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103-491: Hungary under Horthy was characterized by its conservative , nationalist , and fiercely anti-communist character. The government was based on an unstable alliance of conservatives and right-wingers. Foreign policy was characterized by revisionism — the total or partial revision of the Treaty of Trianon , which had seen Hungary lose over 70% of its historic territory along with over three million Hungarians , who mostly lived in

206-577: A constitutional monarchy . However, it was obvious that the Allies would not accept any return of the Habsburgs . Earlier, Archduke Joseph August had declared himself regent , but he stood down after two weeks when the Allies refused to recognize him. It was thus decided to choose a regent to represent the monarchy until a settlement could be reached. Miklós Horthy , the last commanding admiral of

309-452: A totalitarian ruler, but a monarch, or a traditionalist who acts like one. Many such movements in Spain, Austria, Hungary, Germany, and Italy have been explicitly monarchist […] The supporters of these movements differ from those of the centrists, tending to be wealthier, and more religious, which is more important in terms of a potential for mass support. Edmund Fawcett states that fascism

412-414: A "right-wing viewpoint occupying the political spectrum between [classical] liberalism and fascism ". Conservatism has been called a "philosophy of human imperfection" by Noël O'Sullivan , reflecting among its adherents a negative view of human nature and pessimism of the potential to improve it through 'utopian' schemes. Thomas Hobbes , the "intellectual godfather of the realist right", argued that

515-568: A Soviet-backed government under Béla Miklós was nominally left in control of the entire country. A High National Council was appointed in January to assume the regency, and included members of the Hungarian Communist Party , like Ernő Gerő , and later Mátyás Rákosi and László Rajk . Upon the kingdom's establishment soon after World War I, the country suffered from economic decline, budget deficits, and high inflation as

618-652: A badge of honor". Despite this, the descriptor has been adopted by intellectuals such as the Italian esoteric traditionalist Julius Evola , the Austrian monarchist Erik von Kuehnelt-Leddihn , the Colombian political theologian Nicolás Gómez Dávila , and the American historian John Lukacs . Religious conservatism principally applies the teachings of particular religions to politics—sometimes by merely proclaiming

721-663: A degree of religious toleration . Burke ultimately justified the social order on the basis of tradition: tradition represented the wisdom of the species, and he valued community and social harmony over social reforms. Another form of conservatism developed in France in parallel to conservatism in Britain. It was influenced by Counter-Enlightenment works by philosophers such as Joseph de Maistre and Louis de Bonald . Many continental conservatives do not support separation of church and state , with most supporting state cooperation with

824-442: A moderate alternative to the extremes of right-wing nationalism and left-wing communism. Christian-democratic parties were especially popular among European women, who often voted for these parties to a large extent due to their pro-family policies. Social conservatives believe that society is built upon a fragile network of relationships which need to be upheld through duty, traditional values, and established institutions; and that

927-612: A new Nazi-backed government , effectively turning Hungary into a German-occupied puppet state . After World War II, the country fell within the Soviet Union 's sphere of influence. It changed its name to the Hungarian State ( Hungarian : Magyar Állam ) and the Second Hungarian Republic was soon thereafter proclaimed in 1946, succeeded by the communist Hungarian People's Republic in 1949. Upon

1030-545: A number of professions. Later it scapegoated the Jews for the country's failing economy. In March 1944, responding to the advancing Soviet forces, Prime Minister Miklós Kállay , with Horthy's backing, established contacts with the Allies in order to open negotiations and switch sides; however, this became known to the Germans, who proceeded to invade Hungary and quickly overran the country, meeting only limited resistance. With

1133-762: A potential turn of support to the Romanians, the Hungarian government sent armed forces to support the German war effort during Operation Barbarossa . This support cost the Hungarians dearly. Almost the entire Second Army Group of the Royal Hungarian Army was lost during the Battle of Stalingrad . By early 1944, with Soviet forces fast advancing from the east, Hungary was caught attempting to contact

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1236-483: A powerful reactionary movement was German Romanticism , which centred around concepts of organicism, medievalism , and traditionalism against the forces of rationalism, secularism, and individualism that were unleashed in the French Revolution . In political discourse, being a reactionary is generally regarded as negative; Peter King observed that it is "an unsought-for label, used as a torment rather than

1339-472: A result of the loss of economically important territories under the Treaty of Trianon , including to Czechoslovakia , Romania , and Yugoslavia . The land losses of the Treaty of Trianon in 1920 caused Hungary to lose agricultural and industrial areas, making it dependent on exporting products from what agricultural land it had left to maintain its economy. Prime Minister István Bethlen 's government dealt with

