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115-505: Zhuangzi may refer to: Zhuangzi (book) (莊子), an ancient Chinese collection of anecdotes and fables, one of the foundational texts of Daoism Zhuang Zhou (莊周), the historical figure known as "Master Zhuang" ("Zhuangzi") and traditional author of the eponymous book Old Zhuang script (古壮字, the script used by the Zhuang people in ancient times, also known as Sawndip Topics referred to by

230-513: A "classic" per se, due to its non-Confucian nature. Throughout Chinese history, the Zhuangzi remained the pre-eminent expression of core Taoist ideals. The 17th-century scholar Gu Yanwu lamented the flippant use of the Zhuangzi on the imperial examination essays as representing a decline in traditional morals at the end of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644). Jia Baoyu , the main protagonist of

345-617: A cadet branch of Chu's royal house of Mi . Mo'ao, one of the three chancellors of Chu, was exclusively chosen from Qu ( 屈 ) clan. During the early spring and autumn period and before the Ruo'ao rebellion , Lingyin was a position held by Ruo'aos, namely Dou ( 鬭 ) and Cheng ( 成 ). Progenitors of Chu such as viscount Xiong Yi were said to originate from the Jing Mountains ; a chain of mountains located in today's Hubei province . Rulers of Chu systematically migrated states annexed by Chu to

460-586: A distinct " Chinese " culture. Based on the archaeological finds, Chu's culture was initially quite similar to that of the other Zhou states of the Yellow River basin. However, subsequently, Chu absorbed indigenous elements from the Baiyue lands that it conquered to the south and east, developing a blended culture compared to the northern plains. During the Western Zhou period, the difference between

575-499: A fish; so the case is complete that you do not know that the fish are happy." 莊子曰：請循其本。子曰汝安知魚樂云者，既已知吾知之而問我，我知之濠上也。 Zhuangzi said, "Let's go back to the beginning of this. You said, How do you know that the fish are happy; but in asking me this, you already knew that I know it. I know it right here above the Hao." The precise point Zhuang Zhou intends to make in the debate is not entirely clear. The text appears to stress that "knowing"

690-625: A long struggle for supremacy over the lands of the former Qin Empire, which became known as the Chu–Han Contention . The conflict ended in victory for Liu Bang: he proclaimed the Han dynasty and was later honored with the temple name Gaozu, while Xiang Yu committed suicide in defeat. Liu Bang immediately enacted a more traditional and less intrusive administration than the Qin before him, made peace with

805-412: A meeting with his subjects to discuss his plans for the invasion of Chu. Wang Jian said that the invasion force needed to be at least 600,000 strong, while Li Xin thought that less than 200,000 men would be sufficient. Ying Zheng ordered Li Xin and Meng Wu to lead the army against Chu. The Chu army, led by Xiang Yan , secretly followed Li Xin's army for three days and three nights, before launching

920-535: A place called Meng ( 蒙 ) in the historical state of Song , near present-day Shangqiu , Henan. His death is variously placed at 301, 295, or 286 BC. Zhuang Zhou is thought to have spent time in the southern state of Chu , as well as in the Qi capital of Linzi . Sima Qian included a biography of Zhuang Zhou in the Han-era Shiji ( c.  91 BC ), but it seems to have been sourced mostly from

1035-527: A protracted campaign in Huaiyang under Wang Jian. Both soldiers wrote letters requesting supplies of clothing and money from home to sustain the long waiting campaign. The Chu populace in areas conquered by Qin openly ignored the stringent Qin laws and governance, as recorded in the excavated bamboo slips of a Qin administrator in Hubei. Chu aspired to overthrow the painful yoke of Qin rule and re-establishing

1150-641: A riverine transport system of boats augmented by wagons. These are detailed in bronze tallies with gold inlay regarding trade along the river systems connecting with those of the Chu capital at Ying. Although bronze inscriptions from the ancient state of Chu show little linguistic differences from the "Elegant Speech" (yǎyán 雅言) during the Eastern Zhou period , the variety of Old Chinese spoken in Chu has long been assumed to reflect lexical borrowings and syntactical interferences from non-Sinitic substrates , which

1265-491: A separate state. The attitude was captured in a Chinese expression about implacable hostility: "Though Chu has but three clans , Qin shall fall by Chu's hand" ( 楚雖三戶, 亡秦必楚 ). After Ying Zheng declared himself the First Emperor ( Shi Huangdi ) and reigned briefly, the people of Chu and its former ruling house organized the first violent insurrections against the new Qin administration. They were especially resentful of

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1380-442: A surprise offensive and destroying Li Xin army. Upon learning of Li's defeat, Ying Zheng replaced Li with Wang Jian, putting Wang in command of the 600,000-strong army he had requested earlier and placing Meng Wu beneath him as a deputy. Worried that the Qin tyrant might fear the power he now possessed and order him executed upon some pretense, Wang Jian constantly sent messengers back to the king in order to remain in contact and reduce

1495-467: A swift assault. The Qin forces pursued the retreating Chu forces to Qinan ( 蕲南 ; northwest of present-day Qichun in Hubei ) and Xiang Yan was either killed in the action or committed suicide following his defeat. The next year, in 223 BC, Qin launched another campaign and captured the Chu capital Shouchun. King Fuchu was captured and his state annexed. The following year, Wang Jian and Meng Wu led

1610-622: A thing is simply a state of mind: moreover, that it is not possible to determine whether "knowing" has any objective meaning. This sequence has been cited as an example of Zhuang Zhou's mastery of language, with reason subtly employed in order to make an anti-rationalist point. A passage in chapter 18 describes Zhuang Zhou's reaction following the death of his wife, expressing a view of death as something not to be feared. 莊子妻死，惠子弔之，莊子則方箕踞鼓盆而歌。惠子曰：與人居長子，老身死，不哭亦足矣，又鼓盆而歌，不亦甚乎。 Zhuangzi's wife died. When Huizi went to convey his condolences, he found Zhuangzi sitting with his legs sprawled out, pounding on

