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76-411: It is likely that the name Hùng Vương is a combination of the two Sino-Vietnamese words Hùng 雄 "masculine, virile, fierce, powerful, grand" and Vương 王, which means "king". The name Hùng Vương might have originally been a title bestowed on a chieftain . The Hùng Vương was allegedly the head chieftain of Văn Lang which at the time was composed of feudal communities of rice farmers. According to

152-741: A Vietnamese form for almost all Chinese characters, it can be used to derive a Vietnamese form for any Chinese word or name. For example, the name of Chinese leader Xi Jinping consists of the Chinese characters 習近平 . Applying Sino-Vietnamese reading to each character yields the Vietnamese translation of his name, Tập Cận Bình . Some Western names and words, approximated to Chinese languages often through Mandarin or in some cases approximated in Japanese and then borrowed into Chinese languages, were further approximated in Vietnamese. For example, Portugal

228-577: A collection of myths and legends compiled by various authors. Textual references in the early 20th century highlight that the Hùng kings were already a key part of the Vietnamese collective memory. Historians studying the Hùng kings have suggested that developments from the 13th to the 15th centuries explain why there was a desire by Đại Việt to incorporate the founding epic of the Hùng kings into its history. As different groups of local elites in Jiaozhi in

304-474: A poem attributed to Hồ Chí Minh titled "The History of Vietnam from 2879 BCE to 1945". DRV scholar and the first president of the Institute of History, Trần Huy Liệu , settled the question of the origins of the Vietnamese nation in an article on the Hùng kings. The article noted that on the "tenth day of the third lunar month, the central government and local government held an official ceremony to commemorate

380-498: A project titled Vietnam Ancestral Global Day which organised various cultural activities worldwide to celebrate Hung Kings Memorial Day. This year is the first time that Vietnam Ancestral Global Day has been celebrated simultaneously in many European countries following a shared format. Since 2015, one of the three main goals of the Vietnam Ancestral Global Day Project has been to preserve and spread

456-469: A result of a thousand years of Chinese control , a small number of Sinitic words were borrowed into Vietnamese, called Old Sino-Vietnamese layer. Furthermore, a thousand years of use of Literary Chinese after independence, a considerable number of Sinitic words were borrowed, called the Sino-Vietnamese layer. These layers were first systematically studied by linguist Wang Li . The ancestor of

532-411: A search for 'Vietnamese Antiquity' modelled on classical Chinese antiquity, in the mythic creation of 'Văn Lang' via the Hùng king. The canonization of the Hùng kings founding myth was carried out by Ngô Sĩ Liên in his compiling of a new history of the realm under the order of Emperor Lê Thánh Tông (1460–97), drawing upon popular sources. This history, the Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư (Complete Book of

608-677: A status similar to that of Latin -based words in English: they are used more in formal context than in everyday life. Because Chinese languages and Vietnamese use different order for subject and modifier, compound Sino-Vietnamese words or phrases might appear ungrammatical in Vietnamese sentences. For example, the Sino-Vietnamese phrase bạch mã ( 白馬 "white horse") can be expressed in Vietnamese as ngựa trắng ("horse white"). For this reason, compound words containing native Vietnamese and Sino-Vietnamese words are very rare and are considered improper by some. For example, chung cư ("apartment building")

684-434: A winner emerged, with the final choice sometimes differing between countries. A fairly large amount of Sino-Vietnamese compounds have meanings that differ significantly from their usage in other Sinitic vocabularies. For example: There also a significant amount of Sino-Vietnamese compounds that are used, but the terms differ in different Sinosphere languages. Such as: Some Sino-Vietnamese compounds are entirely invented by

760-666: Is Diêm Vương Tinh ( 閻王星 ) and sao Diêm Vương , named after the Hindu and Buddhist deity Yama . During the Hồ dynasty , Vietnam was officially known as Đại Ngu ( 大虞 "Great Peace"). However, most modern Vietnamese know ngu ( 愚 ) as "stupid"; consequently, some misinterpret it as "Big Idiot". Conversely, the Han River in South Korea is often erroneously translated as sông Hàn ( 韓 ) when it should be sông Hán ( 漢 ) due to