1442-1402: A stream of anti-rationalist, romantic conservatism, but would still stay separate. Whereas Burke was more open to argumentation and disagreement, Maistre wanted faith and authority, leading to a more illiberal strain of thought. Authoritarian conservatism refers to autocratic regimes that portray authority as absolute and unquestionable. Authoritarian conservative movements show strong devotion towards religion, tradition, and culture while also expressing fervent nationalism akin to other far-right nationalist movements. Examples of authoritarian conservative dictators include Marshal Philippe Pétain in France, Regent Miklós Horthy in Hungary, General Ioannis Metaxas in Greece, King Alexander I in Yugoslavia, Prime Minister António de Oliveira Salazar in Portugal, Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss in Austria, Generalissimo Francisco Franco in Spain, King Carol II in Romania, and Tsar Boris III in Bulgaria. Authoritarian conservative movements were prominent in

1545-725: A younger son of Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor . The Archduke Joseph Diamond , a 76.02 carat colourless diamond with internal flawless clarity, is named after the Archduke and officially recorded as his property. August was born at Alcsút , Kingdom of Hungary . On 15 November 1893, in Munich , he married Princess Auguste Maria of Bavaria (1877–1964), daughter of Prince Leopold of Bavaria (1846–1930) and his wife Archduchess Gisela of Austria (1856–1932). Archduke Joseph August became thus from 1893 grandson-in-law to Austrian Emperor Francis Joseph I . His wife's mother, Archduchess Gisela,

1648-485: Is "resting on an established belief in the sanctity of immemorial traditions and the legitimacy of those exercising authority under them". Alexandre Kojève distinguishes between two different forms of traditional authority: Robert Nisbet acknowledges that the decline of traditional authority in the modern world is partly linked with the retreat of old institutions such as guild , order , parish , and family —institutions that formerly acted as intermediaries between

1751-407: Is a cultural , social , and political philosophy and ideology that seeks to promote and preserve traditional institutions , customs , and values . The central tenets of conservatism may vary in relation to the culture and civilisation in which it appears. In Western culture , depending on the particular nation, conservatives seek to promote and preserve a range of institutions, such as

1854-435: Is a strand in conservatism which reflects the belief that societies exist and develop organically and that members within them have obligations towards each other. There is particular emphasis on the paternalistic obligation ( noblesse oblige ) of those who are privileged and wealthy to the poorer parts of society, which is consistent with principles such as duty , organicism , and hierarchy . Its proponents often stress

1957-402: Is less an attempt to uphold old institutions and more "a meditation on—and theoretical rendition of—the felt experience of having power, seeing it threatened, and trying to win it back". On another occasion, Robin argues for a more complex relation: Conservatism is a defense of established hierarchies, but it is also fearful of those established hierarchies. It sees in their assuredness of power

2060-467: Is necessary to ensure law and order, and social institutions are needed to nurture a sense of duty and responsibility to the nation. Originally opposed to capitalism and the industrial revolution , the conservative ideology in many countries adopted economic liberalism , especially in the United States where this ideology is known as fiscal conservatism . National conservatism prioritises

2163-410: Is strongly influenced by liberal stances. It incorporates the classical liberal view of minimal economic interventionism , meaning that individuals should be free to participate in the market and generate wealth without government interference. However, individuals cannot be thoroughly depended on to act responsibly in other spheres of life; therefore, liberal conservatives believe that a strong state

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2266-584: Is totalitarian, populist, and anti- pluralist , whereas authoritarian conservatism is somewhat pluralist but most of all elitist and anti-populist. He concludes: "The fascist is a nonconservative who takes anti-liberalism to extremes. The right-wing authoritarian is a conservative who takes fear of democracy to extremes." During the Cold War , right-wing military dictatorships were prominent in Latin America, with most nations being under military rule by

2369-512: Is unclear; at any rate, István was killed in an airplane crash in August that year, and a new Deputy Regent was not appointed. During his first ten years, Horthy led increased repression of Hungarian minorities. In 1920, the numerus clausus law formally placed limits on the number of minority students at university, and legalized corporal punishment for adults in criminal cases. Although the law seemingly applied in equal measure to all minorities,

2472-527: The Austro-Hungarian Navy , was chosen for this position on 1 March. Sándor Simonyi-Semadam was the first prime minister of Horthy's regency. In 1921 Charles returned in Hungary and tried to retake its throne , even trying to march on Budapest with some rebel troops in October 1921; however, his attempts failed as much of the Royal Hungarian Army remained loyal to Horthy and thus Charles

2575-545: The Catholic Church , such as had existed in France before the Revolution. Conservatives were also early to embrace nationalism , which was previously associated with liberalism and the Revolution in France. Another early French conservative, François-René de Chateaubriand , espoused a romantic opposition to modernity, contrasting its emptiness with the 'full heart' of traditional faith and loyalty. Elsewhere on

2678-636: The Hungarian prime minister . The succession after Horthy's death or resignation was never officially established; presumably the Hungarian Parliament would have selected a new regent, or possibly attempted to restore the Habsburgs under Crown Prince Otto . In January 1942, Parliament appointed Horthy's eldest son István as Deputy Regent and expected successor. Whether this represents an attempt to gradually re-establish monarchy in Hungary