1725-458: A tub and singing. "You lived with her, she brought up your children and grew old," said Huizi. "It should be enough simply not to weep at her death. But pounding on a tub and singing—this is going too far, isn't it?" 莊子曰：不然。是其始死也，我獨何能無概然。察其始而本無生，非徒無生也，而本無形，非徒無形也，而本無氣。雜乎芒芴之間，變而有氣，氣變而有形，形變而有生，今又變而之死，是相與為春秋冬夏四時行也。 Zhuangzi said, "You're wrong. When she first died, do you think I didn't grieve like anyone else? But I looked back to her beginning and

1840-448: Is depicted in chapter 32, pointing to the body of lore that grew up around him in the decades following his death. It serves to embody and reaffirm the ideas attributed to Zhuang Zhou throughout the previous chapters. 莊子將死，弟子欲厚葬之。莊子曰：吾以天地為棺槨，以日月為連璧，星辰為珠璣，萬物為齎送。吾葬具豈不備邪。何以加此。 When Master Zhuang was about to die, his disciples wanted to give him a lavish funeral. Master Zhuang said: "I take heaven and earth as my inner and outer coffins,

1955-469: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Zhuangzi (book) The Zhuangzi (historically romanized Chuang Tzŭ ) is an ancient Chinese text that is one of the foundational texts of Taoism , alongside the Tao Te Ching , Neiye , Wenzi and Liezi . It was written during the late Warring States period (476–221 BC) and

2070-422: Is full of quirky and fantastic character archetypes, such as "Mad Stammerer", "Fancypants Scholar", "Sir Plow", and a man who fancies that his left arm will turn into a rooster, his right arm will turn into a crossbow, and his buttocks will become cartwheels. A master of language, Zhuang Zhou sometimes engages in logic and reasoning, but then turns it upside down or carries the arguments to absurdity to demonstrate

2185-457: Is named for its traditional author, Zhuang Zhou , who is customarily known as "Zhuangzi" ("Master Zhuang"). The Zhuangzi consists of stories and maxims that exemplify the nature of the ideal Taoist sage. It contains numerous anecdotes, allegories, parables, and fables, often expressed with irreverence or humor. Recurring themes include embracing spontaneity and achieving freedom from the human world and its conventions. The text aims to illustrate

2300-466: Is unclear whether Zhuang Zhou's positions amount to a form of anarchism . Western scholars have noted strong anti- rationalist themes present throughout the Zhuangzi . Whereas reason and logic as understood in Ancient Greek philosophy proved foundational to the entire Western tradition, Chinese philosophers often preferred to rely on moral persuasion and intuition. Throughout Chinese history,

2415-524: The Songs of Chu , historical records, excavated bamboo documents such as the Guodian slips , and other artifacts reveal heavy Taoist and native folk influence in Chu culture. The disposition to a spiritual, often pleasurable and decadent lifestyle, and the confidence in the size of the Chu realm led to the inefficiency and eventual destruction of the Chu state by the ruthless Legalist state of Qin. Even though

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2530-530: The se was preferred over the zither , while both instruments were equally preferred in the northern Zhou states. Chu came into frequent contact with other peoples in the south, most notably the Ba , Yue , and the Baiyue . Numerous burials and burial objects in the Ba and Yue styles have been discovered throughout the territory of Chu, co-existing with Chu-style burials and burial objects. Some archaeological records of

2645-476: The Han River . After this death, Zhou ceased to expand to the south, allowing the southern tribes and Chu to cement their own autonomy much earlier than the states to the north. The Chu viscount Xiong Qu overthrew E in 863 BC but subsequently made its capital Ezhou one of his capitals. In either 703 or 706, the ruler Xiong Tong became the ruler of Chu. Under the reign of King Zhuang , Chu reached

2760-646: The Han dynasty , Ruan Ji and Tao Yuanming during the Six Dynasties , Li Bai during the Tang dynasty , to Su Shi and Lu You in the Song dynasty were "deeply imbued with the ideas and artistry of the Zhuangzi ". Traces of the Zhuangzi ' s influence in late Warring States period philosophical texts such as the Guanzi , Han Feizi , and Lüshi Chunqiu suggest that Zhuang Zhou's intellectual lineage

2875-462: The Jin-era scholar Guo Xiang (252–312), who reduced the text from an earlier form of 52 chapters. The first 7 of these, referred to as the 'inner chapters' ( 內篇 ; nèipiān ), were considered even before Guo to have been wholly authored by Zhuang Zhou himself. This attribution has been traditionally accepted since, and is still assumed by many modern scholars. The original authorship of

2990-820: The Muromachi period (1338–1573) is preserved in the Kōzan-ji temple in Kyoto ; it is considered one of Japan's national treasures. The manuscript has seven complete selections from the outer and miscellaneous chapters, and is believed to be a close copy of a 7th-century annotated edition written by the Chinese Taoist master Cheng Xuanying . Topics Neo Confucianism New Confucianism Topics The Zhuangzi consists of anecdotes , allegories , parables , and fables that are often humorous or irreverent in nature. Most of these are fairly short and simple, such as

3105-603: The Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove —admired the work; an essay authored by Ruan entitled "Discourse on Summing Up the Zhuangzi " ( 達莊論 ; Dá Zhuāng lùn ) is still extant. The Zhuangzi has been called "the most important of all the Daoist writings", with the inner chapters embodying the core ideas of philosophical Taoism. During the 4th century AD, the Zhuangzi became a major source of imagery and terminology for

3220-554: The Shangqing School , a new form of Taoism that had become popular among the aristocracy of the Jin dynasty (266–420) . Shangqing School Taoism borrowed numerous terms from the Zhuangzi , such as "perfected man" ( 真人 ; zhēnrén ), "Great Clarity" ( 太清 ; Tài Qīng ), and "fasting the mind" ( 心齋 ; xīn zhāi ). While their use of these terms was distinct from that found in the Zhuangzi itself, their incidence still demonstrates

