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84-715: In 451, the Council of Chalcedon settled christological disputes by condemning both Monophysitism , held by Eutyches , and Nestorianism . However, large sections of the Eastern Roman Empire , especially in Egypt , but also in Palestine and Syria , held miaphysite views. In order to restore unity, the Patriarch of Constantinople , Acacius , devised an irenic formula, which Emperor Zeno promulgated without

168-484: A book handed him by Aetius, the synodical letter of Leo to Flavian (Leo's Tome). After the reading of the letter, the bishops cried out: "This is the faith of the fathers, this is the faith of the Apostles. So we all believe, thus the orthodox believe. ... Peter has spoken thus through Leo. So taught the Apostles. Piously and truly did Leo teach, so taught Cyril. Everlasting be the memory of Cyril. Leo and Cyril taught

252-618: A canon of disputed validity, the Council of Chalcedon also elevated the See of Constantinople to a position "second in eminence and power to the Bishop of Rome ". The Council of Nicaea in 325 had noted that the Sees of Rome , Alexandria and Antioch should have primacy over other, lesser dioceses. At the time, the See of Constantinople was not yet of ecclesiastical prominence, but its proximity to

336-636: A collection of all the Acts and translate them into Latin. Most of the documents, chiefly the minutes of the sessions, were written in Greek; others, e.g. the imperial letters, were issued in both languages; others, again, e.g. the papal letters, were written in Latin. Eventually nearly all of them were translated into both languages. The metropolitan of Jerusalem was given independence from the metropolitan of Antioch and from any other higher-ranking bishop, given what

420-529: A committee of bishops appointed to study the orthodoxy of the Tome using Cyril's letters (which included the twelve anathemas) as their criteria unanimously determined it to be orthodox, and the council, with few exceptions, supported this. It approved the creed of Nicaea (325), the creed of Constantinople (381; subsequently known as the Nicene Creed), two letters of Cyril against Nestorius, which insisted on

504-418: A council ( the fourth ecumenical ) which met at Chalcedon , which Dioscorus attended and at which he was condemned. There the synod of Ephesus was called a "robber synod," at which, it was said, Dioscorus had threatened the bishops with death if they did not agree with him. That previous synod's proceedings were annulled and, in accordance with the more miaphysite strand in the teaching of Cyril of Alexandria, it

588-403: A formal and authoritative decision of the question. Eutyches appealed against the decision, labeling Flavian a Nestorian, and received the support of Pope Dioscorus I of Alexandria . John Anthony McGuckin sees an "innate rivalry" between the Sees of Alexandria and Constantinople. Dioscurus, imitating his predecessors in assuming a primacy over Constantinople, held his own synod which annulled

672-524: A heretic; in combating this assertion of Patriarch Nestorius, Eutyches was claimed to have declared that Christ was "a fusion of human and divine elements", causing his own denunciation as a heretic seventeen years after the First Council of Ephesus at the 448 AD Synod of Constantinople, and later again in 451 at the Council of Chalcedon . According to Nestorius, all the human experiences and attributes of Christ are to be assigned to 'the man', as

756-435: A local synod regarding a point of discipline connected with the province of Sardis . At the end of the session of this synod one of those inculpated, Eusebius, Bishop of Dorylaeum , brought a counter charge of heresy against the archimandrite . Eusebius demanded that Eutyches be removed from office. Flavian preferred that the bishop and the archimandrite sort out their differences, but as his suggestion went unheeded, Eutyches

840-548: A personal subject distinct from God the Word, though united to God the Word from the moment of conception. The fathers of the Synod of Constantinople argued that in opposition to this Eutyches had inverted the assertion to the opposite extreme, asserting that human nature and divine nature were combined into the single nature of Christ without any alteration, absorption or confusion: that of the incarnate Word . Although this accorded with

