane "technology demonstrator" that marked the first use of the Junkers trademark duralumin corrugated skinning. The Junkers company completed only the covered wings and tubular fuselage framework of the J 3 before abandoning its development. The slightly later, solely IdFlieg -designated Junkers J.I armoured sesquiplane of 1917, known to

1472-507: A minimum of struts; however, it was relatively easy to damage the thin metal skin and required careful handling by ground crews. The 1918 Zeppelin-Lindau D.I fighter was an all-metal stressed-skin monocoque fully cantilevered biplane, but its arrival had come too late to see combat use in the conflict. By the 1930s, biplanes had reached their performance limits, and monoplanes become increasingly predominant, particularly in continental Europe where monoplanes had been increasingly common from

1564-480: A reputation for large airliners, began work on designs to fulfil it. and submitted tenders to meet all four of the requirements. Handley Page built two very similar aircraft, which they designated H.P.42 and H.P.45 respectively, to meet the different requirements. The H.P.42 was for Imperial Airways' long-range Eastern routes, while the H.P.45 was configured for shorter routes across Europe . Imperial Airways ordered four of each. Imperial Airways commonly referred to

1656-417: A scheduled passenger flight from Croydon to Paris the port lower engine failed. Debris from the failed engine struck the port upper propeller, causing it to vibrate so severely it had to be shut down. A forced landing was made at Five Oak Green , Kent where the aircraft suffered further damage to a wing and another propeller, and the tail was ripped off by a tree stump. There were no major injuries amongst

1748-463: A small degree, but more often was used to improve access to the cockpit. Many biplanes have staggered wings. Common examples include the de Havilland Tiger Moth , Bücker Bü 131 Jungmann and Travel Air 2000 . Alternatively, the lower wing can instead be moved ahead of the upper wing, giving negative stagger, and similar benefits. This is usually done in a given design for structural reasons, or to improve visibility. Examples of negative stagger include

1840-473: A somewhat unusual sesquiplane arrangement, possessing a more substantial lower wing with two spars that eliminated the flutter problems encountered by single-spar sesquiplanes. The stacking of wing planes was suggested by Sir George Cayley in 1843. Hiram Maxim adopted the idea for his steam-powered test rig, which lifted off but was held down by safety rails, in 1894. Otto Lilienthal designed and flew two different biplane hang gliders in 1895, though he

1932-488: A trade name is obsolete. Today the term mainly refers to aluminium-copper alloys, designated as the 2000 series by the international alloy designation system (IADS), as with 2014 and 2024 alloys used in airframe fabrication. Duralumin was developed in 1909 in Germany. Duralumin is known for its strength and hardness, making it suitable for various applications, especially in the aviation and aerospace industry. However, it

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2024-625: A “Duralinox” model that became an instant classic among cyclists. The Vitus 979 was the first production aluminium frameset whose thin-wall 5083/5086 tubing was slip-fit and then glued together using a dry heat-activated epoxy. The result was an extremely lightweight but very durable frameset. Production of the Vitus 979 continued until 1992. In 2011, BBS Automotive made the RI-D, the world's first production automobile wheel made of duralumin. The company has since made other wheels of duralumin also, such as

2116-560: Is better known for his monoplanes. By 1896 a group of young men in the United States, led by Octave Chanute , were flying hang gliders including biplanes and concluded that the externally braced biplane offered better prospects for powered flight than the monoplane. In 1903, the Wright Flyer biplane became the first successful powered aeroplane. Throughout the pioneer years, both biplanes and monoplanes were common, but by

2208-450: Is relatively soft and ductile. Solution Annealing: Duralumin undergoes solution annealing, a high-temperature heat treatment process that dissolves the alloying elements into the aluminium matrix, creating a homogeneous solid solution. Quenching: Rapid cooling (quenching) after solution annealing freezes the high-temperature solid solution, preventing the precipitation of strengthening phases. Aging (Precipitation Hardening): During aging,

2300-638: Is susceptible to corrosion, which can be mitigated by using alclad-duralum materials. Duralumin was developed by the German metallurgist Alfred Wilm at private military-industrial laboratory Zentralstelle für wissenschaftlich-technische Untersuchungen  [ de ] (Center for Scientific-Technical Research) in Neubabelsberg . In 1903, Wilm discovered that after quenching , an aluminium alloy containing 4% copper would harden when left at room temperature for several days. Further improvements led to