3335-646: The Shuanggudui site near Fuyang in Anhui , and the Mount Zhangjia site near Jingzhou in Hubei . The earlier Guodian Chu Slips —unearthed near Jingmen , Hubei, and dating to the Warring States period c.  300 BC —contain what appears to be a short fragment parallel to the "Ransacking Coffers" chapter ( 胠篋 , No.  10 of 33). The Dunhuang manuscripts , discovered during

3450-722: The Xiongnu through heqin intermarriages, rewarded his allies with large fiefdoms, and allowed the population to rest from centuries of warfare. The core Chu territories centered in Pengcheng was granted first to general Han Xin and then to Liu Bang's brother Liu Jiao as the Kingdom of Chu . By the time of Emperor Wu of Han , the southern folk culture and aesthetics were mixed with the Han-sponsored Confucian tradition and Qin-influenced central governance to create

3565-508: The Zhuangzi 's intellectual lineage had already been fairly influential in the states of Qi and Chu by the 3rd century BC. Sima Qian refers to the Zhuangzi as a 100,000-character work in the Shiji , and references several chapters present in the received text. Many scholars consider a Zhuangzi composed of 52 chapters, as attested by the Book of Han in 111 AD, to have been

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3680-535: The Zhuangzi by name, but cites it for one-sixth of the poem. The Six Dynasties period (AD 220–589) that followed the collapse of the Han dynasty saw Confucianism temporarily surpassed by a resurgence of interest in Taoism and old divination texts such as the I Ching , with many poets, artists, and calligraphers of this period drawing influence from the Zhuangzi . The poets Ruan Ji and Xi Kang —both members of

3795-410: The Zhuangzi generally pertain to what governments should not do, rather than what they should do or how they may be reformed. The text seems to oppose formal government, viewing it as fundamentally problematic due to "the opposition between man and nature". Zhuang Zhou attempts to illustrate that "as soon as government intervenes in natural affairs, it destroys all possibility of genuine happiness". It

3910-587: The Zhuangzi include a distrust of language and logic, an insistence that the "Way" can be found in everything, even dung and urine, and a fondness for dialogues based on koans . In 742, an imperial proclamation from Emperor Xuanzong of Tang ( r.  712–756 ) canonized the Zhuangzi as one of the Chinese classics , awarding it the honorific title 'True Scripture of Southern Florescence' ( 南華真經 ; Nánhuá zhēnjīng ). Nevertheless, most scholars throughout Chinese history did not consider it as being

4025-490: The Zhuangzi itself. The American sinologist Burton Watson concluded: "Whoever Zhuang Zhou was, the writings attributed to him bear the stamp of a brilliant and original mind". University of Sydney lecturer Esther Klein observes: "In the perception of the vast majority of readers, whoever authored the core Zhuangzi text was Master Zhuang." The only version of the Zhuangzi known to exist in its entirety consists of 33 chapters originally prepared around AD 300 by

4140-412: The Zhuangzi significantly informed skepticism towards rationalism. In the text, Zhuang Zhou frequently turns logical arguments upside-down in order to satirize and discredit them. However, according to Mair he does not abandon language and reason altogether, but "only wishe[s] to point out that over-dependence on them could limit the flexibility of thought". Confucius himself is a recurring character in

4255-516: The Zhuangzi —that is, waiting for nothing—is the only viable mindset for the German people in the wake of the failure of national socialism and Germany's comprehensive defeat. State of Chu Also known as Jing ( 荊 ) and Jingchu ( 荊楚 ), Chu included most of the present-day provinces of Hubei and Hunan , along with parts of Chongqing , Guizhou , Henan , Anhui , Jiangxi , Jiangsu , Zhejiang , and Shanghai . For more than 400 years,

4370-540: The "Way" ( Tao ). Though appreciation for the work often focuses on its philosophy, the Zhuangzi is also regarded as one of the greatest works of literature in the Classical Chinese canon. It has significantly influenced major Chinese writers and poets across more than two millennia, with the first attested commentary on the work written during the Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD). It has been called "the most important pre- Qin text for

4485-466: The 18th and 19th centuries. Outside of East Asia, the Zhuangzi is not as popular as the Tao Te Ching and is rarely known by non-scholars. A number of prominent scholars have attempted to bring the Zhuangzi to wider attention among Western readers. In 1939, the British sinologist Arthur Waley described it as "one of the most entertaining as well as one of the profoundest books in the world". In

4600-461: The Central plains. However, this image originated with the later development of Chu relative to the Central plains, and the stereotype was retrospectively cultivated by Confucian scholars in the Qin dynasty, to indirectly criticise the ruling regime, and the Han dynasty as a means of curbing their ideological opponents who were associated with such cultural practices. As the founder of the Han dynasty

4715-499: The Chu appear at Mawangdui . After the Han dynasty , some Confucian scholars considered Chu culture with distaste, criticizing the "lewd" music and shamanistic rituals associated with Chu culture. Chu artisanship includes color, especially the lacquer woodworks. Red and black pigmented lacquer were most used. Silk-weaving also attained a high level of craftsmanship, creating lightweight robes with flowing designs. These examples (as at Mawangdui) were preserved in waterlogged tombs where

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4830-589: The Chu capital Danyang was located at the junction of the Dan and Xi Rivers near present-day Xichuan County , Henan, but later moved to Ying . The house of Chu originally bore the ancestral temple surname Nai ( 嬭 OC: /*rneːlʔ/) which was later written as Mi ( 芈 OC: /*meʔ/). They also bore the lineage name Yan ( 酓 OC: /*qlamʔ/, /*qʰɯːm/) which would later be written Xiong ( 熊 OC: /*ɢʷlɯm/). According to legends recounted in Sima Qian 's Records of

4945-464: The Chu may have acquired as a result of its southern migration into what Tian Jizhou believed to be a Kra–Dai or (para-) Hmong–Mien area in southern China. Recent excavated texts, corroborated by dialect words recorded in the Fangyan , further demonstrated substrate influences, but there are competing hypotheses on their genealogical affiliation. Noticing that both 荆 Jīng and 楚 Chǔ refer to