924-534: A pro-monophysite mob to enter the church which assaulted Flavian as he clung to the altar. Flavian died three days later. Dioscorus then placed Eusebius of Dorylaeum under arrest and demanded the assembled bishops approve his actions. Fearing the mob, they all did. The papal legates refused to attend the second session at which several more orthodox bishops were deposed, including Ibas of Edessa, Irenaeus of Tyre, Domnus of Antioch, and Theodoret. Dioscorus then had Cyril of Alexandria's Twelve Anathemas declared orthodox with

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1008-679: A reasonable [rational] soul and body; consubstantial [co-essential] with the Father according to the Godhead, and consubstantial with us according to the Manhood; in all things like unto us, without sin; begotten before all ages of the Father according to the Godhead, and in these latter days, for us and for our salvation, born of the Virgin Mary, the Mother of God, according to the Manhood; one and

1092-418: A second letter to John of Antioch. The bishops responded, "We all so believe: Pope Leo thus believes ... we all thus believe. As Cyril so believe we, all of us: eternal be the memory of Cyril: as the epistles of Cyril teach such is our mind, such has been our faith: such is our faith: this is the mind of Archbishop Leo, so he believes, so he has written." Beronician, clerk of the consistory, then read from

1176-861: A significant turning point in the Christological debates, it also generated heated disagreements between the council and the Oriental Orthodox Church, who did not agree with such conduct or proceedings. This disagreement would later inform the separation of the Oriental Orthodox Churches from the rest of Christianity , and led to the council being regarded as Chalcedon, the Ominous . The council's other responsibilities included addressing controversy, dealing with issues such as ecclesiastical discipline and jurisdiction, and approving statements of belief such as

1260-574: A speedy end, and asked the council to make a pronouncement on the doctrine of the Incarnation before continuing the trial. The council fathers, however, felt that no new creed was necessary, and that the doctrine had been laid out clearly in Leo's Tome. They were also hesitant to write a new creed as the First Council of Ephesus had forbidden the composition or use of any new creed. Aetius, deacon of Constantinople then read Cyril's letter to Nestorius, and

1344-471: A synod presided over by Flavian at Constantinople in 448. His explanations deemed unsatisfactory, the council deposed him from his priestly office and excommunicated him. In 449, however, the Second Council of Ephesus was convened by Dioscorus of Alexandria , who was under the impression that Eutyches had renounced Monophysitism . Overawed by the presence of a large number of Egyptian monks,

1428-471: A vigorous champion of a late Cyrillian position", that is, miaphysitism . Eutyches denied that Christ's humanity was limited or incomplete, a view that some thought similar to the Alexandrine doctrine. In any event, the energy and imprudence with which Eutyches asserted his opinions led to his being misunderstood. He was accused of heresy by Domnus II of Antioch and Eusebius, bishop of Dorylaeum at

1512-460: Is now known as autocephaly , in the council's seventh session whose "Decree on the Jurisdiction of Jerusalem and Antioch" contains: "the bishop of Jerusalem, or rather the most holy Church which is under him, shall have under his own power the three Palestines". This led to Jerusalem becoming a patriarchate , one of the five patriarchates known as the pentarchy , when the title of patriarch

1596-403: Is presented only by hostile parties as an interpretation of the implications of his thinking. In an overview of the proceedings against Eutyches, which they view as a type of imperial show trial directed against Cyril's radical supporters, the historians Patrick T. R. Gray and George A. Bevan argue that "what [Eutyches] himself said gives us no reason to see him as having been anything other than

1680-546: Is rejected by the Oriental Orthodox Churches , the latter teaching rather that "The Lord Jesus Christ is God the Incarnate Word . He possesses the perfect Godhead and the perfect manhood. His fully divine nature is united with His fully human nature yet without mixing, blending or alteration." The Oriental Orthodox contend that this latter teaching has been misunderstood as monophysitism , an appellation with which they strongly disagree but, nevertheless, refuse to accept

1764-717: The Coptic Church , the Armenian Orthodox Church , and the Syrian Orthodox Church . They were wrongfully accused of agreeing with Eutyches about "one nature" in Christ and of rejecting Christ's dual consubstantiality (with the Father and with us men); however, Oriental Orthodox churches prefer to be called "Miaphysites" and are against the teachings of Eutyches. This was confirmed in May 1973 when