2392-536: The Bristol M.1 , that caused even those with relatively high performance attributes to be overlooked in favour of 'orthodox' biplanes, and there was an allegedly widespread belief held at that time that monoplane aircraft were inherently unsafe during combat. Between the years of 1914 and 1925, a clear majority of new aircraft introduced were biplanes; however, during the latter years of the First World War,

2484-653: The First World War -era Fokker D.VII fighter and the Second World War de Havilland Tiger Moth basic trainer. The larger two-seat Curtiss JN-4 Jenny is a two bay biplane , the extra bay being necessary as overlong bays are prone to flexing and can fail. The SPAD S.XIII fighter, while appearing to be a two bay biplane, has only one bay, but has the midpoints of the rigging braced with additional struts; however, these are not structurally contiguous from top to bottom wing. The Sopwith 1½ Strutter has

2576-703: The Grumman Ag Cat are available in upgraded versions with turboprop engines. The two most produced biplane designs were the 1913 British Avro 504 of which 11,303 were built, and the 1928 Soviet Polikarpov Po-2 of which over 20,000 were built, with the Po-2 being the direct replacement for the Soviet copy of the Avro 504. Both were widely used as trainers. The Antonov An-2 was very successful too, with more than 18,000 built. Although most ultralights are monoplanes,

2668-763: The Gulf of Oman on 1 March 1940, with eight aboard, including the First World War ace Group Captain Harold Whistler and the Indian politician Sir A. T. Pannirselvam . An early report that wreckage of the aircraft had been located, turned out to be incorrect. No trace has ever been discovered and the cause of its loss remains unknown. G-AAUC was originally named for Hecate , the Greek goddess but as soon renamed for Horsa , conqueror of Britain and brother of Hengist. The aircraft first flew on 11 September 1931 and later

2760-617: The Lite Flyer Biplane, the Sherwood Ranger , and the Murphy Renegade . The feathered dinosaur Microraptor gui glided, and perhaps even flew, on four wings, which may have been configured in a staggered sesquiplane arrangement. This was made possible by the presence of flight feathers on both forelimbs and hindlimbs, with the feathers on the forelimbs opening to a greater span. It has been suggested that

2852-556: The Nieuport-Delage NiD 42 / 52 / 62 series, Fokker C.Vd & e, and Potez 25 , all serving across a large number of air forces. In the general aviation sector, aircraft such as the Waco Custom Cabin series proved to be relatively popular. The Saro Windhover was a sesquiplane with the upper wing smaller than the lower, which was a much rarer configuration than the reverse. The Pfalz D.III also featured

Handley Page H.P.42 - Misplaced Pages Continue

2944-501: The Sopwith Dolphin , Breguet 14 and Beechcraft Staggerwing . However, positive (forward) stagger is much more common. The space enclosed by a set of interplane struts is called a bay (much as the architectural form is used), hence a biplane or triplane with one set of such struts connecting the wings on each side of the aircraft is a single-bay biplane . This provided sufficient strength for smaller aircraft such as

3036-419: The lift coefficient is reduced by 10 to 15 percent compared to that of a monoplane using the same airfoil and aspect ratio . The lower wing is usually attached to the fuselage , while the upper wing is raised above the fuselage with an arrangement of cabane struts , although other arrangements have been used. Either or both of the main wings can support ailerons , while flaps are more usually positioned on

3128-714: The "Great Airship" era of the 1920s and 1930s: the British-built R100 , the German passenger Zeppelins LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin , LZ 129 Hindenburg , LZ 130 Graf Zeppelin II , and the U.S. Navy airships USS Los Angeles (ZR-3, ex-LZ 126) , USS Akron (ZRS-4) and USS Macon (ZRS-5) . Duralumin was used to manufacture bicycle components and framesets from the 1930s to 1990s. Several companies in Saint-Étienne, France stood out for their early, innovative adoption of duralumin: in 1932, Verot et Perrin developed

3220-563: The 20 passengers and crew. The aircraft was dismantled and taken to Croydon by road for rebuild. Hannibal was again damaged at the RAF temporary landing ground at Semakh on the Sea of Galilee on 17 November 1932, by strong winds. The fuselage and heavily damaged wings were sent by 3 ft 5 in (1.05 m) gauge Hedjaz Railway to Haifa, where it was transferred to the 1.435 m (4 ft 8.5 in) standard gauge Palestine Railways and forwarded to Heliopolis for repair. It disappeared over