5060-507: The Chu tomb in Xichuan, Henan Province are complex in shape. Dated to the mid sixth century BC, it was one of the early confirmed lost-wax cast artifacts discovered in China proper. Later Chu burials, especially during the Warring States, featured distinct burial objects , such as colorful lacquerware , iron, and silk, accompanied by a reduction in bronze vessel offerings . A common Chu motif

5175-661: The Fangcheng mountain. Strategically, Fangcheng is an ideal defense against states of central plain . Due to its strategic value, numerous castles were built on the Fangcheng mountain. Yunmeng Ze in Jianghan Plain was an immense freshwater lake that historically existed in Chu's realm, It was crossed by Yanzi river, the northern Yunmeng was named Meng ( 夢 ), the southern Yunmeng was known as Yun ( 雲 ). The lake's body covers parts of today's Zhijiang, Jianli , Shishou , Macheng , Huanggang , and Anlu . Shaoxi Pass

5290-530: The Grand Historian , the ruling family of Chu descended from the Yellow Emperor and his grandson and successor Zhuanxu . Zhuanxu's great-grandson Wuhui ( 吳回 ) was put in charge of fire by Emperor Ku and given the title Zhurong . Wuhui's son Luzhong ( 陸終 ) had six sons, all born by Caesarian section . The youngest, Jilian , adopted the ancestral surname Mi . Jilian's descendant Yuxiong

5405-593: The Jing mountains in order to control them more efficiently. East of Jing mountains are the Tu ( 塗 ) mountains. In the north-east part of Chu are the Dabie mountains ; the drainage divide of Huai river and Yangtse river . The first capital of Chu, Danyang ( 丹陽 ) was located in today's Zhijiang , Hubei province. Ying ( 郢 ), one of the later capitals of Chu, is known by its contemporary name Jingzhou . In Chu's northern border lies

5520-466: The Qin corvée ; folk poems record the mournful sadness of Chu families whose men worked in the frigid north to construct the Great Wall of China . The Dazexiang Uprising occurred in 209 BC under the leadership of a Chu peasant, Chen Sheng , who proclaimed himself "King of Rising Chu" ( Zhangchu ). This uprising was crushed by the Qin army but it inspired a new wave of other rebellions. One of

5635-629: The Qin army against Wuyue around the mouth of the Yangtze , capturing the descendants of the royal family of Yue . These conquered territories became the Kuaiji Prefecture of the Qin Empire. At their peak, Chu and Qin together fielded over 1,000,000 troops, more than the massive Battle of Changping between Qin and Zhao 35 years before. The excavated personal letters of two regular Qin soldiers, Hei Fu ( 黑夫 ) and Jing ( 惊 ), tell of

5750-461: The Qin general Sima Cuo led to two conclusions concerning the unification of China. Zhang Yi argued in favor of conquering Han and seizing the Mandate of Heaven from the powerless Zhou king would be wise. Sima Cuo, however, considered that the primary difficulty was not legitimacy but the strength of Qin's opponents; he argued that "conquering Shu is conquering Chu" and, "once Chu is eliminated,

5865-431: The Qin realm lacked the vast natural resources and waterways of Chu, the Qin government maximized its output under the efficient minister Shang Yang , installing a meritocracy focused solely on agricultural and military might. Archaeological evidence shows that Chu music was annotated differently from Zhou. Chu music also showed an inclination for using different performance ensembles, as well as unique instruments. In Chu,

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5980-636: The Southern Seas was Lickety, the emperor of the Northern Sea was Split, and the emperor of the Center was Wonton. Lickety and Split often met each other in the land of Wonton, and Wonton treated them very well. Wanting to repay Wonton's kindness, Lickety and Split said, "All people have seven holes for seeing, hearing, eating, and breathing. Wonton alone lacks them. Let's try boring some holes for him." So every day they bored one hole [in him], and on

6095-534: The Tao. Meanwhile, imperfect descriptions are ubiquitous throughout both texts. Of the texts written in China prior to its unification under the Qin dynasty in 221 BC, the Zhuangzi may have been the most influential on later literary works. For the period, it demonstrated an unparalleled creativity in its use of language. Virtually every major Chinese writer or poet in history, from Sima Xiangru and Sima Qian during

6210-499: The Zhao general Pang Nuan ( 庞煖 ) was the actual commander in the battle. The allies attacked Qin at the strategic Hangu Pass but were defeated. King Kaolie blamed Lord Chunshen for the loss and began to mistrust him. Afterwards, Chu moved its capital east to Shouchun , farther away from the threat of Qin. As Qin expanded into Chu's territory, Chu was forced to expand southwards and eastwards, absorbing local cultural influences along

6325-410: The arbitrariness and ultimate falsity of dichotomies normally embraced by human societies, such as those between good and bad, large and small, life and death, or human and nature. In contrast with the focus on good morals and personal duty expressed by many Chinese philosophers of the period, Zhuang Zhou promoted carefree wandering and following nature, through which one would ultimately become one with

6440-538: The attested length of the Han-era manuscript. While none are known to exist in full, versions of the text unaffected by both the Guo and Liu revisions survived into the Tang dynasty (618–907), with the existing fragments hinting at the folkloric nature of the material removed by Guo. Portions of the Zhuangzi have been found among the bamboo slip texts discovered in tombs dating to the early Han dynasty , particularly at

6555-531: The bridge over the Hao River. Zhuangzi said, "The minnows are darting about free and easy! This is how fish are happy." 惠子曰：子非魚，安知魚之樂。莊子曰：子非我，安知我不知魚之樂。 Huizi replied, "You are not a fish. How do you know that the fish are happy?" Zhuangzi said, "You are not I. How do you know that I do not know that the fish are happy?" 惠子曰：我非子，固不知子矣；子固非魚也，子之不知魚之樂全矣。 Huizi said, "I am not you, to be sure, so of course I don't know about you. But you obviously are not

