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125-560: The major literary product of the contact between Second Temple Judaism and Hellenistic culture is the Septuagint translation of the Hebrew Bible from Biblical Hebrew and Biblical Aramaic to Koine Greek , specifically, Jewish Koine Greek . Mentionable are also the philosophic and ethical treatises of Philo and the historiographical works of the other Hellenistic Jewish authors. The decline of Hellenistic Judaism started in

250-725: A Heavenly Mother , and the prevailing view among Mormons is that God the Father was once a man who lived on a planet with his own higher God, and who became perfect after following this higher God. Some critics of Mormonism argue that statements in the Book of Mormon describe a trinitarian conception of God (e.g. 2 Nephi 31:21 ; Alma 11:44 ), but were superseded by later revelations . Due to teachings within Mormon cosmology , some theologians claim that it allows for an infinite number of gods. Mormons teach that scriptural statements on

375-561: A Jewish revolt that resulted in the end of Greek occupation. Hasmonean Judea was a client kingdom of the Romans, and in the 1st century BCE , the Romans replaced them with their protégé Herod the Great . After Herod’s death, Judea became a province under Rome's direct rule. Heavy taxes under the Romans and insensitivity towards the Jewish religion led to a revolt , and in 70   CE

500-544: A "unique fusion of Greek and Jewish culture". The reasons for the decline of Hellenistic Judaism are obscure. It may be that it was marginalized by, absorbed into, or became early Christianity. The Pauline epistles and the Acts of the Apostles report that—after his initial focus on the conversion of Hellenized Jews across Anatolia , Macedonia , Thrace and northern Syria without criticizing their laws and traditions— Paul

625-585: A Greek dialect with Hebrew , Arabic and Aramaic influence. According to oral tradition, they were descendants of Jewish refugees who fled Jerusalem in 70 CE, after the destruction of the Second Temple . However, their presence dates back to 300-250 BCE, according to existing inscriptions. Greek philosophers such as Clearchus of Soli were impressed by Jews and believed they were descendants of Indian philosophers. Elsewhere, Jews in Alexandria created

750-472: A Messiah of (meaning descended from) David. Wisdom, or hokmah , implied the learning acquired by study and formal education: "those who can read and write, those who have engaged in study, and who know literature, are the wise par excellence ". The literature associated with this tradition includes the books of Job , Psalms , Proverbs , Ecclesiastes , Song of Songs , Sirach and the Wisdom of Solomon ,

875-496: A deity, and the use of deities as symbols rather than supernatural agents. Buddhism is most closely aligned with polytheism when it is linked with other religions, often folk religions. For example, the Japanese Shinto religion, in which deities called kami are worshipped, is sometimes mixed with Buddhism. Although Christianity is usually described as a monotheistic religion, it is sometimes claimed that Christianity

1000-460: A distinct personage, Jesus Christ a separate and distinct personage from God the Father, and that the Holy Ghost was a distinct personage and a Spirit: and these three constitute three distinct personages and three Gods". Mormonism, which emerged from Protestantism, teaches exaltation defined as the idea that people can become like god in the afterlife. Mormonism also affirms the existence of

1125-519: A disunion that reverberated within the emerging Christian community: it speaks of "Hellenists" and "Hebrews." The existence of these two distinct groups characterizes the earliest Christian community in Jerusalem. The Hebrews were Jewish Christians who spoke almost exclusively Aramaic, and the Hellenists were also Jewish Christians whose mother tongue was Greek. They were Greek-speaking Jews of

1250-515: A favorable light by the standards of Greek culture. The one major difference that even the most Hellenized Jews did not appear to compromise on was the prohibition on polytheism ; this still separated Hellenistic Jews from wider Greek culture in refusing to honor shrines, temples, gods etc. that did not pertain to the God of Israel . Under the suzerainty of the Ptolemaic Kingdom and later

1375-527: A figure similar to a Messiah, as a descendant of the House of David who seemed, briefly, to be about to re-establish the ancient royal line. Zechariah writes of two messiahs, one royal and the other priestly. These early hopes were dashed (Zerubabbel disappears from the historical record, although the High Priests continued to be descended from Joshua ), and thereafter there are merely general references to

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1500-525: A goddess called the Queen of Heaven , probably a fusion of Astarte and the Mesopotamian goddess Ishtar , was possibly also worshiped, though this is often viewed as another title for Asherah. Baal and Yahweh coexisted in the early period but were considered irreconcilable after the 9th century. The worship of Yahweh alone, the concern of a small party in the monarchic period, gained ascendancy only in

1625-684: A language spoken by Hellenized Jews across southeastern Europe (Macedonia, Thrace, northern Greece), North Africa, and the Middle East after the 3rd century BCE. Many synagogues were built by the Hellenistai or adherents of Hellenistic Judaism in the Greek Isles , Cilicia , Northwestern and Eastern Syria , and Northern Israel as early as the first century BCE—notably in Delos , Antioch , Alexandretta, Galilee and Dura-Europos . Because of

1750-632: A later addition), and the books of Tobit and Esther . The eastern Jews were also responsible for the adoption and transmission of the Babylonian and Persian apocalyptic tradition seen in Daniel. The Hebrew Bible represents the beliefs of a small sector within the Israelite community who were exiled by the Babylonians and emphasized on orthodox worship, genealogical purity and adherence to

1875-478: A minority adopted views from Jubilees and 4QMMT , which promoted the idea that Jews were "radically discontinuous with the rest of humanity". Those works were of Essene, Hasidean or Sadducee origin. Other Jews were dissatisfied with the Pentateuch 's national-geographic definition of Jewishness, which did not sufficiently distinguish the multi-ethnic inhabitants of Judea from Jewish diasporas. For example,

2000-441: A proper consecration ritual. It was believed that after the consecration ritual the idol no longer remained as stone or metal and attained a temporary or permanent state of divinity. Some Hindu philosophers and theologians argue for a transcendent metaphysical structure with a single divine essence. This divine essence is usually referred to as Brahman or Atman , but the understanding of the nature of this absolute divine essence