3312-644: The British aviation industry for a replacement of its de Havilland Hercules and Armstrong Whitworth Argosy landplane airliners for use on its major long distance routes across the Empire. The tender was split into four requirements of three and four engine aircraft for the European routes, and three and four engine aircraft for the Eastern routes. Quotes were expected for batches of three, four, five and six aircraft. Imperial Airways preferred air-cooled engines while

3404-514: The CR.42 was able to achieve success in the defensive night fighter role against RAF bombers that were striking industrial targets throughout northern Italy. The British Fleet Air Arm operated the Fairey Swordfish torpedo bomber from its aircraft carriers, and used the type in the anti-submarine warfare role until the end of the conflict, largely due to their ability to operate from

3496-528: The Caribou , performed the first non-stop flight between the Canadian mainland and Britain in 30 hours 55 minutes, although the intended target for this long distance flight had originally been Baghdad , Iraq . Despite its relative success, British production of the Dragon was quickly ended when in favour of the more powerful and elegant de Havilland Dragon Rapide , which had been specifically designed to be

3588-515: The First World War, the British Royal Aircraft Factory developed airfoil section wire named RAFwire in an effort to both increase the strength and reduce the drag. Four types of wires are used in the biplane wing structure. Drag wires inside the wings prevent the wings from being folded back against the fuselage, running inside a wing bay from the forward inboard corner to the rear outboard corner. Anti-drag wires prevent

3680-577: The French Nieuport 17 and German Albatros D.III , offered lower drag than a conventional biplane while being stronger than a monoplane. During the Interwar period , numerous biplane airliners were introduced. The British de Havilland Dragon was a particularly successful aircraft, using straightforward design to could carry six passengers on busy routes, such as London-Paris services. During early August 1934, one such aircraft, named Trail of

3772-661: The Germans had been experimenting with a new generation of monoplanes, such as the Fokker D.VIII , that might have ended the biplane's advantages earlier had the conflict not ended when it had. The French were also introducing the Morane-Saulnier AI , a strut-braced parasol monoplane , although the type was quickly relegated to the advanced trainer role following the resolution of structural issues. Sesquiplane types, which were biplanes with abbreviated lower wings such as

Handley Page H.P.42 - Misplaced Pages Continue

3864-423: The H.P.42 as the H.P.42E (E for "Eastern" routes – India and South Africa ), while the H.P.45 was referred to as the H.P.42W (W for "Western" i.e. European routes). The design was drawn up by George Volkert and Harold Boultbee. The Handley Page H.P.42 was a large unequal-span sesquiplane . It incorporated numerous original features throughout its design. It had an all-metal frame with fabric covering on

3956-437: The H.P.42 optimised for range at the expense of payload while the H.P.45 carried more passengers over shorter distances. Imperial Airways approved Handley Page's proposals and ordered four aircraft of the two variants to serve as the new land-based long-distance flagships of its fleet. On 14 November 1930, the prototype, named Hannibal made its first flight. Following their introduction into Imperial Airways service, they formed

4048-572: The aim of producing a replica of the H.P.42. Original blueprints and other source material from the era are available and while a replica can be built to be airworthy, modern safety regulations prevent carrying paying passengers. Data from Handley Page Aircraft since 1907 General characteristics Performance Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Biplane Biplanes offer several advantages over conventional cantilever monoplane designs: they permit lighter wing structures, low wing loading and smaller span for

4140-541: The aircraft was salvaged and was on display at the Croydon Airport Visitor Centre, situated in the former Croydon Airport terminal building. G-AAXE was originally named for the Hesperides , but was soon renamed after Hengist , brother of Horsa and legendary conqueror of Britain. Hengist first flew on 8 December 1931. It was later converted from a European to an Eastern aircraft. Hengist

4232-446: The backbone of the airliner's land-based fleet through most of the 1930s and, along with the company's numerous flying boats . Eight aircraft were built, four of each type and all had names beginning with the letter "H". Three survivors were pressed into Royal Air Force (RAF) service at the outbreak of the Second World War . By the end of 1940, all of the aircraft had been destroyed. In 1928, Imperial Airways invited submissions from

4324-407: The biplane naturally has a deep structure and is therefore easier to make both light and strong. Rigging wires on non-cantilevered monoplanes are at a much sharper angle, thus providing less tension to ensure stiffness of the outer wing. On a biplane, since the angles are closer to the ideal of being in direct line with the forces being opposed, the overall structure can then be made stiffer. Because of