6670-410: The capital into the territory of the former state of Ruo . Chu began to strengthen Yue in modern Zhejiang to serve as allies against Wu. Yue was initially subjugated by King Fuchai of Wu until he released their king Goujian , who took revenge for his former captivity by crushing and completely annexing Wu. Freed from its difficulties with Wu, Chu annexed Chen in 479 BC and overran Cai to

6785-469: The classic 18th-century novel Dream of the Red Chamber , often turns to the Zhuangzi for comfort amid the strife in his personal and romantic relationships. The story of Zhuang Zhou drumming on a tub and singing after the death of his wife inspired an entire tradition of folk music in the central Chinese provinces of Hubei and Hunan called "funeral drumming" ( 喪鼓 ; sànggǔ ) that survived into

6900-588: The country will be united". The importance of Shu in the Sichuan Basin was its great agricultural output and its control over the upper reaches of the Yangtze River , leading directly into the Chu heartland. King Huiwen of Qin opted to support Sima Cuo. In 316 BC, Qin invaded and conquered Shu and nearby Ba , expanding downriver in the following decades. In 278 BC, the Qin general Bai Qi finally conquered Chu's capital at Ying. Following

7015-511: The culture of Chu and the Central Plains states to the north was negligible. Only in the late Spring and Autumn period does Chu culture begin to diverge, preserving some older aspects of the culture and developing new phenomena. It also absorbed some elements from annexed areas. The culture of Chu had significant internal diversity from locality to locality. Chu, like Qin and Yan , was often described as being not as cultured by people in

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7130-736: The early 20th century by the Hungarian-British explorer Aurel Stein and the French sinologist Paul Pelliot , contain numerous Zhuangzi fragments dating to the early Tang dynasty. Stein and Pelliot took most of the manuscripts back to Europe; they are presently held at the British Library and the Bibliothèque nationale de France . The Zhuangzi fragments among the manuscripts constitute approximately twelve chapters of Guo Xiang's edition. A Zhuangzi manuscript dating to

7245-525: The end of the second chapter, "On the Equality of Things", and consists of a dream being briefly recalled. 昔者莊周夢為胡蝶，栩栩然胡蝶也，自喻適志與。不知周也。 Once, Zhuang Zhou dreamed he was a butterfly, a butterfly flitting and fluttering about, happy with himself and doing as he pleased. He didn't know that he was Zhuang Zhou. 俄然覺，則蘧蘧然周也。不知周之夢為胡蝶與，胡蝶之夢為周與。周與胡蝶，則必有分矣。此之謂物化。 Suddenly he woke up and there he was, solid and unmistakable Zhuang Zhou. But he didn't know if he

7360-841: The fall of Ying, the Chu government moved to various locations in the east until settling in Shouchun in 241 BC. After a massive two-year struggle, Bai Qi lured the main Zhao force of 400,000 men onto the field, surrounding them and forcing their surrender at Changping in 260 BC. The Qin army massacred their prisoners, removing the last major obstacle to Qin dominance over the Chinese states. By 225 BC, only four kingdoms remained: Qin, Chu, Yan , and Qi . Chu had recovered sufficiently to mount serious resistance. Despite its size, resources, and manpower, though, Chu's corrupt government worked against it. In 224 BC, Ying Zheng called for

7475-444: The government cannot effectively administer the expanse. Their troops are weary and although their formations are well-ordered, they do not have the resources to maintain their positions for long. To defeat them, we must strike swiftly, unexpectedly and retreat quickly before they can counter-attack. This will create unease in their weary soldiers and reduce their fighting spirit. Thus, with persistence, their army can be defeated. During

7590-468: The height of its power and its ruler was considered one of the five Hegemons of the era. After a number of battles with neighboring states, sometime between 695 and 689 BC, the Chu capital moved south-east from Danyang to Ying. Chu first consolidated its power by absorbing other states in its original area (modern Hubei ), then it expanded into the north towards the North China Plain . In

7705-505: The high priest of Chu, multiple entries in Zuo Zhuan indicated their role as oracles. Other Yins recorded by history were: Yuyin, Lianyin, Jiaoyin, Gongjiyin, Lingyin, Huanlie Zhi Yin (Commander of Palace guards) and Yueyin (Minister of Music). In counties and commanderies, Gong ( 公 ), also known as Xianyin (minister of county) was the chief administrator. In many cases, positions in Chu's bureaucracy were hereditarily held by members of

7820-473: The humans "Lickety" and "Split" drilling seven holes into the primordial " Wonton " ( No.  7), or Zhuang Zhou being discovered sitting and drumming on a basin after his wife dies ( No.  18). A few are longer and more complex, like the story of Lie Yukou and the magus , or the account of the Yellow Emperor 's music (both No.  14). Most of the stories within the Zhuangzi seem to have been invented by Zhuang Zhou himself. This distinguishes

7935-533: The introduction to his 1994 translation, Victor H. Mair wrote that he "[felt] a sense of injustice that the Dao De Jing is so well known to my fellow citizens while the Zhuangzi is so thoroughly ignored, because I firmly believe that the latter is in every respect a superior work". Western thinkers who have been influenced by the text include Martin Heidegger (1889–1976), who became deeply interested in

8050-569: The key to true happiness was to free oneself from worldly impingements through a principle of 'inaction' ( wu wei )—action that is not based in purposeful striving or motivated by potential gain. As such, he fundamentally opposed systems that sought to impose order on individuals. The Zhuangzi describes the universe as being in a constant state of spontaneous change, which is not driven by any conscious God or force of will . It argues that humans, owing to their exceptional cognitive ability, tend to create artificial distinctions that remove them from

8165-453: The king's suspicion. Wang Jian's army passed through southern Chen ( 陳 ; present-day Huaiyang in Henan) and made camp at Pingyu. The Chu armies under Xiang Yan used their full strength against the camp but failed. Wang Jian ordered his troops to defend their positions firmly but avoid advancing further into Chu territory. After failing to lure the Qin army into an attack, Xiang Yan ordered a retreat; Wang Jian seized this opportunity to launch