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1848-687: The Creed of Nicaea (325), the Creed of Constantinople (381, subsequently known as the Nicene Creed ), two letters of St. Cyril of Alexandria against Nestorius , and the Tome of Pope Leo I . The Christology of the Church of the East may be called " non-Ephesine " for not accepting the Council of Ephesus, but did finally gather to ratify the Council of Chalcedon at the Synod of Mar Aba I in 544. Through

1932-662: The Roman Empire . The Eastern position could be characterized as being political in nature, as opposed to a doctrinal view. In practice, all Christians East and West addressed the papacy as the See of Peter and Paul or the Apostolic See rather than the See of the Imperial Capital. Rome understands this to indicate that its precedence has always come from its direct lineage from the apostles Peter and Paul rather than its association with Imperial authority. After

2016-495: The first seven ecumenical councils . All the sessions were held in the church of St. Euphemia , Martyr, outside the city and directly opposite Constantinople. As to the number of sessions held by the Council of Chalcedon there is a great discrepancy in the various texts of the Acts, also in the ancient historians of the council. Either the respective manuscripts must have been incomplete; or the historians passed over in silence several sessions held for secondary purposes. According to

2100-599: The magister militum , to marry Marcian. Leo had pressed for it to take place in Italy , but Emperor Marcian instead called for it to convene at Chalcedon, because it was closer to Constantinople, and would thus allow him to respond quickly to any events along the Danube, which was being raided by the Huns under Attila. The council opened on 8 October 451. Marcian had the bishops deposed by Dioscorus returned to their dioceses and had

2184-597: The 1994 Common Christological Declaration between the Catholic Church and the Assyrian Church of the East, the Assyrian Church of the East and the Catholic Church each accepted and confessed the same doctrine of Christology. In 325, the first ecumenical council ( First Council of Nicaea ) determined that Jesus Christ was God, " consubstantial " with the Father, and rejected the Arian contention that Jesus

2268-523: The Church of Constantinople a ray of that Apostolic splendor which you possess, for you have ever cherished this church, and you are not at all niggardly in imparting your riches to your children. ... Vouchsafe then, most Holy and most Blessed Father, to accept what we have done in your name, and in a friendly spirit ( hos oikeia te kai phila ). For your legates have made a violent stand against it, desiring, no doubt, that this good deed should proceed, in

2352-587: The East and the West. The claims that bishops being forced to approve actions, were challenged by Pope Dioscorus and the Egyptian Bishops at Chalcedon. The situation continued to deteriorate, with Leo demanding the convocation of a new council and Emperor Theodosius II refusing to budge, all the while appointing bishops in agreement with Dioscorus. All this changed dramatically with the Emperor's death and

2436-532: The Egyptians time to consider their rejection of Leo's Tome , is an extract from the minutes of the fourth session. In all likelihood an official record of the proceedings was made either during the council itself or shortly afterwards. The assembled bishops informed the pope that a copy of all the "Acta" would be transmitted to him; in March 453, Pope Leo commissioned Julian of Cos, then at Constantinople, to make

2520-523: The Imperial court gave rise to its importance. The Council of Constantinople in 381 modified the situation somewhat by placing Constantinople second in honor, above Alexandria and Antioch, stating in Canon III, that "the bishop of Constantinople ... shall have the prerogative of honor after the bishop of Rome; because Constantinople is New Rome". In the early 5th century, this status was challenged by

2604-655: The Patriarch of Antioch was pressured into subscribing to the Henotikon . When Patriarch John I of Alexandria refused, the Emperor had him expelled and instead recognized the Miaphysite Peter Mongos , who accepted the Henotikon . However, other miaphysites abandoned Mongos and were thenceforth called Akephaloi (headless ones), since they had lost their leader. After two years of prevarication and temporizing by Acacius, Pope Felix III of Rome condemned