4416-608: The competition aerobatics role and format for such a biplane well-defined by the mid-1930s by the Udet U 12 Flamingo and Waco Taperwing . The Pitts Special dominated aerobatics for many years after World War II and is still in production. The vast majority of biplane designs have been fitted with reciprocating engines . Exceptions include the Antonov An-3 and WSK-Mielec M-15 Belphegor , fitted with turboprop and turbofan engines respectively. Some older biplane designs, such as

4508-470: The drag from the number of struts used. The structural forces acting on the spars of a biplane wing tend to be lower as they are divided between four spars rather than two, so the wing can use less material to obtain the same overall strength and is therefore lighter. A given area of wing also tends to be shorter, reducing bending moments on the spars, which then allow them to be more lightly built as well. The biplane does however need extra struts to maintain

4600-549: The end of World War I . At the start of World War II , several air forces still had biplane combat aircraft in front line service but they were no longer competitive, and most were used in niche roles, such as training or shipboard operation, until shortly after the end of the war. The British Gloster Gladiator biplane, the Italian Fiat CR.42 Falco and Soviet I-153 sesquiplane fighters were all still operational after 1939. According to aviation author Gianni Cattaneo,

4692-434: The engines chosen would be provided by Imperial Airways as would the electrical and wireless equipment. Payments would be made progressively throughout production with the final third of the price kept until after delivery and acceptance. Imperial specified that the aircraft's stall speed would not exceed 52 mph (84 km/h), and it was to be able to fly hands-off and be able to maintain altitude with one engine out, for

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4784-490: The factory as the Junkers J 4, had its all-metal wings and horizontal stabilizer made in the same manner as the J 3's wings had been, like the experimental and airworthy all-duralumin Junkers J 7 single-seat fighter design, which led to the Junkers D.I low-wing monoplane fighter, introducing all-duralumin aircraft structural technology to German military aviation in 1918. Its first use in aerostatic airframes came in rigid airship frames, eventually including all those of

4876-911: The first light alloy crank arms; in 1934, Haubtmann released a complete crankset; from 1935 on, Duralumin freewheels, derailleurs , pedals, brakes and handlebars were manufactured by several companies. Complete framesets followed quickly, including those manufactured by: Mercier (and Aviac and other licensees) with their popular Meca Dural family of models, the Pelissier brothers and their race-worthy La Perle models, and Nicolas Barra and his exquisite mid-twentieth century “Barralumin” creations. Other names that come up here also included: Pierre Caminade, with his beautiful Caminargent creations and their exotic octagonal tubing, and also Gnome et Rhône , with its deep heritage as an aircraft engine manufacturer that also diversified into motorcycles, velomotors and bicycles after World War Two. Mitsubishi Heavy Industries , which

4968-425: The first paying passengers were flown to Paris . The extremely high cost of air travel at this time usually limited flights to members of high society, such as royalty , celebrities, and senior business figures and the H.P.42/45 fleet were viewed as Imperial Airways' flagships and were accordingly provided with a luxurious onboard service and an elaborately decorated interior. They acquired a favourable reputation with

5060-402: The flying public, particularly for their dependability. They type would accumulate a combined mileage in excess of 10 million miles (16 million km) in nine years with Imperial Airways. A key requirement of Imperial Airways was for its airliners to land safely at low speed, on the grass or unpaved airfields common at the time. Without using flaps, this required a large wing area (almost as much as

5152-416: The gap between the wings, which add both weight and drag. The low power supplied by the engines available in the first years of aviation limited aeroplanes to fairly low speeds. This required an even lower stalling speed, which in turn required a low wing loading , combining both large wing area with light weight. Obtaining a large enough wing area without the wings being long, and thus dangerously flexible

5244-453: The hind limbs could not have opened out sideways but in flight would have hung below and slightly behind the fore limbs. Duralumin Duralumin (also called duraluminum , duraluminium , duralum , dural(l)ium , or dural ) is a trade name for one of the earliest types of age-hardenable aluminium–copper alloys . The term is a combination of Dürener and aluminium . Its use as

5336-479: The introduction of duralumin in 1909. The name, originally a trade mark of Dürener Metallwerke AG which acquired Wilm's patents and commercialized the material, is mainly used in pop-science to describe all Al-Cu alloys system, or '2000' series, as designated through the international alloy designation system originally created in 1970 by the Aluminum Association . In addition to aluminium ,

