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97-499: Often considered the "culminating" or "greatest" Legalist texts, Han Fei was dubbed by A. C. Graham amongst as the "great synthesizer" of 'Legalism'". Sun Tzu 's The Art of War incorporates both a Daoist philosophy of inaction and impartiality, and a 'Legalist' system of punishment and rewards, recalling Han Fei's use of the concepts of power and technique. Among the most important philosophical classics in ancient China, it touches on administration, diplomacy, war and economics, and

194-406: A harem of 180 concubines into soldiers. Sun Tzu divided them into two companies, appointing the two concubines most favored by the king as the company commanders. When Sun Tzu first ordered the concubines to face right, they giggled. In response, Sun Tzu said that the general, in this case himself, was responsible for ensuring that soldiers understood the commands given to them. Then, he reiterated

291-536: A Western text on warfare and strategy. For example, the eleventh chapter states that a leader must be "serene and inscrutable" and capable of comprehending "unfathomable plans". The text contains many similar remarks that have long confused Western readers lacking an awareness of the East Asian context . The meanings of such statements are clearer when interpreted in the context of Taoist thought and practice. Despite its title, The Art of War addresses strategy in

388-542: A broad fashion, touching upon public administration and planning. The text outlines theories of battle, but also advocates diplomacy and the cultivation of relationships with other nations as essential to the health of a state. As such, the book has also become popular among political leaders and those in business management . For example, in the 1987 film Wall Street , the protagonist Gordon Gekko frequently cites passages from The Art of War as guiding principles for his aggressive trading techniques. On 10 April 1972,

485-473: A child only speaks when a parent permits them to speak. Following orders from a person of authority means that one is showing respect, therefore that one is following the Rectification of Names without explicitly acknowledging it. Confucius' belief in the Rectification of Names is still practiced in today's society, for example when a teacher asks a student to address a visitor, that student will follow

582-418: A context of social decadence. Phan Ngọc claimed that Han Fei's writings has three drawbacks, however: first, his idea of Legalism was unsuited to autocracy because a ruling dynasty will sooner or later deteriorate. Second, due to the inherent limitation of autocratic monarchy system, Han Fei did not manage to provide the solutions for all the issues that he pointed out. Third, Han Fei was wrong to think that human

679-418: A late Warring states figure. Because Sima Qian only mentions a few chapters, it is not possible to outright preclude a Han dynasty origin for the entire work, but it does not mention any Han dynasty events, or avoid any Han dynasty taboos that would prohibit a late Warring States dating. Except insomuch as they might be a compilation, some chapters would have to be at least that late. Chapter's 6 and 19 recalls

776-534: A much more detailed account of the Battle of Boju, but does not mention Sun Tzu at all. Around the 12th century AD, some Chinese scholars began to doubt the historical existence of Sun Tzu, primarily on the grounds that he is not mentioned in the historical classic Zuo Zhuan , which mentions most of the notable figures from the Spring and Autumn period. The name "Sun Wu" ( 孫武 ) does not appear in any text prior to

873-478: A natural law that everyone and everything was forced to follow, like a force of nature. Being older than more recent scholarship, translator W. K. Liao (1960) described the world view of the Han Feizi as "purely Taoistic", advocating a "doctrine of inaction" nonetheless followed by an "insistence on the active application of the two handles to government", this being the "difference between Han Fei Tzŭ's ideas and

970-413: A primary premise of Han Fei's administrative theory. However, he includes it under his theory of shu (administrative techniques) in connection with xing-ming . As a matter of illustration, if the "keeper of the hat" lays a robe on the sleeping Emperor, he has to be put to death for overstepping his office, while the "keeper of the robe" has to be put to death for failing to do his duty. The philosophy of

1067-636: A ruler, his "mental power, moral excellence and physical prowess" are not as important as his method of government. Fa require no perfection on the part of the ruler. If the Han Fei's wu wei was derivative of a proto-Daoism, its Dao nonetheless emphasizes autocracy ("Tao does not identify with anything but itself, the ruler does not identify with the ministers"). Accepting that the Han Feizi applies wu wei specifically to statecraft, professor Xing Lu nonetheless argues that it actually does consider wu wei

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1164-591: A school of theorists in Qi or Wu ; Sun Bin ; and others. Sun Bin appears to have been an actual person who was a genuine authority on military matters, and may have been the inspiration for the creation of the historical figure "Sun Tzu" through a form of euhemerism . The name Sun Wu does appear in later sources such as the Shiji and the Wu Yue Chunqiu , but were written centuries after Sun Tzu's era. The use of

1261-422: A standard language in which ancient rulers could impose laws that everyone could understand to avoid confusion. Each person has a social standing and a social name. With their social names comes responsibilities and duties. Ruler, minister, father and son all have social names therefore need to fulfill their required social duties of respect (The rectification of names). For example, in the study of Chinese culture