8280-520: The lacquer did not peel off over time and in tombs sealed with coal or white clay. Chu used the calligraphic script called "Birds and Worms" style , which was borrowed by the Wu and Yue states. It has a design that embellishes the characters with motifs of animals, snakes, birds, and insects. This is another representation of the natural world and its liveliness. Chu produced broad bronze swords that were similar to Wuyue swords but not as intricate. Chu created

8395-495: The late Warring States period, Chu was increasingly pressured by Qin to its west, especially after Qin enacted and preserved the Legalistic reforms of Shang Yang . In 241 BC, five of the seven major warring states–Chu, Zhao, Wei, Yan and Han–formed an alliance to fight the rising power of Qin. King Kaolie of Chu was named the leader of the alliance and Lord Chunshen the military commander. According to historian Yang Kuan ,

8510-557: The leaders, Jing Ju of Chu, proclaimed himself the new king of Chu. Jing Ju was defeated by another rebel force under Xiang Liang . Xiang installed Xiong Xin , a scion of Chu's traditional royal family, on the throne of Chu under the regnal name King Huai II. In 206 BC, after the fall of the Qin Empire, Xiang Yu , Xiang Liang's nephew, proclaimed himself the "Hegemon-King of Western Chu" and promoted King Huai II to "Emperor Yi". He subsequently had Yi assassinated. Xiang Yu then engaged with Liu Bang , another prominent anti-Qin rebel, in

8625-462: The limitations of human knowledge and the rational world. Sinologist Victor H. Mair compares Zhuang Zhou's process of reasoning to Socratic dialogue —exemplified by the debate between Zhuang Zhou and fellow philosopher Huizi regarding the "joy of fish" ( No.  17). Mair additionally characterizes Huizi's paradoxes near the end of the book as being "strikingly like those of Zeno of Elea ". The most famous of all Zhuangzi stories appears at

8740-419: The material previously edited by Liu. Guo plainly stated that he had made considerable edits to the outer and miscellaneous chapters in an attempt to preserve Zhuang Zhou's original ideas from later distortions, in a way that "did not hesitate to impose his personal understanding and philosophical preferences on the text". The received text as edited by Guo is approximately 63,000 characters long—around two-thirds

8855-460: The natural spontaneity of the universe. These include those of good versus bad, large versus small, and usefulness versus uselessness. It proposes that humans can achieve ultimate happiness by rejecting these distinctions, and living spontaneously in kind. Zhuang Zhou often uses examples of craftsmen and artisans to illustrate the mindlessness and spontaneity he felt should characterize human action. As Burton Watson described, "the skilled woodcarver,

8970-482: The north in 447 BC. By the end of the 5th century BC, the Chu government had become very corrupt and inefficient, with much of the state's treasury used primarily to pay for the royal entourage. Many officials had no meaningful task except taking money and Chu's army, while large, was of low quality. In the late 390s BC, King Dao of Chu made Wu Qi his chancellor . Wu's reforms began to transform Chu into an efficient and powerful state in 389 BC, as he lowered

9085-515: The oeuvres of Laozi and Zhuang Zhou during the 1930s. In particular, Heidegger was drawn to the Zhuangzi ' s treatment of usefulness versus uselessness. He explicitly references one of the debates between Zhuang Zhou and Huizi (No. 24) within the third dialogue of Country Path Conversations , written as the Second World War was coming to an end. In the dialogue, Heidegger's characters conclude that "pure waiting" as expressed in

9200-484: The one and give to the other—how skewed would that be?" The principles and attitudes expressed in the Zhuangzi form the core of philosophical Taoism . The text recommends embracing a natural spontaneity in order to better align one's inner self with the cosmic "Way". It also encourages keeping a distance from politics and social obligations, accepting death as a natural transformation, and appreciating things otherwise viewed as useless or lacking purpose. The text implores

9315-497: The original form of the text. During the late 1st century BC, the entire Han imperial library—including its edition of the Zhuangzi —was subject to considerable redaction and standardization by the polymath Liu Xiang (77–6 BC) and his son Liu Xin ( c.  46 BC  – AD 23). All extant copies of the Zhuangzi ultimately derive from a version that was further edited and redacted to 33 chapters by Guo Xiang c.  300 AD , who worked from

9430-468: The original inner chapters, although close intertextual analysis does not support the inner chapters comprising the earliest stratum. Multiple authorship over time was a typical feature of Warring States texts of this genre. A limited consensus has been established regarding five distinct "schools" of authorship, each responsible for their own layers of substance within the text. Despite the lack of traceable attribution, modern scholars generally accept that

9545-502: The passage, Zhuang Zhou "[plays] with the theme of transformation", illustrating that "the distinction between waking and dreaming is another false dichotomy . If [one] distinguishes them, how can [one] tell if [one] is now dreaming or awake?" Another well-known passage dubbed "The Death of Wonton" illustrates the dangers Zhuang Zhou saw in going against the innate nature of things. 南海之帝為儵，北海之帝為忽，中央之帝為渾沌。儵與忽時相與遇於渾沌之地，渾沌待之甚善。儵與忽謀報渾沌之德，曰：人皆有七竅，以視聽食息，此獨無有，嘗試鑿之。日鑿一竅，七日而渾沌死。 The emperor of

9660-517: The personal process of following the Tao at length, compared to Laozi he articulates little about the nature of the Tao itself. The Zhuangzi ' s only direct description of the Tao is contained in "The Great Ancestral Teacher" ( No.  6), in a passage "demonstrably adapted" from chapter 21 of the Tao Te Ching . The inner chapters and the Tao Te Ching agree that limitations inherent to human language preclude any sufficient description of

9775-462: The progression of the four seasons, spring, summer, fall, winter." 人且偃然寢於巨室，而我噭噭然隨而哭之，自以為不通乎命，故止也。 "Now she's going to lie down peacefully in a vast room. If I were to follow after her bawling and sobbing, it would show that I don't understand anything about fate. So I stopped." Zhuang Zhou seems to have viewed death as a natural process of transformation to be wholly accepted, where a person gives up one form of existence and assumes another. In