5428-639: The low speeds and simple construction involved have inspired a small number of biplane ultralights, such as Larry Mauro's Easy Riser (1975–). Mauro also made a version powered with solar cells driving an electric motor called the Solar Riser . Mauro's Easy Riser was used by "Father Goose", Bill Lishman . Other biplane ultralights include the Belgian-designed Aviasud Mistral , the German FK12 Comet (1997–),

5520-516: The lower engines, the lower wings were inclined upwards so the spar would pass above the cabin rather than through it. Both the elevators and ailerons were controlled via a large diameter Y-tube with the core controls being duplicated. The biplane tailplane was furnished with three separate fins . The H.P.42 was powered by four 490 hp (370 kW) Bristol Jupiter XIFs, while the H.P.45 variant used four 555 hp (414 kW) Jupiter XFBM supercharged engines. Both models had their engines in

5612-519: The lower wing. Bracing is nearly always added between the upper and lower wings, in the form of interplane struts positioned symmetrically on either side of the fuselage and bracing wires to keep the structure from flexing, where the wings are not themselves cantilever structures. The primary advantage of the biplane over a monoplane is its ability to combine greater stiffness with lower weight. Stiffness requires structural depth and where early monoplanes had to have this provided with external bracing,

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5704-488: The main materials in duralumin are copper , manganese and magnesium . For instance, Duraluminium 2024 consists of 91-95% aluminium, 3.8-4.9% copper, 1.2-1.8% magnesium, 0.3-0.9% manganese, <0.5% iron, <0.5% silicon, <0.25% zinc, <0.15% titanium, <0.10% chromium and no more than 0.15% of other elements together. Although the addition of copper improves strength, it also makes these alloys susceptible to corrosion . Corrosion resistance can be greatly enhanced by

5796-545: The metallurgical bonding of a high-purity aluminium surface layer, referred to as alclad -duralum. Alclad materials are commonly used in the aircraft industry to this day. Duralumin's remarkable strength and durability stem from its unique microstructure, which is significantly influenced by heat treatment processes. Solid Solution: After initial solidification, duralumin exists as a single-phase solid solution, primarily composed of aluminium atoms with dispersed copper, magnesium, and other alloying elements. This initial state

5888-520: The most famed copies was the Siemens-Schuckert D.I . The Albatros D.III and D.V , which had also copied the general layout from Nieuport, similarly provided the backbone of the German forces during the First World War. The Albatros sesquiplanes were widely acclaimed by their aircrews for their maneuverability and high rate of climb. During interwar period , the sesquiplane configuration continued to be popular, with numerous types such as

5980-542: The night ground attack role throughout the Second World War. In the case of the Po-2, production of the aircraft continued even after the end of the conflict, not ending until around 1952. A significant number of Po-2s were fielded by the Korean People's Air Force during the Korean War , inflicting serious damage during night raids on United Nations bases. The Po-2 is also the only biplane to be credited with

6072-489: The outbreak of World War I in 1914. Despite this, use of the alloy outside Germany did not occur until after fighting ended in 1918. Reports of German use during World War I, even in technical journals such as Flight , could still mis-identify its key alloying component as magnesium rather than copper. Engineers in the UK showed little interest in duralumin until after the war. The earliest known attempt to use duralumin for

6164-486: The outbreak of the First World War biplanes had gained favour after several monoplane structural failures resulted in the RFC's "Monoplane Ban" when all monoplanes in military service were grounded, while the French also withdrew most monoplanes from combat roles and relegated them to training. Figures such as aviation author Bruce observed that there was an apparent prejudice held even against newly-designed monoplanes, such as

6256-447: The propeller diameter would allow to reduce any yaw from an engine being shut down. Automatic slots were fitted to the top wing, which benefited from a new construction approach involving single z-section spars and planking, of duralumin . Slot-type ailerons are also used, each with four hinges and supported by four box-section brackets and both statically and aerodynamically balanced, making for relatively light control forces. Inboard of

6348-424: The reduced stiffness, wire braced monoplanes often had multiple sets of flying and landing wires where a biplane could easily be built with one bay, with one set of landing and flying wires. The extra drag from the wires was not enough to offset the aerodynamic disadvantages from having two airfoils interfering with each other however. Strut braced monoplanes were tried but none of them were successful, not least due to