2781-591: The Independent State of Croatia was proclaimed, Hungary joined the military operations and was allowed to annex the Bačka (Bácska) region in Vojvodina , which had a majority of Hungarians, as well as the region of Muraköz (present-day Prekmurje and Medjimurje ), which had large Slovenian and Croatian minorities, respectively. On 27 June 1941, László Bárdossy declared war on the Soviet Union . Fearing

2884-755: The Red Army had already reached Budapest and a long siege started , while Szálasi fled the capital. On 21 December 1944, a Hungarian "Interim Assembly" met in Debrecen , with the approval of the Soviet Union. This assembly elected an interim counter-government headed by Béla Miklós , the former commander of the Hungarian First Army . Budapest capitulated in February 1945 and the so-called Government of National Unity, now in exile in Munich ,

2987-711: The Rockingham branch of the Whig party . Together with the Tories, they were the conservatives in the late 18th century United Kingdom. Burke's views were a mixture of conservatism and republicanism. He supported the American Revolution of 1775–1783 but abhorred the violence of the French Revolution of 1789–1799. He accepted the conservative ideals of private property and the economics of Adam Smith , but he thought that capitalism should remain subordinate to

3090-660: The Rome–Berlin axis . Just prior to the Second World War, Hungary benefited from its close ties with Germany and Italy when the Munich Agreement obliged Czechoslovakia and Hungary to settle their territorial disputes by negotiation. Finally, the First Vienna Award reassigned the southern parts of Czechoslovakia to Hungary, and shortly after Czechoslovakia was abolished Hungary occupied and annexed

3193-776: The South Tyrolean Army Group , which was the 10th and the 11th Armies . Finally, on 26 October 1918, he was sent to the Balkans theatre to take command of the Heeresgruppe Kövess , which had lost Serbia , Albania and Montenegro . He was the last person to be appointed a Feldmarschall ( Field Marshal ) of the Austro-Hungarian Army on 24 October 1918 as an attempt by his cousin, Emperor Charles I to placate Hungarian nationalists. On 27 October 1918, Emperor Charles made August

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3296-550: The Treaty of Trianon on 4 June 1920, thereby reducing Hungary's size substantially: the whole of Transylvania was taken by Romania; much of Upper Hungary became part of Czechoslovakia; Vojvodina was assigned to the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (known after 1929 as Yugoslavia); and the Free State of Fiume was created. With a succession of increasingly nationalist prime ministers, Hungary steadily came to resent

3399-444: The communist Hungarian Soviet Republic . The revolution failed; the popular Joseph August survived unharmed; and on 7 August, he became head of state of Hungary once again, officially as regent (Reichsverweser) for Charles. He appointed István Friedrich as Prime Minister. When it became apparent that the Allies would not recognise a Habsburg as Hungary's head of state, Joseph August was forced to resign on 23 August 1919. In 1920

3502-629: The dissolution of Austria-Hungary after World War I, the Hungarian Democratic Republic and then the Hungarian Soviet Republic were briefly proclaimed in 1918 and 1919, respectively. The short-lived communist government of Béla Kun launched what was known as the " Red Terror ", involving Hungary in an ill-fated war with Romania . In 1920, the country fell into a period of civil conflict, with Hungarian anti-communists and monarchists violently purging

3605-413: The nuclear family , organised religion , the military , the nation-state , property rights , rule of law , aristocracy , and monarchy . Conservatives tend to favour institutions and practices that enhance social order and historical continuity. Edmund Burke , an 18th-century Anglo-Irish statesman who opposed the French Revolution but supported the American Revolution , is credited as one of

3708-607: The social transformation of society. In popular usage, reactionism refers to a staunch traditionalist conservative political perspective of a person who supports the status quo and opposes social, political, and economic change. Some adherents of conservatism, rather than opposing change, seek to return to the status quo ante and tend to view the modern world in a negative light, especially concerning mass culture and secularism , although different groups of reactionaries may choose different traditional values to revive. Some political scientists, such as Corey Robin , treat

3811-432: The state of nature for humans was "poor, nasty, brutish, and short", requiring centralised authority with royal sovereignty to guarantee law and order . Edmund Burke , often called the father of modern conservatism, believed that human beings are steeped in original sin and that society therefore needs traditional institutions, such as an established church and a landed aristocracy , in order to function. Despite

3914-472: The "Homo Regius" of Hungary , but August asked to be released from his oath of allegiance to the emperor. He then began negotiations and appointed Count János Hadik to build a new national government. However, the Aster Revolution broke out on 31 October 1918, deterring his plans. In November, the socialist Hungarian Democratic Republic was proclaimed, only to be replaced a few months later by

4017-559: The 21st century, the authoritarian style of government experienced a worldwide renaissance with conservative statesmen such as President Vladimir Putin in Russia, President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan in Turkey, Prime Minister Viktor Orbán in Hungary, Prime Minister Narendra Modi in India, and President Donald Trump in the United States. Liberal conservatism is a variant of conservatism that