9890-427: The reader to reject societal norms and conventional reasoning. The other major philosophical schools in ancient China—including Confucianism , Legalism , and Mohism —all proposed concrete social, political, and ethical reforms. By reforming both individuals and society as a whole, thinkers from these schools sought to alleviate human suffering, and ultimately solve the world's problems. Contrarily, Zhuang Zhou believed

10005-420: The remaining 26 chapters has been the subject of perennial debate: they were divided by Guo into 15 'outer chapters' ( 外篇 ; wàipiān ) and 11 'miscellaneous chapters' ( 雜篇 ; zápiān ). Today, it is generally accepted that the outer and miscellaneous chapters were the result of a process of "accretion and redaction" in which later authors "[responded] to the scintillating brilliance" of

10120-418: The salaries of officials and removed useless officials. He also enacted building codes to make the capital Ying seem less barbaric. Despite Wu Qi's unpopularity among Chu's ruling class, his reforms strengthened the king and left the state very powerful until the late 4th century BC, when Zhao and Qin were ascendant. Chu's powerful army once again became successful, defeating the states of Wei and Yue . Yue

10235-413: The same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Zhuangzi . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zhuangzi&oldid=1189588946 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description

10350-431: The second chapter, Zhuang Zhou makes the point that, for all humans know, death may in fact be better than life: "How do I know that loving life is not a delusion? How do I know that in hating death I am not like a man who, having left home in his youth, has forgotten the way back?" His writings teach that "the wise man or woman accepts death with equanimity and thereby achieves absolute happiness." Zhuang Zhou's own death

10465-495: The seventh day Wonton died. Zhuang Zhou believed that the greatest of all human happiness could be achieved through a higher understanding of the nature of things, and that in order to develop oneself fully one needed to express one's innate ability. Chapter 17 contains a well-known exchange between Zhuang Zhou and Huizi, featuring a heavy use of wordplay; it has been compared to a Socratic dialogue . 莊子與惠子遊於濠梁之上。莊子曰：儵魚出遊從容，是魚樂也。 Zhuangzi and Huizi were enjoying themselves on

10580-509: The skilled butcher, the skilled swimmer does not ponder or ratiocinate on the course of action he should take; his skill has become so much a part of him that he merely acts instinctively and spontaneously and, without knowing why, achieves success". The term "wandering" ( 遊 ; yóu ) is used throughout the Zhuangzi to describe how an enlightened person "wanders through all of creation, enjoying its delights without ever becoming attached to any one part of it". The nonhuman characters throughout

10695-440: The study of Chinese literature". The Zhuangzi is presented as the collected works of a man named Zhuang Zhou —traditionally referred to as "Zhuangzi" ( 莊子 ; "Master Zhuang"), using the traditional Chinese honorific . Almost nothing is concretely known of Zhuang Zhou's life. Most what is known comes from the Zhuangzi itself, which was subject to changes in later centuries. Most historians place his birth around 369 BC in

10810-510: The summer of 648 BC, the State of Huang was annexed by the state of Chu. The threat from Chu resulted in multiple northern alliances under the leadership of Jin . These alliances kept Chu in check, and the Chu kingdom lost their first major battle at the Chengpu in 632 BC. During the 6th century BC, Jin and Chu fought numerous battles over the hegemony of central plain . In 597 BC , Jin

10925-504: The sun and moon as my pair of jade disks , the stars and constellations as my pearls and beads, the ten thousand things as my funerary gifts. With my burial complete, how is there anything left unprepared? What shall be added to it?" 弟子曰：吾恐烏鳶之食夫子也。莊子曰：在上為烏鳶食，在下為螻蟻食，奪彼與此，何其偏也。 The disciples said: "We are afraid that the crows and kites will eat you, Master!" Master Zhuang said: "Above ground I'd be eaten by crows and kites, below ground I'd be eaten by mole crickets and ants. You rob

11040-412: The surviving chapters were originally composed between the 4th and 2nd centuries BC. Excepting textual analysis, details of the text's history prior to the Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD) are largely unknown. Traces of its influence on the philosophy of texts written during the late Warring States period , such as the Guanzi , Han Feizi and Huainanzi , suggest that

11155-446: The text are often identified as being useful vehicles for metaphor. However, some recent scholarship has characterized the Zhuangzi as being "anti-anthropocentric" or even "animalistic" in the significance it ascribes to nonhuman characters. When viewed through this lens, the Zhuangzi questions humanity's central place in the world, or even rejects the distinction between the human and natural worlds altogether. Political positions in

11270-485: The text from other works of the period, where anecdotes generally only appear as occasional interjections, and were usually drawn from existing proverbs or legends. Some stories are completely whimsical, such as the strange description of evolution from "misty spray" through a series of substances and insects to horses and humans ( No.  18), while a few other passages seem to be "sheer playful nonsense" which read like Lewis Carroll 's " Jabberwocky ". The Zhuangzi

11385-619: The text's influence on Shangqing thought. The Zhuangzi was very influential in the adaptation of Buddhism to Chinese culture after Buddhism was first brought to China from India in the 1st century AD. Zhi Dun , China's first aristocratic Buddhist monk, wrote a prominent commentary to the Zhuangzi in the mid-4th century. The Zhuangzi also played a significant role in the formation of Chan Buddhism —and therefore of Zen in Japan—which grew out of "a fusion of Buddhist ideology and ancient Daoist thought." Traits of Chan practice traceable to

11500-436: The text—sometimes engaging in invented debates with Laozi , where Confucius is consistently portrayed as being the less authoritative, junior figure of the two. In some appearances, Confucius is subjected to mockery and made "the butt of many jokes", while in others he is treated with unambiguous respect, intermittently serving as the "mouthpiece" for Zhuang Zhou's ideas. The Zhuangzi and Tao Te Ching are considered to be

11615-594: The thorny chaste tree (genus Vitex ), Schuessler (2007) proposes two Austroasiatic comparanda: The Mo'ao ( 莫敖 ) and the Lingyin ( 令尹 ) were the top government officials of Chu. Sima was the military commander of Chu's army. Lingyin, Mo'ao and Sima were the San Gong ( 三公 ) of Chu. In the Spring and Autumn period, Zuoyin ( 左尹 ) and Youyin ( 右尹 ) were added as the undersecretaries of Lingyin. Likewise, Sima ( 司馬 )