2125-708: A prophecy of Jeremiah . The Persian period ended after Alexander the Great 's conquest of the Mediterranean coast in 333-332   BCE. His empire disintegrated after his death, and Judea fell to the Ptolemies , who ruled Egypt. In 200   BCE, Israel and Judea were conquered by the Seleucids , who ruled Syria. Around 167   BCE, for reasons that remain obscure, the Seleucid king Antiochus IV Epiphanes attempted to suppress Jewish worship; this provoked

2250-613: A proto-monotheism or at least henotheism in polytheistic religions, for example, when taking from the Chinese pair of Sky and Earth only one part and calling it the King of Heaven , as Matteo Ricci did. In 1508, a London Lollard named William Pottier was accused of believing in six gods. Joseph Smith , the founder of the Latter Day Saint movement , believed in "the plurality of Gods", saying "I have always declared God to be

2375-405: A series of Greek loanwords. When towards the end of the first century BCE, Hillel in practice repealed the regulation of the remission of debts in the sabbath year (Deut. 15.1-11) by the possibility of a special reservation on the part of the creditor, this reservation was given a Greek name introduced into Palestinian legal language- perōzebbōl = προσβολή, a sign that even at that time legal language

2500-408: A single book, Hinduism is an umbrella term for a collection of ideologies. They are compatible with Hindu texts, since there exists no consensus of standardisation in the faith. Vedanta , the most dominant school of Hinduism, offers a combination of pantheism/panentheism and polytheism, holding that Brahman is the sole ultimate reality of the universe, yet unity with it can be reached by worshipping

2625-403: A wide variety of religious traditions and practices are grouped together under this umbrella term and some modern scholars have questioned the legitimacy of unifying them artificially and suggest that one should speak of "Hinduisms" in the plural. Theistic Hinduism encompasses both monotheistic and polytheistic tendencies and variations on or mixes of both structures. Hindus venerate deities in

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2750-407: Is a leader figure but is not meant to be worshipped as a god. Devas , a Sanskrit word for gods , are also not meant to be worshipped. They are not immortal and have limited powers. They may have been humans who had positive karma in their life and were reborn as a deva. A common Buddhist practice is tantra , which is the use of rituals to achieve enlightenment. Tantra focuses on seeing yourself as

2875-564: Is a type of theism . Within theism, it contrasts with monotheism , the belief in a singular God who is, in most cases, transcendent . In religions that accept polytheism, the different gods and goddesses may be representations of forces of nature or ancestral principles ; they can be viewed either as autonomous or as aspects or emanations of a creator deity or transcendental absolute principle ( monistic theologies), which manifests immanently in nature ( panentheistic and pantheistic theologies). Polytheists do not always worship all

3000-452: Is not possible to determine what their share was in the total Jewish population. Some scholars suggest that Jesus ' quote in the Gospel of Matthew , "Woe to you, teachers of the law and Pharisees, you hypocrites! You travel over land and sea to win a single convert, and when you have succeeded, you make them twice as much a child of hell as you are", is evidence of Jewish proselytism during

3125-678: Is not truly monotheistic because of its idea of the Trinity . The Trinity believes that God consists of the Father , the Son and the Holy Spirit . Because the deity is three persons, some people believe Christianity should be considered a form of Tritheism or Polytheism. Christians contend that "one God exists in Three Persons and One Substance," but that a deity cannot be a person, who has one individual identity. Christianity inherited

3250-663: Is restricted to that region. Bramhan is personification of the concept of Moksha and the different gods are paths to moksha or realising the Brahman. The term comes from the Greek πολύ poly ("many") and θεός theos ("god") and was coined by the Jewish writer Philo of Alexandria to argue with the Greeks. When Christianity spread throughout Europe and the Mediterranean, non-Christians were just called Gentiles (a term originally used by Jews to refer to non-Jews) or pagans (locals) or by

3375-407: Is suggested that Hestia stepped down when Dionysus was invited to Mount Olympus , this is a matter of controversy. Robert Graves' The Greek Myths cites two sources that obviously do not suggest Hestia surrendered her seat, though he suggests she did. Hades was often excluded because he dwelt in the underworld. All of the gods had a power. There was, however, a great deal of fluidity as to whom

3500-570: Is the Jewish religion as it developed during the Second Temple period , which began with the construction of the Second Temple around 516 BCE and ended with the Roman siege of Jerusalem in 70   CE. The Second Temple period was marked by the emergence of multiple religious currents as well as extensive cultural, religious, and political developments among Jews . It saw the progression of

3625-500: Is the belief in or worship of more than one god . According to Oxford Reference, it is not easy to count gods, and so not always obvious whether an apparently polytheistic religion, such as Chinese Folk Religions, is really so, or whether the apparent different objects of worship are to be thought of as manifestations of a singular divinity. Polytheistic belief is usually assembled into a pantheon of gods and goddesses , along with their own religious sects and rituals . Polytheism

3750-808: Is the concept of *dyēus , which is attested in several religious systems of Indo-European-speaking peoples. Well-known historical polytheistic pantheons include the Sumerian gods, the Egyptian gods, the pantheon attested in Classical Antiquity (in ancient Greek and Roman religion), the Norse Æsir and Vanir , the Yoruba Orisha , and the Aztec gods. In many civilizations, pantheons tended to grow over time. Deities first worshipped as

3875-540: Is the line which defines many Hindu philosophical traditions such as Vedanta . Among lay Hindus, some believe in different deities emanating from Brahman, while others practice more traditional polytheism and henotheism, focusing their worship on one or more personal deities, while granting the existence of others. Academically speaking, the ancient Vedic scriptures, upon which Hinduism is derived, describe four authorized disciplic lines of teaching coming down over thousands of years. (Padma Purana). Four of them propound that

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4000-460: Is the most influential and important Hindu theological tradition, there are a great number of deities in Hinduism, such as Vishnu , Shiva , Ganesha , Hanuman , Lakshmi , Kali , Parvati , Durga , Rama , Krishna but they are essentially different forms of the same "Being". However, many Vedantic philosophers also argue that all individuals were united by the same impersonal, divine power in