1358-886: A subject's true merit" (using Fa). It is said that using names ( ming ) to demand realities ( shi ) exalts superiors and curbs inferiors, provides a check on the discharge of duties, and naturally results in emphasizing the high position of superiors, compelling subordinates to act in the manner of the latter. Han Fei considers xing-ming an essential element of autocracy, saying that "In the way of assuming Oneness names are of first importance. When names are put in order, things become settled down; when they go awry, things become unfixed." He emphasizes that through this system, earlier developed by Shen Buhai, uniformity of language could be developed, functions could be strictly defined to prevent conflict and corruption, and objective rules ( fa ) impervious to divergent interpretation could be established, judged solely by their effectiveness. By narrowing down

1455-530: A theme that had been introduced by Confucius saying: "Let the ruler be ruler, the subject subject; let the father be father, and the son son." Chapter 22, "on the Rectification of Names", claims the ancient sage kings chose names ( Chinese : 名 ; pinyin : míng ) that directly corresponded with actualities ( Chinese : 實 ; pinyin : shí ), but later generations confused terminology, coined new nomenclature, and thus could no longer distinguish right from wrong. Xun Zi not only wrote that chapter on

1552-455: A third school claims that the slips were published in the last half of the 5th century BC; this is based on how its adherents interpret the bamboo slips discovered at Yinque Shan in 1972. The Art of War is traditionally ascribed to Sun Tzu. It presents a philosophy of war for managing conflicts and winning battles. It is accepted as a masterpiece on strategy and has been frequently cited and referred to by generals and theorists since it

1649-432: A virtue, and not just a tool or argument for the ruler to reduce activity and act impartially. The Han Feizi says, "by virtue [ de ] of resting empty and reposed, he waits for the course of nature to enforce itself." As one of the work's first chapters, Han Fei's chapter five begins by advising the ruler to remain "empty and still". Tao is the beginning of the myriad things, the standard of right and wrong. That being so,

1746-570: Is a component incorporated in the Art of War . According to Steven C. Combs in "Sun-zi and the Art of War : The Rhetoric of Parsimony", warfare is "used as a metaphor for rhetoric, and that both are philosophically based arts." Combs writes: "Warfare is analogous to persuasion, as a battle for hearts and minds." Combs compares Taoist and Aristotelian rhetoric, notably for the differences in persuasion. Daoist rhetoric in The Art of War warfare strategies

1843-567: Is also valuable for its abundance of anecdotes about pre- Qin China. Though differing considerably in style, the coherency of the essays lend themselves to the possibility that much was written by Han Fei himself, and are generally considered more philosophically engaging than the Book of Lord Shang . Zhuge Liang is said to have attached great importance to the Han Feizi, as well as to Han Fei's predecessor Shen Buhai . Sima Qian presents Han Fei as

1940-503: Is critical in understanding China's push to become a superpower in the twenty-first century. Modern Chinese scholars explicitly rely on historical strategic lessons and The Art of War in developing their theories, seeing a direct relationship between their modern struggles and those of China in Sun Tzu's time. There is a great perceived value in Sun Tzu's teachings and other traditional Chinese writers, which are used regularly in developing

2037-530: Is described as "peaceful and passive, favoring silence over speech". This form of communication is parsimonious . Parsimonious behavior, which is highly emphasized in The Art of War as avoiding confrontation and being spiritual in nature, shapes basic principles in Taoism. In Sun Tzu and the Art of Modern Warfare , Mark McNeilly writes that a modern interpretation of Sun and his importance throughout Chinese history

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2134-463: Is doubt as to Sun Tzu's rank and generalship. This caused much confusion as to when The Art of War was actually written. The first traditional view is that it was written in 512 BC by the historical Sun Wu, active in the last years of the Spring and Autumn period ( c.  722 –481 BC). A second view, held by scholars such as Samuel Griffith, places The Art of War during the middle to late Warring States period ( c.  481 –221 BC). Finally,

2231-620: Is inherently evil and only seeks fame and profit: there are humans who sacrificed their own profit for the greater good, including Han Fei himself. Trần Ngọc Vương  [ vi ] considered the Han Feizi to be superior to Machiavelli's Prince , and claimed that Han Fei's ideology was highly refined for its era. Although considering the Han Feizi rich and erudite, Sinologist Chad Hansen does not consider Han Fei particularly original, philosophical or ethical" and "more polemical than reasoned", with unjustified assumptions and cynicism recognizable "from all self-described realists", resting on