4120-672: The Archduke became the first knight of the Hungarian Order of Vitéz , in 1927 he became a member of the newly re-established House of Magnates . He later became an honorary member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences and was its president from 1936–1944. He fled Hungary for the United States in 1944 but later returned to West Germany . In 1957, at the death of the Former regent of Hungary, Miklos Horthy, he became

4223-589: The British and the Americans to secretly escape the war and establish an armistice with the Allies. On 19 March 1944, the Germans responded by invading Hungary in Operation Margarethe . German forces occupied key locations to ensure Hungarian loyalty. They placed Horthy under house arrest and replaced Prime Minister Miklós Kállay with a more pliable successor. Döme Sztójay , an avid supporter of

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4326-684: The Captain General of the Order of Vitéz . He died in 1962 at Rain , near Straubing . His eldest son, Archduke Joseph Francis of Austria , had predeceased him, dying in 1957. Thus, Joseph August's main heir was his eldest grandson, Archduke Joseph Árpád of Austria (1933–2017), the eldest son of Joseph Francis and his wife, Princess Anna of Saxony . Joseph Árpád married Princess Maria of Löwenstein-Wertheim-Rosenberg , and had children in Joseph August's lifetime. His surviving eldest son

4429-472: The Eastern Front, Horthy was finally able to remove him in August 1944 and replaced him with the more balanced Géza Lakatos . By October of the same year, the Hungarians were again caught trying to quit the war, and the Germans launched Operation Panzerfaust . They replaced Horthy with Arrow Cross leader Ferenc Szálasi . The Government of National Unity was proclaimed, and it continued the war on

4532-461: The Hungarian state of the 1930s and '40s can be classified as fascist. According to Richard Griffiths , the regime's increasing economic dependence on Germany, its passage of antisemitic legislation and its participation in exterminating local Jews all place it within the realm of international fascism. 47°29′54″N 19°02′25″E  /  47.49833°N 19.04028°E  / 47.49833; 19.04028 Conservatism Conservatism

4635-456: The Nazis, became the new Hungarian prime minister . Sztójay governed with the aid of a Nazi military governor, Edmund Veesenmayer : he legalized the antisemitic and pro-Nazi Arrow Cross Party , started to deport Hungarian Jews en masse to Germany and initiated a violent crackdown on liberal and leftist opposition. Increasingly appalled by Sztójay's methods and alarmed by the imminent collapse of

4738-454: The Treaty of Trianon, and aligned itself with Europe's two fascist states, Germany and Italy, which both opposed the changes to national borders in Europe at the end of World War I. The Italian Fascist dictator Benito Mussolini sought closer ties with Hungary, beginning with the signing of a treaty of friendship between Hungary and Italy on 5 April 1927. Gyula Gömbös was an open admirer of

4841-600: The Treaty of Trianon, which it mostly did in early 1941 after the First and Second Vienna Awards and after joining the German invasion of Yugoslavia . By 1944, following heavy setbacks for the Axis, Horthy's government negotiated secretly with the Allies, and also considered leaving the war. Because of this Hungary was occupied by Germany and Horthy was deposed . The extremist Arrow Cross Party 's leader Ferenc Szálasi established

4944-485: The United Kingdom with exponents such as Prime Ministers Disraeli, Stanley Baldwin , Neville Chamberlain , Winston Churchill , and Harold Macmillan . In 19th-century Germany , Chancellor Otto von Bismarck adopted a set of social programs, known as state socialism , which included insurance for workers against sickness, accident, incapacity, and old age. The goal of this conservative state-building strategy

5047-901: The VII Corps and was involved in fighting in the Carpathian Mountains for which he was awarded, among others, the Austrian Order of Leopold and the Prussian Iron Cross . After Italy became involved in the war, he was transferred to the Carinthian border and involved in fighting the Isonzo army. August remained on the front until the Ninth Battle of the Isonzo in 1916, a period in which once again he

5150-614: The arbitration of Germany and Italy, known as the Second Vienna Award , and as a result Northern Transylvania was assigned to Hungary. Shortly afterward, the Kingdom of Hungary joined the Axis powers . Hitler demanded that the Hungarian government follow Germany's military and racial agenda to avoid potential conflict in the future. Antisemitism was already an established political cause by the far right in Hungary. In 1944, after

5253-431: The border territories outside the new borders of the kingdom, in the Kingdom of Romania and the newly created states of Czechoslovakia and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (in greatly enlarged Romania there also remained a significant Hungarian population in Székely Land ). Republican Austria , the successor of the former other half of the dual monarchy also received some minor territory from Hungary. Thus

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5356-436: The changes to the electoral system were reversed. Social conditions in the kingdom did not improve as time passed, as a very small proportion of the population continued to control much of the country's wealth. Jews were continually pressured to assimilate into Hungarian mainstream culture. The desperate situation forced the Regent, Horthy, to accept the far-right politician Gyula Gömbös as prime minister. He pledged to retain