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2688-527: The Sovereignty and the Senate and enjoys equal privileges with the old imperial Rome, should in ecclesiastical matters also be magnified as she is, and rank next after her. In making their case, the council fathers argued that tradition had accorded "honor" to the see of older Rome because it was the first imperial city. Accordingly, "moved by the same purposes" the fathers "apportioned equal prerogatives to

2772-605: The Tome of Leo written against Eutyches and sent to Archbishop Flavian of Constantinople in 449. The work of the council was completed by a series of 30 disciplinary canons , the Ancient Epitomes of which are: Canon 28 grants equal privileges ( isa presbeia ) to Constantinople as of Rome because Constantinople is the New Rome as renewed by canon 36 of the Quinisext Council . Pope Leo declared

2856-463: The Tome, but a group of thirteen Egyptians refused, saying that they would assent to "the traditional faith". As a result, the Emperor's commissioners decided that a credo would indeed be necessary and presented a text to the fathers. No consensus was reached. Paschasinus threatened to return to Rome to reassemble the council in Italy. Marcian agreed, saying that if a clause were not added to the credo ,

2940-532: The act and excommunicated Acacius (484), although this was largely ignored in Constantinople, even after the death of Acacius in 489. Zeno died in 491. His successor Anastasius I was sympathetic to the monophysites, and accepted the Henotikon . However, Anastasius's position was at odds with the predominantly Chalcedonian population of Constantinople, and Vitalian , a Chalcedonian general, attempted to overthrow him in 514. Anastasius then attempted to heal

3024-450: The approval of a synod of bishops. The Henotikon endorsed the condemnations of Eutyches and Nestorius made at Chalcedon and explicitly approved the twelve anathemas of Cyril of Alexandria , but avoided any definitive statement on whether Christ had one or two natures, attempting to appease both sides of the dispute. This act failed to satisfy either side. All sides took offence at the Emperor openly dictating church doctrine, although

3108-587: The bishops of Alexandria, but the Council of Chalcedon confirmed in Canon XXVIII: For the Fathers rightly granted privileges to the throne of old Rome, because it was the royal city. And the One Hundred and Fifty most religious Bishops, actuated by the same consideration, gave equal privileges ( ἴσα πρεσβεῖα ) to the most holy throne of New Rome, justly judging that the city which is honoured with

3192-415: The bishops would have to relocate. The Committee then sat in the oratory of the most holy martyr Euphemis and afterwards reported a definition of faith which while teaching the same doctrine was not the Tome of Leo. Although it could be reconciled with Cyril's Formula of Reunion, it was not compatible in its wording with Cyril's Twelve Anathemas. In particular, the third anathema reads: "If anyone divides in

3276-427: The body of Flavian brought to the capital to be buried honorably. The Emperor asked Leo to preside over the council, but Leo again chose to send legates in his place. This time, Bishops Paschasinus of Lilybaeum and Julian of Cos and two priests Boniface and Basil represented the western church at the council. The council was attended by about 520 bishops or their representatives and was the largest and best-documented of

3360-480: The canon 28 null and void and only approved the canons of the council which were pertaining to faith. Initially, the council indicated their understanding that Pope Leo's ratification was necessary for the canon to be binding, writing, "we have made still another enactment which we have deemed necessary for the maintenance of good order and discipline, and we are persuaded that your Holiness will approve and confirm our decree. ... We are confident you will shed upon

3444-451: The child we have honored its parent. ... We have informed you of everything with a view of proving our sincerity, and of obtaining for our labors your confirmation and consent." Following Leo's rejection of the canon, Bishop Anatolius of Constantinople conceded, "Even so, the whole force of confirmation of the acts was reserved for the authority of Your Blessedness. Therefore, let Your Holiness know for certain that I did nothing to further

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3528-578: The council by order of the emperor was whether Flavian, in a synod held by him at Constantinople in November, 448, had justly deposed and excommunicated the Archimandrite Eutyches for refusing to admit two natures in Christ. Dioscorus began the council by banning all members of the November 448 synod which had deposed Eutyches from sitting as judges. He then introduced Eutyches who publicly professed that while Christ had two natures before