2328-576: Is more popularly known—is an honorific which means "Master Sun ". Sun Tzu mastered the military science of ancient China and created the military doctrine of asymmetrical warfare. According to it, an attack on the enemy should begin only after the enemy has no opportunity to either defend or counterattack. It was used in the wars in the era of the Warring States in ancient China (about 475–221 BC). Those combat combinations had specific names, descriptions and classifications. Sun Tzu's historicity

2425-457: Is regarded as extremely important by scholars, both because of Sun Bin's relationship to Sun Tzu and because of the work's addition to the body of military thought in Chinese late antiquity. The discovery as a whole significantly expanded the body of surviving Warring States military theory. Sun Bin's treatise is the only known military text surviving from the Warring States period discovered in

2522-470: Is said: If those who benefit from a lord's death are many, the ruler will be imperiled.". As compared with the Han Feizi, much of the early Book of Lord Shang is more focused on state power in relation to the general populace, emphasizing agriculture and war. It only really starts to develop ideas of managing ministers later in the work. A noteable example, Chapter 24's "Interdicts and Encouragements", begins to develop ideas on power similar to Shen Dao , but

2619-565: Is traditionally credited as the author of The Art of War , an influential work of military strategy that has affected both Western and East Asian philosophy and military thought. Sun Tzu is revered in Chinese and East Asian culture as a legendary historical and military figure. His birth name was Sun Wu ( traditional Chinese : 孫武 ; simplified Chinese : 孙武 ) and he was known outside of his family by his courtesy name Changqing ( Chinese : 長卿 ). The name Sun Tzu —by which he

2716-417: Is uncertain. The Han dynasty historian Sima Qian and other traditional Chinese historians placed him as a minister to King Helü of Wu and dated his lifetime to 544–496 BC. Modern scholars accepting his historicity place the extant text of The Art of War in the later Warring States period of 475 to 221 BC, based on its style of composition and its descriptions of warfare. Traditional accounts state that

2813-628: Is undifferentiated then he can understand when actuality is pure, and if he is quiescent then he can understand when movement is correct. The Han Feizi's commentary on the Daodejing would seem to assert that perspective-less knowledge – an absolute point of view – is possible. But scholarship has generally considered it an addendum, given differences with the rest of the work. Han Fei was notoriously focused on what he termed xing-ming , which Sima Qian and Liu Xiang define as "holding actual outcome accountable to ming (speech)." In line with both

2910-523: Is very late in the work and also of likely later dating than it's earlier chapters. Some authors of the Han Feizi took a negative view of Confucianism, and the work has little interest in them as scholars or philosophers. However, at least compared with the Book of Lord Shang, the Han Feizi is arguably still of more Confucian orientation even if it incorporates Shang Yangian reward and punishment. Although it's much later administrative mechanisms are more complex,

3007-455: The Zhuangzi says that "great words are overflowing; small words haggling"(2.2), the true self lacks form (2.3), the mind can spontaneously select (2.4), asks whether language is different from the chirping of birds (2.5), and rejects assertion and denial (2.7), saying "to wear out one's spirit like powers contriving some view... without understanding that it is all the same is called 'three in

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3104-464: The Battle of Boju , has no record of him fighting in that battle. Skeptics cite possible historical inaccuracies and anachronisms in the text, and that the book was actually a compilation from different authors and military strategists. Attribution of the authorship of The Art of War varies among scholars and has included people and movements including Sun; Chu scholar Wu Zixu ; an anonymous author;

3201-662: The Kuomintang to The Art of War . The work strongly influenced writings about warfare in Mao's Little Red Book , which further influenced communist insurgencies around the world. The Art of War was introduced into Nara Japan in c.  AD 760 and the book quickly became popular among Japanese military generals. Through its later influence on the Sengoku period "Great Unifiers" of Japan, Oda Nobunaga , Toyotomi Hideyoshi , and Tokugawa Ieyasu , it significantly affected

3298-638: The Mawangdui silk texts . Han Fei describes an interest-driven human nature together with the political methodologies to work with it in the interest of the state and Sovereign, namely, engaging in passive observation , and the systematic use of fa ( 法 ; fǎ ; 'law', 'measurement') to maintain leadership and manage human resources, its use to increase welfare, and its relation with justice. Rather than rely too much on worthies, who might not be trustworthy, Han Fei binds their programs to systematic reward and penalty (the 'two handles'), fishing

3395-555: The Records of the Grand Historian , and may have been a made-up descriptive cognomen meaning "the fugitive warrior" – the surname "Sun" can be glossed as the related term "fugitive" ( xùn 遜 ), while "Wu" is the ancient Chinese virtue of "martial, valiant" ( wǔ 武 ), which corresponds to Sun Tzu's role as the hero's doppelgänger in the story of Wu Zixu . The only historical battle attributed to Sun Tzu,