11730-405: The time before she was born. Not only the time before she was born, but the time before she had a body. Not only the time before she had a body, but the time before she had a spirit. In the midst of the jumble of wonder and mystery a change took place and she had a spirit. Another change and she had a body. Another change and she was born. Now there's been another change and she's dead. It's just like

11845-477: The two fundamental texts in the Taoist tradition . It is accepted that some version of the Tao Te Ching influenced the composition of the Zhuangzi ; however, the two works are distinct in their perspectives on the Tao itself. The Zhuangzi uses the word "Tao" ( 道 ) less frequently than the Tao Te Ching , with the former often using ' heaven ' ( 天 ) in places the latter would use "Tao". While Zhuang Zhou discusses

11960-529: The way. Lu was conquered by King Kaolie in 223 BC. By the late 4th century BC, however, Chu's prominent status had fallen into decay. As a result of several invasions headed by Zhao and Qin, Chu was eventually completely wiped out by Qin. The Chu state was completely eradicated by the Qin dynasty. According to the Records of the Warring States , a debate between the Diplomat strategist Zhang Yi and

12075-485: The worship of gibbons and other animals perceived to have auspicious amounts of qi . Later Chu culture was known for its affinity for shamans . The Chu culture and government supported Taoism and native shamanism supplemented with some Confucian glosses on Zhou ritual. Chu people affiliated themselves with the god of fire Zhurong in Chinese mythology. For this reason, fire worshiping and red coloring were practiced by Chu people. The naturalistic and flowing art,

12190-604: The year of 579 BC when a truce was signed between the two states. At the beginning of the sixth century BC, Jin strengthened the state of Wu near the Yangtze delta to act as a counterweight against Chu. Wu defeated Qi and then invaded Chu in 506 BC. Following the Battle of Boju , it occupied Chu's capital at Ying, forcing King Zhao to flee to his allies in Yun and " Sui ". King Zhao eventually returned to Ying but, after another attack from Wu in 504 BC, he temporarily moved

12305-479: Was Zhuang Zhou who had dreamt he was a butterfly, or a butterfly dreaming that he was Zhuang Zhou. Between Zhuang Zhou and the butterfly there must be some distinction! This is called the Transformation of Things. The image of Zhuang Zhou wondering if he was a man who dreamed of being a butterfly or a butterfly dreaming of being a man became so well known that whole dramas have been written on its theme. In

12420-469: Was already influential by the 3rd century BC. During the Qin and Han dynasties , with their respective state-sponsored Legalist and Confucian ideologies, the Zhuangzi does not seem to have been highly regarded. One exception is " Fu on the Owl" ( 鵩鳥賦 ; Fúniǎo fù )—the earliest known definitive example of fu rhapsody , written by the Han-era scholar Jia Yi in 170 BC. Jia does not reference

12535-458: Was an important outpost in the mountainous western border of Chu. It was located in today's Wuguan town of Danfeng County , Shaanxi . Any forces that marched from the west, mainly from Qin, to Chu's realm would have to pass Shaoxi. In traditional Chinese astronomy , Chu is represented by a star in the "Twelve States" asterism , part of the " Girl " lunar mansion in the " Black Turtle " symbol . Opinions differ, however, as to whether that star

12650-430: Was assisted by Zuosima ( 左司馬 ) and Yousima ( 右司馬 ) respectively. Mo'ao's status was gradually lowered while Lingyin and Sima became more powerful posts in the Chu court. Ministers whose functions vary according to their titles were called Yin ( 尹 ). For example: Lingyin (Prime minister), Gongyin (Minister of works), and Zhenyin were all suffixed by the word "Yin". Shenyin ( 沈尹 ) was the minister of religious duties or

12765-445: Was defeated by Chu in the battle of Bi , causing Jin's temporary inability to counter Chu's expansion. Chu strategically used the state of Zheng as its representative in the central plain area, through the means of intimidation and threats, Chu forced Zheng to ally with itself. On the other hand, Jin had to balance out Chu's influence by repeatedly allying with Lu , Wey , and Song . The tension between Chu and Jin did not loosen until

12880-467: Was from the state, Chu culture would later become a basis of the culture of the later Han dynasty, along with that of the Qin dynasty's and other preceding states' from the Warring States period. Early Chu burial offerings consisted primarily of bronze vessels in the Zhou style. The bronze wares of the state of Chu also have their own characteristics. For example, the bronze Jin (altar table) unearthed from

12995-474: Was partitioned between Chu and Qi in either 334 or 333 BC. However, the officials of Chu wasted no time in their revenge and Wu Qi was assassinated at King Dao's funeral in 381 BC. Prior to Wu's service in the state of Chu, Wu lived in the state of Wei, where his military analysis of the six opposing states was recorded in his magnum opus, The Book of Master Wu . Of Chu, he said: The Chu people are soft and weak. Their lands stretch far and wide, and

13110-657: Was the teacher of King Wen of Zhou (r. 1099–1050 BC). After the Zhou overthrew the Shang dynasty , King Cheng (r. 1042–1021 BC) enfeoffed Yuxiong's great-grandson Xiong Yi with the fiefdom of Chu in the Nanyang Basin and the hereditary title of 子 ( zǐ , " viscount "). Then the first capital of Chu was established at Danyang (present-day Xichuan in Henan). In 977 BC, during his campaign against Chu , King Zhao of Zhou 's boat sank and he drowned in

13225-401: Was the vivid depiction of wildlife, mystical animals, and natural imagery, such as snakes , dragons , phoenixes , tigers, and free-flowing clouds and serpent-like beings. Some archaeologists speculate that Chu may have had cultural connections to the previous Shang dynasty , since many motifs used by Chu appeared earlier at Shang sites such as serpent-tailed gods. Another common Chu idea was

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