3612-529: The council not only reinstated Eutyches to his office but also deposed Eusebius, Domnus, and Flavian, his chief opponents. The council's judgment conflicted with the opinion of the bishop of Rome, Leo , who, departing from the policy of his predecessor Celestine , had written very strongly to Flavian in support of the doctrine of the two natures and one person. Meanwhile, the emperor Theodosius II died. His successor, Marcian , married Theodosius's sister, Pulcheria . In October 451, Marcian and Pulcheria summoned

3696-407: The council stated: We all teach harmoniously [that he is] the same perfect in godhead, the same perfect in manhood, truly God and truly man, the same of a reasonable soul and body; homoousios with the Father in godhead, and the same homoousios with us in manhood ... acknowledged in two natures without confusion, without change, without division, without separation. Whilst this judgment marked

3780-546: The council was to re-assert the teachings of the ecumenical Council of Ephesus against the teachings of Eutyches and Nestorius . Such doctrines viewed Christ's divine and human natures as separate ( Nestorianism ) or viewed Christ as solely divine ( monophysitism ). Autocephaly recognized by some autocephalous Churches de jure : Autocephaly and canonicity recognized by Constantinople and 3 other autocephalous Churches: Spiritual independence recognized by Georgian Orthodox Church: Semi-Autonomous: The ruling of

3864-403: The council) a seat at the council. As a result, he was moved to the nave of the church. Paschasinus further ordered the reinstatement of Theodoret and that he be given a seat, but this move caused such an uproar among the council fathers, that Theodoret also sat in the nave, though he was given a vote in the proceedings, which began with a trial of Dioscorus. Marcian wished to bring proceedings to

3948-419: The deacon Rusticus, there were in all sixteen sessions; this division is commonly accepted by scholars, including Karl Josef von Hefele , historian of the councils. If all the separate meetings were counted, there would be twenty-one sessions; several of these meetings, however, are considered as supplementary to preceding sessions. Paschasinus refused to give Dioscorus (who had excommunicated Leo leading up to

4032-561: The decrees of the council. Many Anglicans and most Protestants consider it to be the last authoritative ecumenical council. These churches, along with Martin Luther , hold that both conscience and scripture preempt doctrinal councils and generally agree that the conclusions of later councils were unsupported by or contradictory to scripture. The Council of Chalcedon issued the Chalcedonian Definition , which repudiated

4116-421: The elevation of Marcian to the imperial throne. To resolve the simmering tensions, Marcian announced his intention to hold a new council to set aside the 449 Second Council of Ephesus which was named the "Latrocinium" or "Robber Council" by Pope Leo. Pulcheria , the sister of Theodosius, may have influenced this decision, or even made the convention of a council a requirement during her negotiations with Aspar ,

4200-480: The first instance, from your provident hand. But we, wishing to gratify the pious Christian emperors, and the illustrious Senate, and the capital of the empire, have judged that an Ecumenical Council was the fittest occasion for effecting this measure. Hence we have made bold to confirm the privileges of the aforementioned city (tharresantes ekurosamen) as if your holiness had taken the initiative, for we know how tenderly you love your children, and we feel that in honoring

4284-474: The first session of this synod were read at the Council of Chalcedon, 451, and are thus preserved. The remainder of the Acts (the first session being wanting) are known through a Syriac translation by a Miaphysite monk, written in the year 535 and published from a manuscript in the British Museum. Nonetheless, there are somewhat different interpretations as to what actually transpired. The question before

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4368-444: The incarnation, the two natures had merged to form a single nature after the incarnation. Of the 130 assembled bishops, 111 voted to rehabilitate Eutyches. Throughout these proceedings, Hilary (one of the papal legates) repeatedly called for the reading of Leo's Tome, but was ignored. The Eastern Orthodox Church has very different accounts of The Second Council of Ephesus. Pope Dioscorus requested deferring reading of Leo's Tome, as it