3492-568: The Yinqueshan Han Tombs were accidentally unearthed by construction workers in Shandong . Scholars uncovered a collection of ancient texts written on unusually well-preserved bamboo slips . Among them were The Art of War and Sun Bin 's Military Methods . Although Han dynasty bibliographies noted the latter publication as extant and written by a descendant of Sun, it had previously been lost. The rediscovery of Sun Bin's work

3589-662: The unification of Japan in the early modern era. After the Meiji Restoration , it remained popular among the Imperial Japanese armed forces . Admiral Tōgō Heihachirō , who led Japan's forces to victory in the Russo-Japanese War , was an avid reader of Sun Tzu. Ho Chi Minh translated the work for his Vietnamese officers to study. His general Võ Nguyên Giáp was likewise an avid student and practitioner of Sun Tzu's ideas. Taoist rhetoric

3686-423: The "Two Handles" likens the ruler to the tiger or leopard, which "overpowers other animals by its sharp teeth and claws" (rewards and punishments). Without them he is like any other man; his existence depends upon them. To "avoid any possibility of usurpation by his ministers", power and the "handles of the law" must "not be shared or divided", concentrating them in the ruler exclusively. In practice, this means that

3783-580: The Confucian and Mohist rectification of names , it is relatable to the Confucian tradition in which a promise or undertaking, especially in relation to a government aim, entails punishment or reward, though the tight, centralized control emphasized by the Han Feizi and predecessor Shen Buhai 's conflicts with the Confucian idea of the autonomous minister. Possibly referring to the drafting and imposition of laws and standardized legal terms, xing-ming may originally have meant "punishments and names", but with

3880-684: The Confucian argument for virtuous worthies with administrative methods, some originating in Shen Buhai , the Han Feizi says of Shang Yang's Qin state : "Although the laws were rigorously implemented by the officials, the ruler at the apex lacked methods." Devoting the entirety of Chapter 14, "How to Love the Ministers", to "persuading the ruler to be ruthless to his ministers", Han Fei's enlightened ruler strikes terror into his ministers by doing nothing ( wu wei ). Discarding his private reason and morality, he shows no personal feelings. The qualities of

3977-632: The Confucian concept of ceremony ( Li , 禮). For the most part, Confucianism does not emphasize Fa, though the concept of norms that people can apply themselves is an older idea, and Han Confucians embraced Fa as an essential element of administration. Evolving out of the Mohists and school of logicians, reformer Shen Buhai insisted that the ruler must be fully informed on the state of his realm, using Fa as administrative method to sort out informational categories or define functions ("names"). Shen Buhai and later Han Fei (280–233 BC) used this variation on

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4074-536: The Fa concept) as for the Mohists, Fa provided a system of objective, reliable, publicly accessible standards or models that individuals could use for themselves to decide their own actions, in contrast to what Sinologist Chad Hansen terms the "cultivated intuition of self-admiration societies" whereby scholars steeped in old texts maintained a monopoly on moral decision-making. At the same time, Fa could also complement traditional schemes, and Guan Zhong himself uses it alongside

4171-422: The Grand Historian ( Shiji ) state that Sun Tzu was born in Qi . Both sources also agree that Sun Tzu was born in the late Spring and Autumn period and that he was active as a general and strategist, serving King Helü of Wu in the sixth century BC, beginning around 512 BC. Sun Tzu's victories then inspired him to write The Art of War . The Art of War was one of the most widely read military treatises in

4268-589: The Han Feizi has bureaucratic system of names (roles) that can be still compared with the much earlier Confucian rectification of names , and is more focused on forbidding and encouraging ministers who, rather than the stratocracy of the Book of Lord Shang, may very well be Confucians themselves. Although the Han Feizi advocates law, it also criticizes Shang Yang in much the same way that the Confucians critique law. Holding that laws cannot practice themselves, it blames him for too much reliance on law. Substituting

4365-447: The Spring and Autumn Annals, those men who violated the laws, committed treason, and carried out major acts of evil always worked through some eminent and highly placed minister. And yet the laws and regulations are customarily designed to prevent evil among the humble and lowly people, and it is upon them alone that penalties and punishments fall. Hence the common people lose hope and are left with no place to air their grievances. Meanwhile

4462-410: The ascension to superior human beings through the principles of li and jen . The proper operation of oneself ultimately depends on the role of zhèngmíng; essentially a circle of dependency in terms of the practice and application of principles and ways. In Confucianism, the Rectification of Names means that "things in actual fact should be made to accord with the implications attached to them by names,