4125-496: The Abrogation of Old Covenant laws . The attractiveness of Christianity may, however, have suffered a setback with its being explicitly outlawed in the 80s CE by Domitian as a "Jewish superstition", while Judaism retained its privileges as long as members paid the fiscus Judaicus . The opening verse of Acts 6 points to the problematic cultural divisions between Hellenized Jews and Aramaic-speaking Israelites in Jerusalem,

4250-712: The Book of Wisdom , Sirach and pseudepigraphic apocalyptic literature such as the Assumption of Moses , the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs , the Book of Baruch and the Greek Apocalypse of Baruch . Some scholars consider Paul the Apostle to be a Hellenist Jew, even though he claimed to be a Pharisee ( Acts 23:6 ). Philo defended Judaism as a monotheistic philosophy that anticipated

4375-553: The Hebrew Bible was assembled, revised and edited in the 5th century   BCE to reflect the realities and challenges of the Persian era. The returnees had a particular interest in the history of Israel: the written Torah (the books of Genesis , Exodus , Leviticus , Numbers and Deuteronomy ), for example, likely existed in various forms during the Monarchy (the period of the kingdoms of Israel and Judah ), but according to

4500-461: The Hebrew Bible canon , the synagogue , and Jewish eschatology . Additionally, the rise of Christianity began in the final years of the Second Temple period. According to Jewish tradition, authentic prophecy ( נְבוּאָה ‎ , Nevu’ah ) ceased during the early years of the Second Temple period; this left Jews without their version of divine guidance at a time when they felt most in need of support and direction. Under Hellenistic rule ,

4625-661: The Land of Israel as they expanded their independent territory. The later years of the Second Temple period saw the development of several Jewish messianic ideas . From c.  170 BCE to 30   CE, five successive generations of the Zugot headed the Jews' spiritual affairs; it was during this period that several factions, such as the Pharisees , Sadducees , Essenes , Zealots , and early Christians were formed. The " people of

4750-743: The Levant . This gave rise to the Hellenistic period , which sought to create a common or universal culture in the Alexandrian empire based on that of fifth-century Athens , along with a fusion of Near Eastern cultures. The period is characterized by a new wave of Greek colonization which established Greek cities and kingdoms in Asia and Africa, the most famous being Alexandria in Egypt. New cities established composed of colonists from different parts of

4875-527: The Seleucid Empire , Judea witnessed a period of peace and protection of its institutions. For their aid against his Ptolemaic enemies, Antiochus III the Great promised his Jewish subjects a reduction in taxes and funds to repair the city of Jerusalem and the Second Temple . Relations deteriorated under Antiochus's successor Seleucus IV Philopator , and then, for reasons not fully understood, his successor Antiochus IV Epiphanes drastically overturned

5000-462: The animist beliefs prevalent in most folk religions . The gods of polytheism are in many cases the highest order of a continuum of supernatural beings or spirits, which may include ancestors , demons , wights , and others. In some cases these spirits are divided into celestial or chthonic classes, and belief in the existence of all these beings does not imply that all are worshipped. Types of deities often found in polytheism may include: In

5125-707: The documentary hypothesis (disputed by some Christians) it was in the Second Temple that it was edited and revised into something like its current form, and the Chronicles , a history written at this time, reflects the concerns of the Persian Yehud in its almost exclusive focus on Judah and the Temple. Prophetic works were also of particular interest to the Persian-era authors, with some works being composed at this time (the last ten chapters of Isaiah and

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5250-501: The mosaics and frescos representing heroic figures and Biblical characters (viewed as potentially conductive of "image worship" by later generations of Jewish scholars and rabbis ), many of these early synagogues were at first mistaken for Greek temples or Antiochian Greek Orthodox churches. Early rabbis of Babylonian Jewish descent, such as Hillel the Elder , whose parents were Aramaic-speaking Jewish migrants from Babylonia (hence

5375-554: The resurrection of the dead , which was rejected by the Sadducees) and possibly later led to Christians' expulsion from synagogues (see Council of Jamnia for other theories). While Marcionism rejected all Jewish influence on Christianity, proto-orthodox Christianity instead retained some of the doctrines and practices of 1st-century Judaism while rejecting others. They held the Tanakh to be authoritative and sacred, employing mostly

5500-518: The 19th century to the present day. Research has not yet yielded a consensus among scholars: some believe that Judaism was a missionary religion, and others reject their conclusions. Some assess that the conversion of Gentiles to Judaism in the Hellenistic and Roman periods was a wide-ranging phenomenon of great demographic importance, while others doubt this. Modern research does not have the possibility to determine how many Gentiles converted, and it

5625-525: The 1st century   CE historian Josephus reports that there were more Jews in Syria (i.e., the Seleucid Empire) than in any other land. There was also a significant Egyptian diaspora, although the Jews of Egypt were immigrants, not deportees, "... attracted by Hellenistic culture, eager to win the respect of the Greeks and to adapt to their ways." The Egyptian diaspora was slow to develop, but by

5750-536: The 20th and early 21st centuries have accepted that widespread Torah observance began sometime around the middle of the 5th century   BCE. However, scholars such as David Zvi Hoffmann and Umberto Cassuto devote lengthy treatises to refuting Wellhausen's theories. More recently, Yonatan Adler has argued that in fact there is no surviving evidence to support the notion that the Torah was widely known, regarded as authoritative, and put into practice, any time prior to

5875-765: The 2nd century, and its causes are still not fully understood. It may be that it was eventually marginalized by, partially absorbed into, or progressively became the Koine-speaking core of early Christianity centered on Antioch and its traditions, such as the Melkite Greek Catholic Church and the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch . The conquests of Alexander the Great in the late 4th century BCE spread Greek culture and colonization —a process of cultural change called Hellenization —over non-Greek lands including

6000-781: The Absolute Truth is Fully Personal, as in Judeo-Christian theology. They say that the Primal Original God is Personal, both transcendent and immanent throughout creation. He can be, and is often approached through worship of Prathimas, called "Archa-Vigraha", which are described in the Vedas as identical with His various dynamic, spiritual Forms. This is the Vaisnava theology. The fifth disciplic line of Vedic spirituality, founded by Adi Shankaracharya , promotes