4452-477: The intent of condemning any confession other than one nature in Christ. According to a letter to the Empress Pulcheria collected among the letters of Leo I, Hilary apologized for not delivering to her the pope's letter after the synod, but owing to Dioscurus, who tried to hinder his going either to Rome or to Constantinople, he had great difficulty in making his escape in order to bring to the pontiff

4536-439: The later teaching of Cyril of Alexandria, Eutyches was accused of having gone beyond Cyril in denying that Christ was " consubstantial with us men", by which he did not intend to deny Christ's full manhood, but to stress His uniqueness. In the surviving acts of the 448 Synod in which Eutyches presents his own defence, however, he himself rejects this understanding of his thought, and the doctrine that became known as "Eutychianism"

4620-565: The matter, knowing always that I held myself bound to avoid the lusts of pride and covetousness." However, the Canon has since been viewed as valid by the Eastern Orthodox Church. According to some ancient Greek collections, canons 29 and 30 are attributed to the council: canon 29, which states that an unworthy bishop cannot be demoted but can be removed, is an extract from the minutes of the 19th session; canon 30, which grants

4704-405: The most holy see of new Rome" because "the city which is honored by the imperial power and senate and enjoying privileges equaling older imperial Rome should also be elevated to her level in ecclesiastical affairs and take second place after her". The framework for allocating ecclesiastical authority advocated by the council fathers mirrored the allocation of imperial authority in the later period of

4788-487: The news of the result of the council. Hilary, who later became pope and dedicated an oratory in the Lateran Basilica in thanks for his life, managed to escape from Constantinople and brought news of the council to Leo who immediately dubbed it a "synod of robbers" – Latrocinium  – and refused to accept its pronouncements. The decisions of this council now threatened schism between

4872-409: The notice must prevent the presence of any other bishop of the West. He provided his legates, one of whom died en route, with a letter addressed to Flavian explaining Rome's position in the controversy. Leo's letter, now known as Leo's Tome , confessed that Christ had two natures, and was not of or from two natures. On August 8, 449 the Second Council of Ephesus began its first session. The Acts of

4956-447: The notion of a single nature in Christ, and declared that he has two natures in one person and hypostasis . It also insisted on the completeness of his two natures: Godhead and manhood. The council also issued 27 disciplinary canons governing church administration and authority. In a further decree, later known as canon 28, the bishops declared that the See of Constantinople (New Rome) had

5040-436: The one Christ the hypostases after the union, joining them only by a conjunction of dignity or authority or power, and not rather by a coming together in a union by nature, let him be anathema." This appeared to some to be incompatible with Leo's definition of two natures hypostatically joined . However, the council would determine (with the exception of 13 Egyptian bishops) that this was an issue of wording and not of doctrine;

5124-399: The orthodoxy of Leo's Tome, judging it by the standard of Cyril's Twelve Chapters, as some of the bishops present raised concerns about their compatibility. This committee was headed by Anatolius, Patriarch of Constantinople, and was given five days to carefully study the matter. The committee unanimously decided in favor of the orthodoxy of Leo, determining that what he said was compatible with

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5208-648: The passage of the Canon 28, Rome filed a protest against the reduction of honor given to Antioch and Alexandria. However, fearing that withholding Rome's approval would be interpreted as a rejection of the entire council, in 453 the pope confirmed the council's canons while declaring the 28th null and void. This position would change and later be accepted in 1215 at the Fourth Council of the Lateran . Eutyches Eutyches ( Ancient Greek : Εὐτυχής ; c. 380 – c. 456) or Eutyches of Constantinople

5292-476: The patriarchal status with "equal privileges" ( τῶν ἴσων ἀπολαύουσαν in Greek, aequalibus privilegiis in Latin) to the See of Rome . No reference was made in Canon 28 to the bishops of Rome or Constantinople having their authority from being successors to Peter or Andrew respectively. Instead, the stated reasons in the actual text of the Canon that the episcopacy of these cities had been granted their status