4559-410: The bounds of office. Han Fei's 'brilliant ruler' "orders names to name themselves and affairs to settle themselves." "If the ruler wishes to bring an end to treachery then he examines into the congruence of the congruence of xing (form) and claim (ming). This means to ascertain if words differ from the job. A minister sets forth his words and on the basis of his words the ruler assigns him a job. Then

4656-511: The command, and again the concubines giggled. Sun Tzu then ordered the execution of the king's two favored concubines, to the king's protests. He explained that if the general's soldiers understood their commands but did not obey, it was the fault of the officers. Sun Tzu also said that, once a general was appointed, it was his duty to carry out his mission, even if the king protested. After both concubines were killed, new officers were chosen to replace them. Afterward, both companies, now well aware of

4753-559: The corrector of motion. Who utters a word creates himself a name; who has an affair creates himself a form. Compare forms and names and see if they are identical. Then the ruler will find nothing to worry about as everything is reduced to its reality. Tao exists in invisibility; its function, in unintelligibility. Be empty and reposed and have nothing to do-Then from the dark see defects in the light. See but never be seen. Hear but never be heard. Know but never be known. If you hear any word uttered, do not change it nor move it but compare it with

4850-469: The costs of further frivolity, performed their maneuvers flawlessly. Sima Qian claimed that Sun Tzu later proved on the battlefield that his theories were effective (for example, at the Battle of Boju ), that he had a successful military career, and that he wrote The Art of War based on his tested expertise. However, the Zuozhuan , a historical text written centuries earlier than the Shiji , provides

4947-499: The deed and see if word and deed coincide with each other. Place every official with a censor. Do not let them speak to each other. Then everything will be exerted to the utmost. Cover tracks and conceal sources. Then the ministers cannot trace origins. Leave your wisdom and cease your ability. Then your subordinates cannot guess at your limitations. The bright ruler is undifferentiated and quiescent in waiting, causing names (roles) to define themselves and affairs to fix themselves. If he

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5044-434: The differing theories concerning the work's author or authors and date of completion are unlikely to be completely resolved. Some modern scholars believe that it contains not only the thoughts of its original author but also commentary and clarifications from later military theorists, such as Li Quan and Du Mu . Of the military texts written before the unification of China and Shi Huangdi 's subsequent book burning in

5141-400: The doctrine to include questions of political legitimacy . When Confucius was asked what he would do if he was a governor, he said he would " rectify the names" to make words correspond to reality. The Analects states that social disorder often stems from failure to call things by their proper names, that is, to perceive, understand, and deal with reality . Confucius' solution to this

5238-545: The emphasis on benevolence an "aristocratic and elitist ideal" demanding that "all ordinary people of the time be like Confucius' disciples". Moreover, he dismisses it as impracticable, saying that "In their settled knowledge, the literati are removed from the affairs of the state ... What can the ruler gain from their settled knowledge?", and points out that "Confucianism" is not a unified body of thought. In opposition to Confucian family sentiment, Tao Jiang (2021) takes Han Fei's analysis of family dynamics as based entirely on

5335-424: The emphasis on the latter. It functions through binding declarations ( ming ), like a legal contract. Verbally committing oneself, a candidate is allotted a job, indebting him to the ruler. "Naming" people to (objectively determined) positions, it rewards or punishes according to the proposed job description and whether the results fit the task entrusted by their word, which a real minister fulfils. Han Fei insists on

5432-405: The fall of several late Warring states period states. Chapter 6's memorial on Having Regulations recalls the fall of Wey in 243bce. Chapter 19's Taking Measures might have been written not long after the fall Zhao (228bce) and Wei (225bce). Containing some of the first commentaries on the tao te ching (Laozi), Chinese scholarship concurred with the west on a late dating for Laozi content in

5529-472: The familiar sneering tone of superior realistic insight." Sun Tzu Sun Tzu ( / s uː n ˈ d z uː , s uː n ˈ s uː / soon DZOO , soon SOO ; traditional Chinese : 孫子 ; simplified Chinese : 孙子 ; pinyin : Sūnzǐ ) was a Chinese military general , strategist , philosopher , and writer who lived during the Eastern Zhou period (771–256 BC). Sun Tzu

5626-493: The field of politics. This basic yet powerful precept has served as a means for the toppling and reforming of dynasties. In today's society, the rectification of names is being used popularly with government decisions. Backed by strong public demands, Taiwan during Democratic Progressive Party administrations puts effort into reviewing the names of state-owned enterprises and government entities to preserve their unique identity from Chinese influence. For those who still practice

5723-435: The former to the latter. And that with the application of such practices in day-to-day life, societal problems would be solved and righteous government would be achieved. The carrying out of these relational duties would equate the proper channeling of li and the correct use of zhèngmíng congruent to Confucius' teachings leading to the envisioned path of his doctrine; a moral and efficient society and individuals who have achieved