6440-657: The relatively compact decks of escort carriers . Its low stall speed and inherently tough design made it ideal for operations even in the often severe mid-Atlantic weather conditions. By the end of the conflict, the Swordfish held the distinction of having caused the destruction of a greater tonnage of Axis shipping than any other Allied aircraft. Both the German Heinkel He 50 and the Soviet Polikarpov Po-2 were used with relative success in

6532-441: The same positions with two engines on the upper wing and one on each side of the fuselage on the lower wing. While not common, it was not an original innovation, having been previously used on some of Blériot 's aircraft. The upper engines were placed as close together as permissible by the diameter of their propellers and were mounted on rigid duralumin plates attached to the rear wing spar with welded steel tubing. Fuel tanks were in

6624-434: The same year, and cruised at 140 mph (230 km/h). When the H.P.42s were impressed on 1 September 1939, they had recorded almost a decade without any fatalities while in civilian service. In 1933, after several had been lost or damaged in accidents, Imperial attempted to purchase two more H.P.42s, to be powered by Armstrong Siddeley Tiger engines, but would not accept Handley Page's quoted price of £42,000 each, which

6716-728: The series of Nieuport military aircraft—from the Nieuport 10 through to the Nieuport 27 which formed the backbone of the Allied air forces between 1915 and 1917. The performance of the Nieuport sesquiplanes was so impressive that the Idflieg (the German Inspectorate of flying troops) requested their aircraft manufacturers to produce copies, an effort which was aided by several captured aircraft and detailed drawings; one of

6808-415: The structural problems associated with monoplanes, but offered little improvement for biplanes. The default design for a biplane has the wings positioned directly one above the other. Moving the upper wing forward relative to the lower one is called positive stagger or, more often, simply stagger. It can increase lift and reduce drag by reducing the aerodynamic interference effects between the two wings by

6900-449: The supersaturated solid solution becomes unstable. Fine precipitates, such as CuAl2 and Mg2Si, form within the aluminum matrix. These precipitates act as obstacles to dislocation movement, significantly increasing the alloy's strength and hardness. The final microstructure of duralumin consists of a predominantly aluminium matrix dispersed fine precipitates (CuAl2, Mg2Si) Grain boundaries. The size, distribution, and type of precipitates play

6992-670: The two planes when the high pressure air under the top wing and the low pressure air above the lower wing cancel each other out. This means that a biplane does not in practice obtain twice the lift of the similarly-sized monoplane. The farther apart the wings are spaced the less the interference, but the spacing struts must be longer, and the gap must be extremely large to reduce it appreciably. As engine power and speeds rose late in World War I , thick cantilever wings with inherently lower drag and higher wing loading became practical, which in turn made monoplanes more attractive as it helped solve

7084-400: The upper and lower wings together. The sesquiplane is a type of biplane where one wing (usually the lower) is significantly smaller than the other. The word, from Latin, means "one-and-a-half wings". The arrangement can reduce drag and weight while retaining the biplane's structural advantages. The lower wing may have a significantly shorter span, or a reduced chord . Examples include

7176-412: The upper wing and were gravity-fed. The throttles for the engine included a mechanism which used the first movement from idle to turn on the fuel pump. The fully enclosed crew compartment was located at the nose of the aircraft. There were two passenger cabins, one forward of the wings and the other aft. The H.P.42E carried six (later increased to 12) in the forward compartment and twelve in the aft. There

7268-434: The wings from folding up, and run from the underside of the outer wing to the lower wing root. Conversely, landing wires prevent the wings from sagging, and resist the forces when an aircraft is landing, and run from the upper wing centre section to outboard on the lower wings. Additional drag and anti-drag wires may be used to brace the cabane struts which connect the fuselage to the wings, and interplane struts, which connect

7360-421: The wings from moving forward when the aircraft stops and run the opposite direction to the drag wires. Both of these are usually hidden within the wings, and if the structure is sufficiently stiff otherwise, may be omitted in some designs. Indeed many early aircraft relied on the fabric covering of the wing to provide this rigidity, until higher speeds and forces made this inadequate. Externally, lift wires prevent

7452-513: The wings, tail surfaces and rear fuselage. The fuselage comprises two sections, the unusually long forward section built up around massive riveted girders and partly skinned with corrugated metal, while the rear was built around welded steel tubes and skinned with fabric. Their construction was noted as being relatively expensive. The wings were braced by a Warren truss to simplify rigging, which had already been tested on Boultbee's Handley Page Hare . The engines were placed as close to each other as