5459-408: The class basis of right-wing extremist politics in the 1920–1960 era. He reports: Conservative or rightist extremist movements have arisen at different periods in modern history, ranging from the Horthyites in Hungary, the Christian Social Party of Dollfuss in Austria, Der Stahlhelm and other nationalists in pre-Hitler Germany, and Salazar in Portugal, to the pre-1966 Gaullist movements and

5562-456: The communists, leftist intellectuals, and others whom they felt threatened by, especially Jews. This period was known as the " White Terror ". In 1920, after the pullout of the last of the Romanian occupation forces, the Kingdom of Hungary was restored. After the collapse of the short-lived Communist regime, according to historian István Deák : On 29 February 1920, a coalition of right-wing political forces united and returned Hungary to being

5665-450: The conservative social ethic and that the business class should be subordinate to aristocracy. He insisted on standards of honour derived from the medieval aristocratic tradition and saw the aristocracy as the nation's natural leaders. That meant limits on the powers of the Crown, since he found the institutions of Parliament to be better informed than commissions appointed by the executive. He favoured an established church, but allowed for

5768-444: The continent, German thinkers Justus Möser and Friedrich von Gentz criticised the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen that came of the Revolution. Opposition was also expressed by German idealists such as Adam Müller and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel , the latter inspiring both leftist and rightist followers. Both Burke and Maistre were critical of democracy in general, though their reasons differed. Maistre

5871-460: The country now under German occupation, Horthy was forced to remove Kállay from his position and appoint pro-Nazi politician Döme Sztójay as the new prime minister. Sztójay legalized the antisemitic and pro-Nazi Arrow Cross Party , deported large numbers of Hungarian Jews to Germany and initiated a violent crackdown on liberal and leftist opposition. As the months went by, Horthy became increasingly appalled by Sztójay's brutal methods and alarmed by

5974-442: The country, especially in part due to the economic effects of the failure of the Österreichische Creditanstalt bank in Vienna , Austria. From the mid-1930s to the 1940s, after relations improved with Germany, Hungary's economy benefited from trade. The Hungarian economy became dependent on that of Germany. Initially, despite a move towards nationalism , the new state under Horthy, in an effort to prevent further conflicts, signed

6077-458: The defence of national and cultural identity , often based on a theory of the family as a model for the state . National conservatism is orientated towards upholding national sovereignty , which includes limited immigration and a strong national defence. In Europe, national conservatives are usually eurosceptics . Yoram Hazony has argued for national conservatism in his work The Virtue of Nationalism (2018). Paternalistic conservatism

6180-405: The economic crisis by seeking large foreign loans, which allowed the country to achieve monetary stabilization in the early 1920s. He introduced a new currency in 1927, the pengő . Industrial and farm production rose rapidly, and the country benefited from flourishing foreign trade during most of the 1920s. Following the start of the Great Depression in 1929, the prosperity rapidly collapsed in

6283-403: The electoral system was changed to reintroduce an open vote system outside Budapest and its vicinity and cities with county municipal rights. Bethlen's political party, the Party of Unity , won repeated elections. Bethlen pushed for revision of the Treaty of Trianon . After the collapse of the Hungarian economy from 1929 to 1931, national turmoil pushed Bethlen to resign as prime minister. In 1938

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6386-413: The established institutions of their time. According to Quintin Hogg , the chairman of the British Conservative Party in 1959: "Conservatism is not so much a philosophy as an attitude, a constant force, performing a timeless function in the development of a free society, and corresponding to a deep and permanent requirement of human nature itself." Conservatism is often used as a generic term to describe

6489-446: The ethnicity quota system was never fully introduced and the law acted largely to conceal anti-Jewish action from foreign observers. Limitations were relaxed in 1928. Racial criteria in admitting new students were removed and replaced by social criteria. Five categories were set up: civil servants, war veterans and army officers, small landowners and artisans, industrialists, and the merchant classes. Under István Bethlen as Prime Minister

6592-511: The execution of Corneliu Zelea Codreanu and other top-ranking Romanian fascists. The exiled German Emperor Wilhelm II was an enemy of Adolf Hitler and stated that Nazism made him ashamed to be a German for the first time in his life. The Catholic seminarian António de Oliveira Salazar , who was Portugal's dictator for 40 years, denounced fascism and Nazism as a "pagan Caesarism " that did not recognise legal, religious, or moral limits. Political scientist Seymour Martin Lipset has examined

6695-435: The existing political system. Gömbös agreed to abandon his extreme antisemitism and allow some Jews into the government. In power, Gömbös moved Hungary towards a one-party government like those of Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany . Pressure by Nazi Germany for extreme antisemitism forced Gömbös out and Hungary pursued antisemitism under its "Jewish Laws". Initially, the government passed laws restricting Jews to 20 percent in