5820-456: The general's descendant Sun Bin wrote a treatise on military tactics, also titled The Art of War . Since both Sun Wu and Sun Bin were referred to as "Sun Tzu" in classical Chinese texts, some historians believed them identical, prior to the rediscovery of Sun Bin's treatise in 1972. Sun Tzu's work has been praised and employed throughout the arc of East Asian military history since its composition, and eventually earned global attention. During

5917-454: The high ministers band together and work as one man to cloud the vision of the ruler. (Watson trans. 2003, 89) Apart from the influence of Confucianist Xun Zi , who was his and Li Si 's teacher, because of the Han Feizi' s commentary on the Daodejing , interpreted as a political text, the Han Feizi has sometimes been included as part of the syncretist Huang-Lao tradition, seeing the Tao as

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6014-705: The instructions. Because the rectification of names in the Analects of Confucius appears to have been written later, the rectification of names has been argued in western sinology to have earlier have originated in Mozi (470–391 BC). Noting that the term Chengming or rectification of names only appears once in the Analects, and not at all in Mencius , Sinologist Herrlee G. Creel argued for its further earlier development through "Legalist" Shen Buhai (400–337 BC) for

6111-410: The intelligent ruler, by holding to the beginning, knows the source of everything, and, by keeping to the standard, knows the origin of good and evil. Therefore, by virtue of resting empty and reposed, he waits for the course of nature to enforce itself so that all names will be defined of themselves and all affairs will be settled of themselves. Empty, he knows the essence of fullness: reposed, he becomes

6208-520: The later thought of the Han dynasty linguist Xu Gan than that of either Shen Buhai or his supposed teacher Xun Kuang . Though not entirely accurately, most Han works identify Shang Yang with penal law. Its discussion of bureaucratic control is simplistic, chiefly advocating punishment and reward. Shang Yang was largely unconcerned with the organization of the bureaucracy apart from this. The use of these "two handles" (punishment and reward) nonetheless forms

6305-413: The law. Although noting an opposition between politic and morality, Tao Jiang takes Han Fei's opposition in this as clearly pointing to a moral dimension in his vision of political order. In what Tao Jiang takes as one of Han Fei's "most powerful condemnation of the gross injustice suffered by the commoners", Han Fei says: Judging from the tales handed down from high antiquity and the incidents recorded in

6402-480: The more primitive small-scale battles that many believe predominated in China during the 6th century BC. Against this, Sawyer argues that the teachings of Sun Wu were probably taught to succeeding generations in his family or a small school of disciples, which eventually included Sun Bin. These descendants or students may have revised or expanded upon certain points in the original text. Skeptics who identify issues with

6499-402: The morning ' ". Nets are for catching fish; after one gets the fish, one forgets the net. Traps are for catching rabbits; after one gets the rabbit, one forgets the trap. Words are for getting meaning; after one gets the meaning, one forgets the words. Where can I find people who have forgotten words, and have a word with them? Xun Zi wrote a chapter on "The Rectification of Names" developing

6596-421: The noble, does not exclude ministers, and does not discriminate against the common people. Linking the "public" sphere with justice and objective standards, for Han Fei, the private and public had always opposed each other. Taking after Shang Yang he lists the Confucians among his "five vermin", and calls the Confucian teaching on love and compassion for the people the "stupid teaching" and "muddle-headed chatter",

6693-478: The options to exactly one, discussions on the "right way of government" could be eliminated. Whatever the situation ( shi ) brings is the correct Dao. Though recommending use of Shen Buhai 's techniques, Han Fei's xing-ming is both considerably narrower and more specific. The functional dichotomy implied in Han Fei's mechanistic accountability is not readily implied in Shen's, and might be said to be more in line with

6790-509: The people do not know how to move hand or foot. Therefore a superior man considers it necessary that the names he uses may be spoken appropriately, and also that what he speaks may be carried out appropriately. What the superior man requires is just that in his words there may be nothing incorrect. The teaching of Confucius consist of five basic relationships in life: In the above relationships, Confucius teaches that righteous, considerate, kind, benevolent, and gentle treatment should be applied by

6887-409: The perfect congruence between words and deeds. Fitting the name is more important than results. The completion, achievement, or result of a job is its assumption of a fixed form ( xing ), which can then be used as a standard against the original claim ( ming ). A large claim but a small achievement is inappropriate to the original verbal undertaking, while a larger achievement takes credit by overstepping

6984-478: The position of the ruler, requiring structural solutions rather than Confucian education or moral cultivation. According to the Liji , an "important early Confucian canon", penal laws should not be applied to high officials. As a major source of political corruption, ministers shielded family members from penal measures in the name of Humaneness and others moral justifications. Only those without connections are subject to