6125-493: The Apostle eventually preferred to evangelize communities of Greek and Macedonian proselytes and God-fearers , or Greek circles sympathetic to Judaism : the Apostolic Decree allowing converts to forego circumcision made Christianity a more attractive option for interested pagans than Rabbinic Judaism , which required ritual circumcision for converts. See also Circumcision controversy in early Christianity and

6250-493: The Classical era , 4th century CE Neoplatonist Sallustius categorized mythology into five types: The beliefs of many historical polytheistic religions are commonly referred to as "mythology", though the stories cultures tell about their gods should be distinguished from their worship or religious practice. For instance, deities portrayed in conflict in mythology were often nonetheless worshipped side by side, illustrating

6375-774: The Diaspora, who returned to settle in Jerusalem. To identify them, Luke uses the term Hellenistai . When he had in mind Greeks, gentiles , non-Jews who spoke Greek and lived according to the Greek fashion, then he used the word Hellenes (Acts 21.28). As the very context of Acts 6 makes clear, the Hellenistai are not Hellenes. Some historians believe that a sizeable proportion of the Hellenized Jewish communities of southern Turkey (Antioch, Alexandretta and neighboring cities) and Syria / Lebanon converted progressively to

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6500-557: The European Christian fold: some ancient Judeo-Greek traditions were thus deliberately abolished or reduced in the process. Members of these communities still call themselves " Rûm " (literally "Roman"; usually referred to as "Byzantine" in English) and referring to Greeks in Turkish , Persian and Levantine Arabic . In that context, the term Rûm is preferred over Yāvāni or Ionani (literally " Ionian "), also referring to Greeks in Ancient Hebrew , Sanskrit and Classical Arabic . Second Temple Judaism Second Temple Judaism

6625-438: The Greco-Roman branch of Christianity that eventually constituted the " Melkite " (or "Imperial") Hellenistic churches of the MENA area: As Christian Judaism originated at Jerusalem, so Gentile Christianity started at Antioch , then the leading center of the Hellenistic East, with Peter and Paul as its apostles. From Antioch it spread to the various cities and provinces of Syria, among the Hellenistic Syrians as well as among

6750-451: The Greek world and not from a specific metropolis ("mother city") as before. The spread of Hellenism caused a blending of the local indigenous culture and the culture of the conquerors. Jewish life in both Judea and the diaspora was influenced by the culture and language of Hellenism. Local indigenous elites frequently played a significant role in embracing and promoting Hellenism, leading to its impact on all regional cultures, including

6875-521: The Greek-Levantine Christian diasporas of Brazil , Mexico , the United States and Canada . Many of the surviving liturgical traditions of these communities rooted in Hellenistic Judaism and, more generally, Second Temple Judaism , were expunged progressively in the late medieval and modern eras by both Phanariot European-Greek ( Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople ) and Vatican ( Roman Catholic ) Gentile theologians who sought to “bring back” Levantine Greek Orthodox and Greek-Catholic communities into

7000-399: The Greeks, Etruscans , and Romans, and also to the cultural transmission of elements of an extraneous religion, as with the ancient Egyptian deity Osiris , who was later worshipped in ancient Greece . Most ancient belief systems held that gods influenced human lives. However, the Greek philosopher Epicurus held that the gods were incorruptible but material, blissful beings who inhabited

7125-495: The Hasmoneans were criticized for blurring the line between gentile and Jew when they converted Idumeans but others, who held a strict interpretation of Deuteronomy 17:15 , feared the Idumean Herodians would usurp the Hasmoneans. But most Jews believed the Idumeans were acceptable converts since they lived in the Promised Land . C.L. Crouch states that pro-integrationist Jews were more likely to descend from Jews who were re-settled in Babylonian urban centers. Second Temple Judaism

7250-439: The Hellenistic Jews who, as a result of the great rebellions against the Romans in A.D. 70 and 130, were driven out from Jerusalem and Palestine into Syria. Both early Christianity and early Rabbinical Judaism were far less doctrinal and less theologically homogeneous than they are today, and both were significantly influenced by Hellenistic religion and borrowed allegories and concepts from classical Hellenistic philosophy and

7375-443: The Hellenistic period it exceeded the Babylonian community in importance. In addition to these major centres there were Jewish communities throughout the Hellenistic and subsequently the Roman world, from North Africa to Asia Minor and Greece and in Rome. There is also evidence for Jewish missionary activities in the Greco-Roman world. Overall, Second Temple Judaism and Samaritanism were two religions that gradually split from

7500-423: The Hellenistic period, the scriptures were translated into Greek as the Septuagint by the Jews of the Alexandrian diaspora in Egypt, who also produced a rich literature of their own covering epic poetry, philosophy, tragedy and other forms. Less is known of the Babylonian diaspora , but the Seleucid period produced works such as the court tales of the Book of Daniel (chapters 1-6 of Daniel - chapters 7-12 were

7625-427: The High Priest, which was unheard of in earlier times, became the governing authority, making the province of Yehud a de facto theocracy , although it seems unlikely that they had significant autonomy. In the Hellenistic period, the High Priest continued to play a vital role with both cultic and civic obligations, and the office reached its height under the Hasmoneans who made themselves priest-kings. Both Herod and

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7750-444: The Jewish culture. In Palestine, Hellenism gradually took hold, despite the relatively small number of foreign inhabitants. The Jews living in countries west of the Levant formed the Hellenistic diaspora. The Egyptian diaspora is the most well known of these. It witnessed close ties. Indeed, there was firm economic integration of Judea with the Ptolemaic Kingdom that ruled from Alexandria, while there were friendly relations between

7875-399: The Jewish messiah, was God made flesh , who died for the sins of humanity, marking the beginning of Christology . Scholars additionally note the role of Hellenistic Judaism in Christianity and believe that the doctrine of Jesus's death for the redemption of mankind was not possible without Hellenism. While on one hand Jesus and the very first Christians had all been ethnically Jewish,