5376-548: The same Christ, Son, Lord, only begotten, to be acknowledged in two natures, inconfusedly, unchangeably, indivisibly, inseparably; ( ἐν δύο φύσεσιν ἀσυγχύτως, ἀτρέπτως, ἀδιαιρέτως, ἀχωρίστως  – in duabus naturis inconfuse, immutabiliter, indivise, inseparabiliter ) the distinction of natures being by no means taken away by the union, but rather the property of each nature being preserved, and concurring in one Person ( prosopon ) and one Subsistence ( hypostasis ), not parted or divided into two persons, but one and

5460-676: The same Son, and only begotten God ( μονογενῆ Θεόν ), the Word, the Lord Jesus Christ; as the prophets from the beginning [have declared] concerning Him, and the Lord Jesus Christ Himself has taught us, and the Creed of the holy Fathers has handed down to us. The full text of the definition reaffirms the decisions of the Council of Ephesus and the pre-eminence of the Creed of Nicea (325). It also canonises as authoritative two of Cyril of Alexandria 's letters and

5544-409: The same thing, ... This is the true faith ... This is the faith of the fathers. Why were not these things read at Ephesus?" However, during the reading of Leo's Tome, three passages were challenged as being potentially Nestorian, and their orthodoxy was defended by using the writings of Cyril. Due to such concerns, the council decided to adjourn and appoint a special committee to investigate

5628-474: The schism with Pope Hormisdas , but this failed when Anastasius refused to recognize the excommunication of the now deceased Acacius. Vitalian tried to overthrow the emperor a second time, but he was defeated by loyal officers. The schism caused by the Henotikon was officially settled in 519 when Emperor Justin I recognized the excommunication of Acacius and reunited the Chalcedonian churches. However,

5712-528: The sentence of Flavian, and absolved Eutyches. Through the influence of the court official Chrysaphius, godson of Eutyches, in 449, the competing claims between the Patriarchs of Constantinople and Alexandria led Emperor Theodosius II to call a council which was held in Ephesus in 449, with Dioscorus presiding. Pope Leo sent four legates to represent him and expressed his regret that the shortness of

5796-405: The teaching of Cyril. A number of other bishops also entered statements to the effect that they believed that Leo's Tome was not in contradiction with the teaching of Cyril as well. The council continued with Dioscorus' trial, but he refused to appear before the assembly. However, historical accounts from the Eastern Orthodox Church note that Dioscorus was put under solitary arrest. As a result, he

5880-570: The then-Patriarchs of Alexandria and Antioch still embraced miaphysitism, and their churches came to be known in modern times as the Oriental Orthodox Churches . Meanwhile, the incident did nothing to mend the growing rift between the churches of Constantinople and Rome, which would lead in later centuries to the East-West Schism . Council of Chalcedon The Council of Chalcedon ( / k æ l ˈ s iː d ən , ˈ k æ l s ɪ d ɒ n / ; Latin : Concilium Chalcedonense )

5964-642: The unity of divine and human persons in Christ, and the Tome of Pope Leo I confirming two distinct natures in Christ. The dogmatic definitions of the council are recognized as normative by the Eastern Orthodox and Catholic Churches, as well by certain other Western Churches ; also, most Protestants agree that the council's teachings regarding the Trinity and the Incarnation are orthodox doctrine which must be adhered to. The council, however,

6048-425: Was a presbyter and archimandrite at Constantinople . He first came to notice in 431 at the First Council of Ephesus , for his vehement opposition to the teachings of Nestorius . At the 448 Synod of Constantinople and the 451 Council of Chalcedon , Eutyches was condemned for having adopted an equally extreme, although opposite view. He himself, however, would reject this interpretation of his thought. Eutyches

6132-444: Was a created being. This was reaffirmed at the First Council of Constantinople (381) and the First Council of Ephesus (431). About two years after Cyril of Alexandria 's death in 444, an aged monk from Constantinople named Eutyches began teaching a subtle variation on the traditional Christology in an attempt to stop what he saw as a new outbreak of Nestorianism . He claimed to be a faithful follower of Cyril's teaching, which