6798-550: The fascist leaders. Gömbös attempted to forge a closer trilateral unity between Germany, Italy and Hungary by acting as an intermediary between Germany and Italy, whose two fascist regimes had nearly come to conflict in 1934 over the issue of Austrian independence. Gömbös eventually persuaded Mussolini to accept Hitler's annexation of Austria in the late 1930s. Gömbös is said to have coined the phrase "axis", which he applied to his intention to create an alliance with Germany and Italy; those two countries used it to term their alliance as

6901-512: The forefathers of conservative thought in the 1790s along with Savoyard statesman Joseph de Maistre . The first established use of the term in a political context originated in 1818 with François-René de Chateaubriand during the period of Bourbon Restoration that sought to roll back the policies of the French Revolution and establish social order. Conservatism has varied considerably as it has adapted itself to existing traditions and national cultures. Thus, conservatives from different parts of

7004-550: The government has a role in encouraging or enforcing traditional values or practices. A social conservative wants to preserve traditional morality and social mores , often by opposing what they consider radical policies or social engineering . Some social-conservative stances are the following: Traditionalist conservatism, also known as classical conservatism, emphasises the need for the principles of natural law , transcendent moral order, tradition , hierarchy , organicism , agrarianism , classicism , and high culture as well as

7107-428: The importance of a social safety net to deal with poverty, supporting limited redistribution of wealth along with government regulation of markets in the interests of both consumers and producers. Paternalistic conservatism first arose as a distinct ideology in the United Kingdom under Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli 's " One Nation " Toryism . There have been a variety of one-nation conservative governments in

7210-399: The intersecting spheres of loyalty . Some traditionalists have embraced the labels reactionary and counter-revolutionary , defying the stigma that has attached to these terms since the Enlightenment . Having a hierarchical view of society, many traditionalist conservatives, including a few notable Americans such as Ralph Adams Cram , William S. Lind , and Charles A. Coulombe , defend

7313-399: The lack of a universal definition, certain themes can be recognised as common across conservative thought. According to Michael Oakeshott : To be conservative […] is to prefer the familiar to the unknown, to prefer the tried to the untried, fact to mystery, the actual to the possible, the limited to the unbounded, the near to the distant, the sufficient to the superabundant, the convenient to

7416-492: The middle of the 1970s. One example of this was General Augusto Pinochet , who ruled over Chile from 1973 to 1990. According to Erik von Kuehnelt-Leddihn , military dictatorships arise in democratic systems in order to stop leftist parties from becoming totalitarian. The most recent instance occurred in Bolivia in 2024, when General Juan José Zúñiga staged a coup in order to overthrow the far-left president Luis Arce . In

7519-414: The monarchical political structure as the most natural and beneficial social arrangement. Conservative parties vary widely from country to country in the goals they wish to achieve. Both conservative and classical liberal parties tend to favour private ownership of property, in opposition to communist , socialist , and green parties, which favour communal ownership or laws regulating responsibility on

7622-402: The monarchists in contemporary France and Italy. The right extremists are conservative, not revolutionary. They seek to change political institutions in order to preserve or restore cultural and economic ones, while extremists of the centre [fascists/Nazis] and left [communists/anarchists] seek to use political means for cultural and social revolution. The ideal of the right extremist is not

7725-467: The monarchy as a form of government, and Hungarian newspapers continued to refer to the country as the Kingdom of Hungary ( Magyar Királyság ), although Magyarország (Hungary) was used as an alternative. From May to June 1944, Hungarian authorities rapidly rounded up and transported hundreds of thousands of Hungarian Jews to Nazi concentration camps, where most died. After the fall of the Szálasi regime,

7828-623: The ousting of Horthy by Hitler and before the installation of the National-Socialist Arrow Cross Party, the Hungarian government readily aided Nazi Germany in the deportation of hundreds of thousands of Jews to concentration camps during the Holocaust , where most of them died. In April 1941, Hungary let the Wehrmacht into her territory, thus supporting Germany and Italy in the invasion of Yugoslavia . After

7931-399: The part of property owners. Where conservatives and liberals differ is primarily on social issues, where conservatives tend to reject behaviour that does not conform to some social norm . Modern conservative parties often define themselves by their opposition to liberal or socialist parties. The United States usage of the term conservative is unique to that country, where its first modern usage

8034-487: The perfect, present laughter to utopian bliss. Such traditionalism may be a reflection of trust in time-tested methods of social organisation, giving 'votes to the dead'. Traditions may also be steeped in a sense of identity . In contrast to the tradition-based definition of conservatism, some left-wing political theorists like Corey Robin define conservatism primarily in terms of a general defence of social and economic inequality . From this perspective, conservatism

8137-491: The post-1918 kingdom can be described as a rump state . Hungary's interwar politics were dominated by a focus on the territorial losses suffered from this treaty, with the resentment continuing until the present. Nazi Germany 's influence in Hungary has led some historians to conclude that the country increasingly became a client state after 1938. The Kingdom of Hungary was an Axis power during World War II, intent on regaining Hungarian-majority territory that had been lost in