7081-586: The power of the ruler, this scheme effectively neutralizes him, reducing his role to the maintenance of the system of reward and punishments, determined according to impartial methods and enacted by specialists expected to protect him through their usage thereof. Combining Shen Buhai's methods with Shang Yang's insurance mechanisms, Han Fei's ruler simply employs anyone offering their services. While Shen Buhai and Shen Dao 's current may not have been hostile to Confucius, Shang Yang and Han Fei emphasize their rejection of past models as unverifiable if not useless ("what

7178-458: The prerequisites for correct living and even efficient government being that all classes of society should accord to what they ought to be". Without the rectification of names, different words would have different actions. This essentially means for every action, there is a word that describes that action. The belief is that by following the Rectification of Names, one would be following the correct/right path. The rectification of names also calls for

7275-431: The rectification of names for appointment, matching the words or "names" of the official with his performance. Han Fei bases his propositions for lingual uniformity upon the development of this system, proposing that functions could be strictly defined to prevent conflict and corruption, and objective rules (Fa) impervious to divergent interpretation could be established, judged solely by their effectiveness. By contrast,

7372-403: The rectification. Li in itself can be seen as the root of all this propriety and social etiquette discussed in the rectification of names as the cure to society's problems and the solution to a moral and efficient government and society. The concept of rectification of names is one of the most basic mottoes of Chinese philosophy. It has been applied to a broad range of issues and mainly resides in

7469-471: The regicide of his era. Sinologist Goldin writes: "Most of what appears in the Han Feizi deals with the ruler's relations with his ministers, [who] were regarded as the party most likely, in practice, to cause him harm." Han Fei quotes the Springs and Autumns of Tao Zuo : "'Less than half of all rulers die of illness.' If the ruler of men is unaware of this, disorders will be manifold and unrestrained. Thus it

7566-696: The resolution of sociopolitical issues, not simply administration. The Mohist and "Legalistic" version of the rectification of names emphasizes the use of hermeneutics to find "objective models" ("fa", 法) for ethics and politics, as well as in practical fields of work, to order or govern society. Mozi advocated language standards appropriate for use by ordinary people. With minimal training, anyone could use these "objective, particularly operational or measurement-like standards", giving identical names to equivalent social relationships and functions so as to apply identical standards of "correct" behavior in analogous situations. For Guan Zhong (who seemingly originated

7663-411: The ruler acted on arbitrary, ad-hoc decision making, such as that based on relationships or morality which, as a product of reason, are "particular and fallible". Li, or Confucian customs, and rule by example are also simply too ineffective. The ruler cannot act on a case-by-case basis, and so must establish an overarching system, acting through Fa (administrative methods or standards). Fa is not partial to

7760-412: The ruler holds the minister accountable for the achievement which is based solely on his job. If the achievement fits his job, and the job fits his words, then he is rewarded. If the achievement does not fit his jobs and the job does not fit his words, then he will be punished. Assessing the accountability of his words to his deeds, the ruler attempts to "determine rewards and punishments in accordance with

7857-431: The ruler must be isolated from his ministers. The elevation of ministers endangers the ruler, from whom he must be kept strictly apart. Punishment confirms his sovereignty; law eliminates anyone who oversteps his boundary, regardless of intention. Law "aims at abolishing the selfish element in man and the maintenance of public order", making the people responsible for their actions. Han Fei's rare appeal, among Legalists, to

7954-599: The same reasons. However, as Creel himself argued, Shen Buhai has Confucian elements and is largely administrative. The idea of the rectification of names, is, at least, consonant throughout the Analects. The earlier Sinologists were more focused on terms, and Creel's argument for Shen Buhai did not gain traction, although Shen Buhai's rectification is relevant for the Han Feizi . More modernly, professor Zhenbin Sun considers Mozi's rectification itself consonant with Confucian usages. Mozi moreover considered it an important factor in

8051-590: The second century BC, six major works have survived. During the much later Song dynasty , these six works were combined with a Tang text into a collection called the Seven Military Classics . As a central part of that compilation, The Art of War formed the foundations of orthodox military theory in early modern China. Illustrating this point, the book was required reading to pass the tests for imperial appointment to military positions. Sun Tzu's The Art of War uses language that may be unusual in

8148-453: The strategies of the Chinese state and its leaders. Rectification of names The rectification of names ( Chinese : 正 名 ; pinyin : Zhèngmíng ; Wade–Giles : Cheng-ming ) is originally a doctrine of feudal Confucian designations and relationships, behaving accordingly to ensure social harmony. Without such accordance society would essentially crumble and "undertakings would not be completed." Mencius extended