8000-402: The Jewish people and called from them his first disciples. Jewish Christians regarded "Christianity" as an affirmation of every aspect of contemporary Judaism, with the addition of one extra belief—that Jesus is the Messiah. The doctrines of the apostles of Jesus brought the early church into conflict with some Jewish religious authorities (e.g., the Book of Acts records a dispute over

8125-467: The Jews by and large continued to reject Jesus as the Messiah. This affected early Christianity's relationship with Judaism and the surrounding pagan traditions. The anti-Christian polemicist Celsus criticises Jews for deserting their Jewish heritage while they had claimed to hold on to it. To the Emperor Julian , Christianity was simply an apostasy from Judaism. These factors hardened Christian attitudes towards Jewry. Polytheism Polytheism

8250-399: The Persian conqueror Cyrus , and in 538   BCE, the exiles were permitted to return to Yehud Medinata , a Judean province of the Persian Empire . The Temple is commonly said to have been rebuilt in the period 520–515   BCE, but it seems probable that this is an artificial date chosen so that 70 years could be said to have passed between the destruction and the rebuilding, fulfilling

8375-472: The Prophets were accepted as authoritative by the 1st century   CE, but beyond this core the different Jewish groups continued to accept different groups of books as authoritative. The priesthood underwent profound changes with the Second Temple. Under the First Temple, the priesthood had been subordinate to the kings, but in the Second Temple, with the monarchy and even the state in the hands of foreign rulers, they became independent. The priesthood under

8500-450: The Roman general (and later emperor) Titus captured Jerusalem and destroyed the Temple, bringing an end to the Second Temple period. The Jewish exiles in Babylon were not slaves or prisoners, nor were they badly treated, and when the Persians gave permission for them to return to Jerusalem the majority elected to remain where they were. They and their descendants formed the diaspora , a large community of Jews living outside Judea, and

8625-407: The Romans severely reduced the importance of the High Priest, appointing and deposing High Priests to suit their purposes. Since the Hasmonean era, the Idumeans were heavily integrated in Judean society. Idumean-majority populations existed in southern and western Judea, and they intermingled with Judeans. It is disputed whether this integration was forced or voluntary. Regardless, their presence

8750-419: The Septuagint or Targum translations and adding other texts as the New Testament canon developed . Christian baptism was another continuation of a Judaic practice. Recent work by historians paints a more complex portrait of late Second Temple Judaism and early Christianity. Some historians have suggested that, before his death, Jesus created amongst his believers such certainty that the Kingdom of God and

8875-624: The Zealots shared beliefs with the Pharisees , the latter were more democratic, respected the status quo, and believed Jewishness was a matter of choice than birth. Some historians argue the Pharisees were more interested in converting non-Pharisaical Jews. As a Jewish sect, early Christians also saw themselves as "true Israel". Compared to other Jews, they believed gentiles could assimilate without adopting customs such as circumcision. These beliefs, among others, caused Judaism and Christianity to separate as distinct religions. Whilst most contemporary Jews had no problem with integrating gentiles,

9000-443: The believer's occupation, tastes, personal experience, family tradition, etc. It is also possible to worship a single deity, considered supreme, without ruling out the existence of other gods. This religious position has been called henotheism, but some prefer to call it monolatry. Although the term "henotheism" is controversial, it is recognized by scholars that the worship of a single God accompanied by belief in other deities maintains

9125-483: The biblical account provided in the Book of Nehemiah (chapter 8), a priestly scribe named Ezra reads a copy of the Mosaic Torah before the populace of Judea assembled in a central Jerusalem square. Wellhausen believes that this narrative should be accepted as historical because it sounds plausible, noting "the credibility of the narrative appears on the face of it." Following Wellhausen, most scholars throughout

9250-441: The books of Haggai , Zechariah , Malachi and perhaps Joel ) and the older prophets edited and reinterpreted. The corpus of Wisdom books saw the composition of Job , parts of Proverbs , and possibly Ecclesiastes , while the book of Psalms was possibly given its modern shape and division into five parts at this time (although the collection continued to be revised and expanded well into Hellenistic and even Roman times). In

9375-618: The clearly pejorative term idolaters (worshippers of "false" gods). In modern times, the term polytheism was first revived in French by Jean Bodin in 1580, followed by Samuel Purchas 's usage in English in 1614. A major division in modern polytheistic practices is between so-called soft polytheism and hard polytheism. "Soft" polytheism is the belief that different gods may either be psychological archetypes , personifications of natural forces, or as being one essential god interpreted through

9500-692: The codified law. In the earliest stages of the Persian period, the returnees insisted on a strict separation between themselves ("Israel") and those who had never gone into exile ("Canaanites"), to the extent of prohibiting intermarriage; this was presented in terms of religious purity, but there may have been a practical concern for land ownership. Ethnic markers for Israelite (or later, Jewish) identity were radically reformed, with increased emphasis on genealogical descent and/or faith in Yahweh, compared to circumcision . Views on gentile integration varied across Jewish schools of thought. The Sadducees doubted

9625-588: The common religion of Yahwism . For most of the Second Temple period, Samaria was larger, richer, and more populous than Judea—down to about 164   BCE there were probably more Samaritans than Judeans living in Palestine. They had their own temple on Mount Gerizim near Shechem and regarded themselves as the true Israel, who remained after Eli , a wicked high priest , convinced the other Israelites to abandon Gerizim and worship at Shiloh. Second Temple Judeans, however, derided them as foreign converts and

9750-553: The concept that the Absolute is Brahman, without clear differentiations, without will, without thought, without intelligence. In the Smarta denomination of Hinduism, the philosophy of Advaita expounded by Shankara allows veneration of numerous deities with the understanding that all of them are but manifestations of one impersonal divine power, Brahman . Therefore, according to various schools of Vedanta including Shankara, which

9875-433: The distinction within the religion between belief and practice. Scholars such as Jaan Puhvel , J. P. Mallory , and Douglas Q. Adams have reconstructed aspects of the ancient Proto-Indo-European religion from which the religions of the various Indo-European peoples are thought to derive, which is believed to have been an essentially naturalist numenistic religion. An example of a religious notion from this shared past