6216-412: Was advocating Docetism , a sort of reversal of Arianism – where Arius had denied the consubstantial divinity of Jesus , Eutyches seemed to be denying that Jesus was fully human. Pope Leo I wrote that Eutyches' error seemed to be more from a lack of skill than from malice. Eutyches had been accusing various personages of covert Nestorianism. In November 448, Flavian, Bishop of Constantinople held

6300-413: Was an archimandrite of a monastery outside the walls of Constantinople, where he ruled over 300 monks. He was much respected and was godfather to Chrysaphius, an influential eunuch at the court of Theodosius II. The patriarch of Constantinople , Nestorius , having asserted that Mary ought not to be referred to as the "Mother of God" ( Theotokos in Greek, literally "God-bearer"), was denounced as

6384-483: Was bleeding of sickness". Pulcheria is said to have slapped Dioscorus in the face, breaking some of his teeth, and ordered the guards to confine him, which they did pulling his beard hair. Dioscorus is said to have put these in a box and sent them back to his Church in Alexandria noting "this is the fruit of my faith." Marcian responded by exiling Dioscorus. All of the bishops were then asked to sign their assent to

6468-472: Was condemned, but by an underwhelming amount (more than half the bishops present for the previous sessions did not attend his condemnation), and all of his decrees were declared null. Empress Pulcheria (Marcian's wife) told Dioscorus "In my father's time, there was a man who was stubborn (referring to St. John Chrysostom ) and you are aware of what was made of him", to which Dioscorus famously responded "And you may recall that your mother prayed at his tomb, as she

6552-507: Was created in 531 by Justinian . The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, s.v. patriarch (ecclesiastical) , also calls it "a title dating from the 6th century, for the bishops of the five great sees of Christendom". Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions, says: "Five patriarchates, collectively called the pentarchy, were the first to be recognized by the legislation of the emperor Justinian (reigned 527–565)". In

6636-643: Was declared orthodox in the Union of 433. Cyril had taught that "There is only one physis , since it is the Incarnation, of God the Word." Cyril apparently thought that the Greek word physis meant approximately what the Latin word persona (person) means, while most Greek theologians would have interpreted that word to mean natura (nature). The energy and imprudence with which Eutyches asserted his opinions led to his being misunderstood. Thus, many believed that Eutyches

6720-493: Was declared that the two natures are united in Christ (without any alteration, absorption or confusion) and 'come together to form one person and one hypostasis.' Eutyches died in exile, but of his later life nothing is known. Those who did not approve the Chalcedonian Council were later accused of being "Monophysites" and are nowadays known as " Oriental Orthodox ," a phrase that today applies to churches such as

6804-505: Was not seen as necessary to start with, and could be read later. This was seen as a rebuke to the representatives from the Church of Rome not reading the Tome from the start. Dioscorus then moved to depose Flavian of Constantinople and Eusebius of Dorylaeum on the grounds that they taught the Word had been made flesh and not just assumed flesh from the Virgin and that Christ had two natures. When Flavian and Hilary objected, Dioscorus called for

6888-433: Was summoned to clarify his position regarding the nature of Christ. Eventually Eutyches reluctantly appeared, but his position was considered to be theologically unsophisticated, and the synod finding his answers unresponsive condemned and exiled him. Flavian sent a full account to Pope Leo I. Although it had been accidentally delayed, Leo wrote a compendious explanation of the whole doctrine involved, and sent it to Flavian as

6972-482: Was the fourth ecumenical council of the Christian Church. It was convoked by the Roman emperor Marcian . The council convened in the city of Chalcedon , Bithynia (modern-day Kadıköy , Istanbul , Turkey ) from 8 October to 1 November 451. The council was attended by over 520 bishops or their representatives, making it the largest and best-documented of the first seven ecumenical councils . The principal purpose of

7056-401: Was the importance of these cities as major cities of the empire of the time. The Confession of Chalcedon provides a clear statement on the two natures of Christ, human and divine: We, then, following the holy Fathers, all with one consent, teach people to confess one and the same Son, our Lord Jesus Christ, the same perfect in Godhead and also perfect in manhood; truly God and truly man, of

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