8240-525: The rapidly collapsing Eastern Front . In August 1944, he deposed the pro-German prime minister and installed a more balanced government led by Géza Lakatos , in an effort to engage with the Allies and avoid occupation by the Soviet Union. This did not sit well with Hitler and, in October, German forces overthrew Horthy and Lakatos and installed a puppet regime led by Ferenc Szálasi of the Arrow Cross Party. The Arrow Cross Party never abolished

8343-554: The remainder of the Carpatho-Ukraine . After the successful revision policy Hungary sought further solutions to the remainder of its former territories and demanded the concession of Transylvanian territory from Romania. The Axis powers were not interested in opening a new conflict in Central Europe; both countries were facing strong diplomatic pressures to avoid any military operations. Finally both parties accepted

8446-854: The role of religion in public life. Christian democracy  is a moderately conservative centre-right ideology inspired by Christian social teaching . It originated as a reaction against the industrialisation and urbanisation associated with laissez-faire -capitalism . In post-war Europe, Christian-democratic parties dominated politics in several nations—the Christian People's Party in Belgium, CDU and CSU in Germany, Fine Gael and Fianna Fáil in Ireland, and Christian Democracy in Italy. Many post-war Europeans saw Christian democracy as

8549-460: The same era as fascism , with which it sometimes clashed. Although both ideologies shared core values such as nationalism and had common enemies such as communism , there was nonetheless a contrast between the traditionalist and elitist nature of authoritarian conservatism and the revolutionary and populist nature of fascism—thus it was common for authoritarian conservative regimes to suppress rising fascist and Nazi movements. The hostility between

8652-535: The side of the Axis . Szálasi did not replace Horthy as regent, but was appointed as the "Leader of the Nation" (" Nemzetvezető" ) and prime minister of the new "Hungarist state". Antisemitic persecution and pogroms increased during Szálasi's regime and his militias were singularly responsible of the murder of 10,000-15,000 Hungarian Jews. The new Quisling regime, however, was to be short-lived, for in November 1944

8755-516: The social hierarchy, which includes factors such as age, experience, and wisdom. Conservatives often glorify hierarchies, as demonstrated in an aphorism by conservative philosopher Nicolás Gómez Dávila : "Hierarchies are celestial. In hell all are equal." The word hierarchy has religious roots and translates to 'rule of a high priest.' Authority is a core tenet of conservatism. More specifically, conservatives tend to believe in traditional authority . According to Max Weber , this form of authority

8858-434: The source of corruption, decadence and decline. Ruling regimes require some kind of irritant, a grain of sand in the oyster, to reactivate their latent powers, to exercise their atrophied muscles, to make their pearls. In Conservatism: A Rediscovery (2022), political philosopher Yoram Hazony argues that, in a traditional conservative community, members have importance and influence to the degree they are honoured within

8961-484: The state and the individual. Hannah Arendt argues that the modern world suffers an existential crisis with a "dramatic breakdown of all traditional authorities," which are needed for the continuity of an established civilisation. Edmund Burke has been widely regarded as the philosophical founder of modern conservatism. He served as the private secretary to the Marquis of Rockingham and as official pamphleteer to

9064-764: The term has been used to describe a wide range of views . Conservatism may be either libertarian or authoritarian , populist or elitist , progressive or reactionary , moderate or extreme . Scholars have tried to define conservatism as a set of beliefs or principles. Andrew Heywood argues that the five central beliefs of conservatism are tradition, human imperfection, organic society, authority/hierarchy, and property. Russell Kirk developed five canons of conservatism in The Conservative Mind (1953): Some political scientists, such as Samuel P. Huntington , have seen conservatism as situational. Under this definition, conservatives are seen as defending

9167-480: The two ideologies is highlighted by the struggle for power in Austria, which was marked by the assassination of the ultra-Catholic dictator Engelbert Dollfuss by Austrian Nazis . Likewise, Croatian fascists assassinated King Alexander I of Yugoslavia . In Romania, as the fascist Iron Guard  was gaining popularity and Nazi Germany was making advances on the European political stage, King Carol II ordered

9270-455: The value of those teachings, at other times by having those teachings influence laws. In most democracies, political conservatism seeks to uphold traditional family structures and social values. Religious conservatives typically oppose abortion, LGBT behaviour (or, in certain cases, identity), drug use, and sexual activity outside of marriage. In some cases, conservative values are grounded in religious beliefs, and conservatives seek to increase

9373-550: The words reactionary and conservative as synonyms. Others, such as Mark Lilla , argue that reactionism and conservatism are distinct worldviews. Francis Wilson defines conservatism as "a philosophy of social evolution, in which certain lasting values are defended within the framework of the tension of political conflict". Some reactionaries favour a return to the status quo ante , the previous political state of society, which that person believes possessed positive characteristics absent from contemporary society. An early example of