10000-604: The empty spaces between worlds and did not trouble themselves with the affairs of mortals, but could be perceived by the mind, especially during sleep. The classical scheme in Ancient Greece of the Twelve Olympians (the Canonical Twelve of art and poetry) were: Zeus , Hera , Poseidon , Athena , Ares , Demeter , Apollo , Artemis , Hephaestus , Aphrodite , Hermes , and Hestia . Though it

10125-438: The exilic and early post-exilic period, and it was only in the post-exilic period that the very existence of other gods was denied. The Persian period saw the development of expectation in a future human king who would rule a purified Israel as God's representative at the end of time – that is, a messiah . The first to mention this were Haggai and Zechariah , both prophets of the early Persian period. They saw Zerubbabel as

10250-487: The form of the pratima , or idol. The Puja (worship) of the pratima is like a way to communicate with the formless, abstract divinity ( Brahman in Hinduism) which creates, sustains and dissolves creation. However, there are sects who have advocated that there is no need of giving a shape to God and that it is omnipresent and beyond the things which human can see or feel tangibly.These gods were not worshipped without

10375-517: The form of the Atman . Many other Hindus, however, view polytheism as far preferable to monotheism. Ram Swarup , for example, points to the Vedas as being specifically polytheistic, and states that, "only some form of polytheism alone can do justice to this variety and richness." Nasadiya Sukta (Hymn of non-Eternity, origin of universe): There was neither non-existence nor existence then; Neither

10500-460: The gods equally; they can be in monolatrists or kathenotheists , specializing in the worship of one particular deity only or at certain times (respectively). The recognition of the existence of multiple gods and goddesses does not necessarily equate to the worship of all the deities of one or more pantheons, as the believer can either worship them as a whole, or concentrate only on a specific group of deities, determined by various conditions such as

10625-612: The great part it played in the early history of Christianity. The city was the cradle of the church". Some presently used Grecian "Ancient Synagogal " priestly rites and hymns have survived partially to the present, notably in the distinct church services of the followers of the Melkite Greek Catholic Church and its sister church the Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch in the Hatay Province of southern Turkey , Syria , Lebanon , Northern Israel , and in

10750-594: The growing Hellenization of Judaism became a source of resentment among Jewish traditionalists who clung to strict monotheistic beliefs . Opposition to Hellenistic influence on Jewish religious and cultural practices was a major catalyst for the Maccabean Revolt against the Seleucid Empire . Following the establishment of the Hasmonean dynasty , traditional Judaism was reasserted by the Maccabees across

10875-482: The hands of Gentiles is divine judgment for Judean wickedness. Daniel R. Scwhartz considers 2 Maccabees to be implicitly anti-Hasmonean and pro-Pharisee. One reason for the covert criticism includes 2 Maccabees being written too early and their authors being diasporic. In his seminal Prolegomena zur Geschichte Israels , Julius Wellhausen argues that Judaism as a religion based on widespread observance Torah law first emerged in 444   BCE when, according to

11000-491: The idea of one God from Judaism, and maintains that its monotheistic doctrine is central to the faith. Jordan Paper, a Western scholar and self-described polytheist, considers polytheism to be the normal state in human culture. He argues that "Even the Catholic Church shows polytheistic aspects with the 'veneration' of the saints." On the other hand, he complains, monotheistic missionaries and scholars were eager to see

11125-485: The idea that "all gods are one essential god" and may also reject the existence of gods outside their own pantheon altogether . The deities of polytheism are often portrayed as complex personages of greater or lesser status, with individual skills, needs, desires and histories, in many ways similar to humans ( anthropomorphic ) in their personality traits, but with additional individual powers, abilities, knowledge or perceptions. Polytheism cannot be cleanly separated from

11250-515: The impure offspring of mixed marriages. By the late 2nd century   BCE, the Jews and Samaritans permanently split after a Hasmonean king destroyed a Samaritan temple at Mount Gerizim; before that the Samaritans seem to have regarded themselves as part of the wider Jewish community, but afterwards they denounced the Jerusalem temple as anathema to Yahweh. In recent decades it has become increasingly common among scholars to assume that much of

11375-635: The influence of 2 Maccabees , notably a work in Koine Greek ) as a threat of assimilation diametrically opposed to Jewish tradition, Adaptation to Hellenic culture did not require compromise of Jewish precepts or conscience. When a Greek gymnasium was introduced into Jerusalem, it was installed by a Jewish High Priest . And other priests soon engaged in wrestling matches in the palaestra . They plainly did not reckon such activities as undermining their priestly duties. Later historians would sometimes depict Hellenism and Judaism uniquely incompatible, likely

11500-524: The innumerable deities that represent the Supreme Absolute Truth . Hindus who practice Bhakti ultimately believe in one God, who is known variously as Paramatman , Parabrahman , Bhagavan , Ishvara , and so on, that transcends all categories (e.g. both of form and formless), however the common people who remain unaware of these concepts worship their deities as ultimate god. Different regions can have their own local deities whose worship

11625-538: The land ", that is the uneducated people of the Holy Land , may be seen as another faction of Second Temple Judaism. (Note: dates and periods are in many cases approximate and/or conventional) In 586   BCE, Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II captured Jerusalem , destroyed the Temple of Solomon , and deported the elite of the population to Babylon (the " Babylonian exile "). In 539   BCE, Babylon fell to

11750-727: The language of the Mishnaic and Talmudic literature. While it reflects the situation at a later period, its origins go back well before the Christian era. The collection of the loanwords in the Mishna to be found in Schürer shows the areas in which Hellenistic influence first became visible- military matters, state administration and legislature, trade and commerce, clothing and household utensils, and not least in building. The so-called copper scroll with its utopian list of treasures also contains

11875-524: The later Roman religion . During the Hellenistic Era, philosophical schools like Epicureanism developed distinct theologies. Hellenism is, in practice, primarily centered around polytheistic and animistic worship. The majority of so-called " folk religions " in the world today (distinguished from traditional ethnic religions ) are found in the Asia-Pacific region . This fact conforms to