7544-399: Was also substantial space allocated for baggage. The H.P.42W variant seated 18 passengers forward and 20 aft, at the cost of a baggage capacity. The cabins featured a high degree of luxury, having been intentionally styled to resemble Pullman railway carriages. Other features aimed at improving passenger comfort including spacious cabins, wide windows, and full onboard services. Initially, as

7636-505: Was caught in an airship hangar fire and burned at Karachi , India on 31 May 1937, making it the only H.P.42/45 not to survive until the Second World War. G-AAXF was named after Helena ( Helen of Troy ). It first flew on 30 December 1931. Like Hengist , it was converted to an Eastern aircraft. Parts of this airplane can be seen in the 1933 film The Solitaire Man . Helena was impressed into service with No. 271 Squadron RAF in May 1940. After

7728-602: Was impressed into No. 271 Squadron RAF as AS981 . It burned after a forced landing on uneven ground at Moresby Parks , near Whitehaven , Cumberland , on 7 August 1940. G-AAUD, production number 42/3, was named for the Carthaginian, Hanno the Navigator , who explored the Atlantic coast of Africa around 570 BC. Hanno first flew on 19 July 1931 and was later converted to a H.P.42(W) ( Hannibal class). It suffered

7820-404: Was more readily accomplished with a biplane. The smaller biplane wing allows greater maneuverability . Following World War I, this helped extend the era of the biplane and, despite the performance disadvantages, most fighter aircraft were biplanes as late as the mid-1930s. Specialist sports aerobatic biplanes are still made in small numbers. Biplanes suffer aerodynamic interference between

7912-425: Was most commonly operated between Paris , Cologne , and Zürich . Heracles features briefly in the 1932 sports comedy The Lucky Number featuring Gordon Harker. On 23 July 1937, it had accumulated one million miles. Heracles was impressed into service with the RAF on 3 March 1940 but was damaged beyond repair in a gale on 19 March 1940 at Whitchurch Airport, Bristol, when it was blown together with Hanno . G-AAXD

8004-575: Was much higher than the original price of £21,000 in 1931, so, instead, they ordered two Short Scyllas , a landplane version of the Short Kent flying boat. Four H.P.42 and four H.P.45 aircraft were delivered, while two of the H.P.45s were later converted into H.P.42s. The first flight of the prototype, Hannibal , was on 14 November 1930. The aircraft was named after Hannibal , the Carthaginian military commander. On 8 August 1931, while on

8096-534: Was named after Horatius , a Roman hero. Horatius first flew on 6 November 1931. Horatius can briefly be seen in action in the film Air Outpost and the 1937 film Stolen Holiday . On 9 December 1937, Horatius was struck by lightning while crossing the Channel from Paris to Croydon. A precautionary landing was made at Lympne where minor damage was found on the wing. In September 1938, Horatius suffered damage to its port undercarriage and lower port wing in

8188-452: Was named after the Roman emperor Hadrian . Hadrian's first flight was on 24 June 1931. The aircraft made a brief appearance in the 1936 movie Song of Freedom starring Paul Robeson . On the outbreak of the Second World War, Hadrian was impressed into No. 271 Squadron RAF as AS982, at RAF Odiham . On 6 December 1940, Hadrian was torn loose from its moorings at Doncaster Airport in

8280-519: Was prohibited from producing aircraft during the American occupation of Japan, manufactured the “cross” bicycle out of surplus wartime duralumin in 1946. The “cross” was designed by Kiro Honjo , a former aircraft designer responsible for the Mitsubishi G4M . Duralumin use in bicycle manufacturing faded in the 1970s and 1980s. Vitus nonetheless released the venerable “979” frameset in 1979,

8372-435: Was typical for the period, there were no seatbelts until an unrelated air accident motivated Imperial Airways to install them. On 14 November 1930, the prototype, now named Hannibal and registered as G-AAGX, was flown by Squadron Leader Thomas Harold England for the types first flight. In May 1931, the aircraft was granted its certificate of airworthiness , permitting its use for commercial flights. On 11 June of that year,

8464-777: Was widely used by the United States Army Air Force (USAAF) while the US Navy operated the Naval Aircraft Factory N3N . In later civilian use in the US, the Stearman became particularly associated with stunt flying such as wing-walking , and with crop dusting, where its compactness worked well at low levels, where it had to dodge obstacles. Modern biplane designs still exist in specialist roles such as aerobatics and agricultural aircraft with

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