9476-414: The world, each upholding their respective traditions, may disagree on a wide range of issues. One of the three major ideologies along with liberalism and socialism , conservatism is the dominant ideology in many nations across the world, including Hungary , India , Iran , Israel , Italy , Japan , Poland , Russia , Singapore , and South Korea . Historically associated with right-wing politics ,

9579-476: Was a Feldmarschall ( field marshal ) of the Austro-Hungarian Army and for a short period head of state of Hungary . He was a member of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine , the eldest son of Archduke Joseph Karl of Austria (1833–1905) and his wife Princess Clotilde of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (1846–1927). Joseph August's grandfather had been Palatine Joseph of Hungary (1776–1847), Palatine and Viceroy of Hungary,

9682-608: Was arrested and exiled to Madeira . On 6 November 1921 the Diet of Hungary passed a law nullifying the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 , dethroning Charles IV and abolishing the House of Habsburg's rights to the throne of Hungary. Hungary was a kingdom without royalty. With civil unrest too great to select a new king, it was decided to confirm Horthy as Regent of Hungary. He remained in that powerful president -like status until he

9785-523: Was disbanded at the end of March 1945. Under Soviet occupation , the fate of the Kingdom of Hungary was already determined. A High National Council was appointed as the country's collective head of state until the monarchy was formally abolished on 1 February 1946. The regency was replaced by the Second Hungarian Republic . It was quickly followed by the creation of the Hungarian People's Republic . There has been some debate as to what extent

9888-524: Was for pro-free enterprise opponents of the New Deal . Imperial China Republic of China (before 1949) People's Republic of China (Mainland) Hong Kong (pro-Beijing) Macau (pro-Beijing) Republic of China (Taiwan, pan-Blue) Hong Kong (pro-Beijing) Hong Kong (centrist) Archduke Joseph August of Austria Archduke Joseph August Viktor Klemens Maria of Austria, Prince of Hungary and Bohemia (9 August 1872 – 6 July 1962)

9991-665: Was highly decorated. Joseph August was highly popular among his troops, especially those of Hungarian nationality. In November 1916, Joseph August was put in command of the Heeresfront fighting against Russian and Romanian forces, and in 1917, he was awarded the Military Order of Maria Theresa and the Pour le Mérite . In January 1918 he was put in command of the 6th Army in the Southern theatre and that July took over

10094-603: Was overthrown in 1944. Horthy's rule as Regent possessed characteristics such that it could be construed a dictatorship . As a counterpoint, his powers were a continuation of the constitutional powers of the King of Hungary , adopted earlier during the federation with the Austrian Empire . As Regent, Horthy had the power to adjourn or dissolve the Hungarian Diet (parliament) at his own discretion; he appointed

10197-464: Was pessimistic about humans being able to follow rules, while Burke was sceptical about humans' innate ability to make rules. For Maistre, rules had a divine origin, while Burke believed they arose from custom. The lack of custom for Burke, and the lack of divine guidance for Maistre, meant that people would act in terrible ways. Both also believed that liberty of the wrong kind led to bewilderment and political breakdown. Their ideas would together flow into

10300-788: Was progressive conservative, and he described himself as a believer in progressive conservatism. President Dwight D. Eisenhower also declared himself an advocate of progressive conservatism. In Canada , a variety of conservative governments have been part of the Red Tory tradition, with Canada's former major conservative party being named the Progressive Conservative Party of Canada from 1942 to 2003. Prime Ministers Arthur Meighen , R. B. Bennett , John Diefenbaker , Joe Clark , Brian Mulroney , and Kim Campbell led Red Tory federal governments. Reactionary conservatism, also known as reactionism, opposes policies for

10403-407: Was the eldest surviving daughter of Francis Joseph and Empress Elisabeth ("Sisi") . The young couple's children were born in their great-grandfather's lifetime. They had six children: Joseph August began his military career in 1890 when he was commissioned into the 1st Infantry Regiment as a Leutnant . He was soon promoted to Oberleutnant and was transferred to 72nd Infantry Regiment in 1893. He

10506-540: Was to make ordinary Germans, not just the Junker aristocracy, more loyal to state and Emperor . Chancellor Leo von Caprivi promoted a conservative agenda called the "New Course". In the United States, President Theodore Roosevelt has been identified as the main exponent of progressive conservatism. Roosevelt stated that he had "always believed that wise progressivism and wise conservatism go hand in hand". The Republican administration of President William Howard Taft

10609-474: Was transferred to Dragoon Regiment #6 in 1894 and then transferred to the 1st Royal Hungarian Honvéd Hussars by the emperor and promoted to the rank of Major . He took command of this regiment in 1904 and then went on to command 79th Honvéd infantry brigade in 1908 then finally the 31st infantry division at Budapest in 1911. In 1914, he was involved in combat in the Galician theatre and took command of

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