12000-445: The lenses of different cultures (e.g. Odin , Zeus , and Indra all being the same god as interpreted by Germanic, Greek, and Indic peoples respectively) – known as omnitheism . In this way, gods may be interchangeable for one another across cultures. "Hard" polytheism is the belief that gods are distinct, separate, real divine beings, rather than psychological archetypes or personifications of natural forces. Hard polytheists reject

12125-628: The middle of the 2nd century   BCE. Adler explores the likelihhood that Judaism, as the widespread practice of Torah law by Jewish society at large, first emerged in Judea during the reign of the Hasmonean dynasty, centuries after the putative time of Ezra. Nonetheless, this view conflicts with the scholarly consensus. The issue of conversion to Judaism and Jewish proselytism in Second Temple Judaism has occupied many scholars from

12250-460: The nickname "Ha-Bavli"), had to learn the Greek language and Greek philosophy to be conversant with sophisticated rabbinical language—many of the theological innovations introduced by Hillel had Greek names, most famously the Talmudic notion of Prozbul , from Koine Greek προσβολή, "to deliver": Unlike literary Hebrew, popular Aramaic or Hebrew constantly adopted new Greek loanwords, as is shown by

12375-526: The ordinary things of life and the common associations of the people [...] The inscription forbidding strangers to advance beyond a certain point in the Temple was in Greek; and was probably made necessary by the presence of numerous Jews from Greek-speaking countries at the time of the festivals (comp. the "murmuring of the Grecians against the Hebrews," Acts vi. 1). The coffers in the Temple which contained

12500-479: The patrons of cities or other places came to be collected together as empires extended over larger territories. Conquests could lead to the subordination of a culture's pantheon to that of the invaders, as in the Greek Titanomachia , and possibly also the Æsir–Vanir war in the Norse mythos . Cultural exchange could lead to "the same" deity being revered in two places under different names, as seen with

12625-538: The possibility of gentiles becoming Jews but were tolerant of cross-cultural interactions. The Essenes community believed gentiles, including proselytes, were ritually impure, but the Essenes were even stricter and regarded other Jews as impure until they completed a prolonged initiation ritual . Likewise, the Zealots and Sicarii held xenophobic views but were willing to ally with Idumeans (or Edomites ). Whilst

12750-402: The previous policy of respect and protection, banning key Jewish religious rites and traditions in Judea (although not among the diaspora) and sparking a traditionalist revolt against Greek rule . Out of this revolt was formed an independent Jewish kingdom known as the Hasmonean dynasty , which lasted from 141 BCE to 63 BCE and eventually disintegrated into civil war . Overall, Jewish society

12875-1176: The principle of polytheism. Polytheism was the typical form of religion before the development and spread of the Abrahamic religions of Judaism , Christianity , and Islam , which enforce monotheism. It is well documented throughout history, from prehistory and the earliest records of ancient Egyptian religion and ancient Mesopotamian religion to the religions prevalent during Classical antiquity , such as ancient Greek religion and ancient Roman religion , and in ethnic religions such as Germanic , Slavic , and Baltic paganism and Native American religions . Notable polytheistic religions practiced today include Taoism , Hellenism (modern religion) , Shenism or Chinese folk religion , many schools of Hinduism , Shinto , Santería , most Traditional African religions , and various neopagan faiths such as Wicca . Hinduism , while popularly held as polytheistic by many scholars, cannot be exclusively categorised as such as some Hindus consider themselves to be pantheists , panentheists , henotheist , polymorphist, monotheists or monist . Hinduism does not have

13000-408: The realm of space, nor the sky which is beyond; What stirred? Where? In whose protection? There was neither death nor immortality then; No distinguishing sign of night nor of day; That One breathed, windless, by its own impulse; Other than that there was nothing beyond. Darkness there was at first, by darkness hidden; Without distinctive marks, this all was water; That which, becoming, by

13125-410: The religious systems that preceded them. Not only were rabbinic Judaism and Christianity religious twins, but, like Jacob and Esau, the twin sons of Isaac and Rebecca, they fought in the womb, setting the stage for life after the womb." The first Christians (the disciples or followers of Jesus) were essentially all ethnically Jewish or Jewish proselytes. In other words, Jesus was Jewish , preached to

13250-452: The result of the persecution of Antiochus IV . However, it does not appear that most Jews in the Hellenistic era considered Greek rulers any worse or different from Persian or Babylonian ones. Writings of Hellenized Jews such as Philo of Alexandria show no particular belief that Jewish and Greek culture are incompatible; as another example, the Letter of Aristeas holds up Jews and Judaism in

13375-480: The resurrection of the dead was at hand, that with few exceptions when they saw him shortly after his execution, they had no doubt that he had been resurrected, and that the arrival of the kingdom and resurrection of the dead was at hand. These specific beliefs were compatible with Second Temple Judaism. In the following years the restoration of the kingdom, as Jews expected it, failed to occur. Some Christians began to believe instead that Christ, rather than simply being

13500-584: The rituals found in the First Temple era. For example, many Jews argued that only full-body immersion could achieve ritual purity. There was a sharp break between ancient Israelite religion and the Judaism of the Second Temple. Pre-exilic Israel was mostly polytheistic (see Yahwism ). Asherah was probably worshiped as Yahweh's consort, within his temples in Jerusalem, Bethel , and Samaria featuring what seem to be standing stones for another deity, and

13625-399: The royal court and the leaders of the Jewish community. This was a diaspora of choice, not of imposition. Information is less robust regarding diasporas in other territories. It suggests that the situation was by and large the same as it was in Egypt. The Greeks viewed Jewish culture favorably, while Hellenism gained adherents among the Jews. While Hellenism has sometimes been presented (under

13750-674: The shekel contributions were marked with Greek letters (Sheḳ. iii. 2). It is therefore no wonder that there were synagogues of the Libertines , Cyrenians , Alexandrians, Cilicians , and Asiatics in the Holy City itself ( Acts vi. 9). The turbulence created by Alexander the Great's death also popularized Jewish messianism . For two milennia, Jews lived in Greece and created the Romaniote Jewish community. They spoke Yevanic ,