8245-454: The strips in other works, however, such as The Methods of the Sima is considered proof of Sun Tzu's historical priority. According to Ralph Sawyer, it is very likely Sun Tzu did exist and not only served as a general, but also wrote the core of the book that bears his name. It is argued that there is a disparity between the large-scale wars and sophisticated techniques detailed in the text and

8342-440: The subjects of the state by feeding them with interests. That being done, the ruler minimizes his own input, intending to make no judgement apart from observances of the facts. Like Shang Yang and other fa philosophers, he admonishes the ruler not to abandon fa for any other means, considering it a more practical means for the administration of both a large territory and personnel near at hand. Han Fei's philosophy proceeds from

8439-548: The subsequent Warring States period , a time of constant war among seven ancient Chinese states— Zhao , Qi , Qin , Chu , Han , Wei , and Yan —who fought to control the vast expanse of fertile territory in Eastern China. One of the better-known stories about Sun Tzu, taken from Sima Qian, illustrates Sun Tzu's temperament as follows: Before hiring Sun Tzu, the King of Wu tested Sun Tzu's skills by commanding him to train

8536-549: The teachings of the orthodox Taoists (who advocated non-action from start to finish)." Liao compares Han Fei's thought to Shang Yang , "directing his main attention... to the issues between ruler and minister... teaching the ruler how to maintain supremacy and why to weaken the minister." Phan Ngọc  [ vi ] in his foreword to the Han Feizi praised Han Fei as a knowledgeable man with sharp, logical and firm arguments, supported by large amount of practical and realistic evidence. Han Fei's strict methods were appropriate in

8633-460: The topic of the rectification of names but went as far as to develop/expand the rectification into a system of logic. Xun Zi, who believed that man's inborn tendencies need to be curbed through education and ritual, countered to Mencius 's view that man is innately good. He believed that ethical norms had been invented to rectify mankind. Other philosophers and logicians such as Guanzi , Mozi , and Gongsun Long developed their own theories regarding

8730-520: The traditionalist view point to possible anachronisms in The Art of War including terms, technology (such as anachronistic crossbows ), philosophical ideas, events, and military techniques that should not have been available to Sun Wu. Additionally, there are no records of professional generals during the Spring and Autumn period ; these are only extant from the Warring States period , so there

8827-449: The twentieth century and bears the closest similarity to The Art of War of all surviving texts. Sun Tzu's Art of War has influenced many notable figures. The Han dynasty historian Sima Qian recounted that China's first historical emperor , Qin 's Shi Huangdi , considered the book invaluable in ending the time of the Warring States . In the twentieth century, Mao Zedong partially credited his 1949 victory over Chiang Kai-shek and

8924-503: The twentieth century, The Art of War grew in popularity and saw practical use in the Western world as well. It remains influential in many contemporary competitive endeavors across the modern world beyond military strategy and warfare, including espionage, culture, governance, business, and sports. The oldest available sources disagree as to where Sun Tzu was born. The Spring and Autumn Annals and Sima Qian 's later Records of

9021-439: The use of scholars (law and method specialists) makes him comparable to the Confucians, in that sense. The ruler cannot inspect all officials himself, and must rely on the decentralized (but faithful) application of fa . Contrary to Shen Buhai and his own rhetoric, Han Fei insists that loyal ministers (like Guan Zhong , Shang Yang , and Wu Qi ) exist, and upon their elevation with maximum authority. Though Fa-Jia sought to enhance

9118-401: The work. But it also does not contain as much naturalist argument that would be expected of later Daoist works going into the Han dynasty. The Han Feizi itself contributes to a late dating for the modern tao te ching's compilation. If they had been around a long time, they might have developed Han dynasty arguments. The Han Feizi is probably reading from an earlier, less metaphysical version, like

9215-504: Was appropriate for the early kings is not appropriate for modern rulers"). Han Fei argued that the age of Li had given way to the age of Fa, with natural order giving way to social order and finally political order. Together with that of Xun Kuang, their sense of human progress and reason guided the Qin dynasty. Intending his Dao (way of government) to be both objective and publicly projectable, Han Fei argued that disastrous results would occur if

9312-413: Was first published, translated, and distributed internationally. There are numerous theories concerning when the text was completed and concerning the identity of the author or authors, but archeological recoveries show The Art of War had taken roughly its current form by at least the early Han period. Because it is impossible to prove definitively when the Art of War was completed before this date,

9409-556: Was the "rectification of names". He gave an explanation to one of his disciples: A superior man, in regard to what he does not know, shows a cautious reserve. If names be not correct, language is not in accordance with the truth of things. If language be not in accordance with the truth of things, affairs cannot be carried on to success. When affairs cannot be carried on to success, proprieties and music do not flourish. When proprieties and music do not flourish, punishments will not be properly awarded. When punishments are not properly awarded,

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