13875-566: The so-called Sapiential books . During the Hasmoean dynasty, Jews were conflicted on whether to be religiously or politically oriented, which was represented by the thematic differences in 1 Maccabees and 2 Maccabees . 1 Maccabees, for instance, focuses on Judean affairs, generalizes all gentile rulers as being evil, believes Jewish martyrs were "pious fools", makes little mention of God and prayer, and attributes events to blind chance. 2 Maccabees argues that anti-Judean persecution by

14000-471: The tenets of Hellenistic philosophy . He also popularized metaphors such as " circumcision of the heart" to Greek audiences. Hellenization was evident in the religious Jewish establishment: 'Ḥoni' became 'Menelaus'; 'Joshua' became 'Jason' or 'Jesus' [Ἰησοῦς]. The Hellenic influence pervaded everything, and even in the very strongholds of Judaism it modified the organization of the state, the laws, and public affairs, art, science, and industry, affecting even

14125-518: The time period. However, scholars such as Martin Goodman , for instance, argue that phrase relates to the Pharisees' attempt to persuade Jews to join their school of thought rather than their efforts to convert non-Jews. Early Christianity emerged within Second Temple Judaism during the 1st century , the key difference between Judaism and Jewish Christianity being the Christian belief that Jesus

14250-480: The title of "gods" (John 10:33–36), because as literal children of God they can take upon themselves His divine attributes. Mormons teach that "The glory of God is intelligence" (Doctrine and Covenants 93:36), and that it is by sharing the Father's perfect comprehension of all things that both Jesus Christ and the Holy Spirit are also divine. Hinduism is neither a monolithic religion nor an organized religion :

14375-520: The trend of the majority of polytheist religions being found outside the western world. Folk religions are often closely tied to animism . Animistic beliefs are found in historical and modern cultures. Folk beliefs are often labeled superstitions when they are present in monotheistic societies. Folk religions often do not have organized authorities, also known as priesthoods , or any formal sacred texts . They often coincide with other religions as well. Abrahamic monotheistic religions , which dominate

14500-419: The unity of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost represent a oneness of purpose, not of substance. They believe that the early Christian church did not characterize divinity in terms of an immaterial, formless shared substance until post-apostolic theologians began to incorporate Greek metaphysical philosophies (such as Neoplatonism ) into Christian doctrine. Mormons believe that the truth about God's nature

14625-403: The western world, typically do not approve of practicing parts of multiple religions, but folk religions often overlap with others. Followers of polytheistic religions do not often problematize following practices and beliefs from multiple religions. Depending on the type of Buddhism practiced, it may be seen as polytheistic as it at least acknowledges the existence of multiple gods. The Buddha

14750-451: The works of Greek-speaking Jewish authors of the end of the Second Temple period before the two schools of thought eventually affirmed their respective norms and doctrines, notably by diverging increasingly on key issues such as the status of purity laws, the validity of Christian messianic beliefs, and the use of Koiné Greek and Latin as liturgical languages replacing Biblical Hebrew . The word synagogue comes from Jewish Koine Greek ,

14875-564: Was believed to influence Second Temple Judaism, particularly Pharisaical Judaism. They introduced religious innovations such as ritual immersion in baths, burial in caves with kokhim , and the perforation of pottery vessels so they could be purified. The Herodians continued this trend, with Judea, Jerusalem and the Temple being shaped by Idumean culture. Their contributions were obfuscated by religious Jews belonging to later variants of Second Temple Judaism and Rabbinic Judaism . Hayah Katz sees these ritual immersion rituals as being stricter than

15000-403: Was centered not on synagogues, which began to appear only in the 3rd century   BCE, but on the Temple, and a cycle of continual animal sacrifice . Torah, or ritual law, was also important, and the Temple priests were responsible for teaching it, but the concept of scripture developed only slowly. Thus the reading and study of scripture was a late development. The written Torah and the books of

15125-632: Was counted among their number in antiquity. Different cities often worshipped the same deities, sometimes with epithets that distinguished them and specified their local nature. Hellenic Polytheism extended beyond mainland Greece, to the islands and coasts of Ionia in Asia Minor , to Magna Graecia (Sicily and southern Italy), and to scattered Greek colonies in the Western Mediterranean, such as Massalia (Marseille). Greek religion tempered Etruscan cult and belief to form much of

15250-461: Was divided between conservative factions and pro-Hellenist factions. Pro-Hellenist Jews were generally upper-class or minorities living in Gentile -majority communities. They lived in towns that were far from Jerusalem and heavily connected with Greek trading networks. The most significant literary achievement of Hellenistic Judaism was the development of the Septuagint . Other notable works include

15375-525: Was restored through modern day revelation, which reinstated the original Judeo-Christian concept of a natural, corporeal, immortal God, who is the literal Father of the spirits of humans. It is to this personage alone that Mormons pray, as He is and always will be their Heavenly Father, the supreme "God of gods" (Deuteronomy 10:17). In the sense that Mormons worship only God the Father, they consider themselves monotheists. Nevertheless, Mormons adhere to Christ's teaching that those who receive God's word can obtain

15500-408: Was shot through with Greek. The unique combination of ethnocultural traits inhered from the fusion of a Greek - Macedonian cultural base, Hellenistic Judaism and Roman civilization gave birth to the distinctly Antiochian "Middle Eastern-Roman" Christian traditions of Cilicia (Southeastern Turkey) and Syria/Lebanon: "The mixture of Roman, Greek, and Jewish elements admirably adapted Antioch for

15625-491: Was the resurrected Jewish Messiah. Judaism is known to allow for multiple messianic figures, the two most relevant being Messiah ben Joseph and the Messiah ben David. The idea of two messiahs—one suffering and the second fulfilling the traditional messianic role—was normal in ancient Judaism and possibly even predated Jesus. Alan Segal states "one can speak of a 'twin birth' of two new Judaisms, both markedly different from

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