836-467: Is tiệt diện ( 截面 ; "cross-section") being replaced by tiết diện ( 節面 ). One interesting example is the current motto of Vietnam : "Cộng hòa Xã hội chủ nghĩa Việt Nam / Độc lập – Tự do – Hạnh phúc", in which all the words are Sino-Vietnamese ( 獨立 – 自由 – 幸福 ). Writing Sino-Vietnamese words with the Vietnamese alphabet causes some confusion about the origins of some terms, due to

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912-705: Is a former Sinitic name of the United States and translates literally as " flower flag ". Except for the oldest and most deeply ingrained Sino-Vietnamese names, modern Vietnamese instead uses direct phonetic transliterations for foreign names, in order to preserve the original spelling and pronunciation. Today, the written form of such transliterated names are almost always left unaltered; with rising levels of proficiency in English spelling and pronunciation in Vietnam, readers generally no longer need to be instructed on

988-442: Is a layer of about 3,000 monosyllabic morphemes of the Vietnamese language borrowed from Literary Chinese with consistent pronunciations based on Middle Chinese . Compounds using these morphemes are used extensively in cultural and technical vocabulary. Together with Sino-Korean and Sino-Japanese vocabularies, Sino-Vietnamese has been used in the reconstruction of the sound categories of Middle Chinese. Samuel Martin grouped

1064-541: Is also similar. Traces of the original consonant clusters can be found in materials from the 17th century, but have disappeared from modern Vietnamese. The Old Sino-Vietnamese layer was introduced after the Chinese conquest of the kingdom of Nanyue , including the northern part of Vietnam, in 111 BC. The influence of the Chinese language was particularly felt during the Eastern Han period (25–190 AD), due to increased Chinese immigration and official efforts to sinicize

1140-401: Is important for a few reasons. First, it highlights the direct link made between the period of the Hùng kings and the formation of the Vietnamese nation. Second, it dates the origins of Vietnamese resistance to foreign aggression to the founding of the nation; third, it states explicitly the continuity between the period of the Hùng kings and the present. The dating of the origins of the nation to

1216-614: Is on the 10th day. Every year, leading government figures make pilgrimages to the Hùng kings temple in Phú Thọ province to honour the Quốc tộ (National Founder). In April 2016, the festival at the Hùng kings temple in Phú Thọ attracted about seven million people. Nguyễn Phú Trọng, the general secretary of the Communist Party, also attended. In 2018, the state-established Association for Liaison with Overseas Vietnamese (ALOV) implemented

1292-585: Is purportedly found in a story called "Tale of the Mountain Spirit and Water Spirit' in the 1329 Việt Điện U Linh Tập (Collection of legends and biographies of heroes and founding spirits) compiled by Lý Tế Xuyên, where the Hung King was a mere ruler. The next earliest appearance is in the fourteenth-fifteen century Lĩnh Nam chích quáí (Arrayed Tales of Selected Oddities from South of the Passes),

1368-641: Is that it was a contender for the honour of being designated as National Day. In 1967, the National Assembly considered whether the Hùng kings Memorial Day should also be made Independence Day. While the initiative failed, the idea was surfaced again in the Senate in 1971 and discussed in the cabinet in 1973. The conversion of the Hùng kings to historical "truth" in the DRV emerged over time through extensive discussions by DRV official scholars and resolutions by

1444-402: Is transliterated as 葡萄牙 ( pinyin : Pútáoyá ; Cantonese Yale : Pòuhtòuhngàh ) and becomes Bồ Đào Nha in Vietnamese. England ( 英格蘭 ; Yīnggélán ; Yīnggaaklàahn ) became Anh Cát Lợi ( 英吉利 ), shortened to Anh ( 英 ), while United States became Mỹ Lợi Gia ( 美利加 ), shortened to Mỹ ( 美 ). The formal name for the United States in Vietnamese is Hoa Kỳ ( 花旗 ); this

1520-557: The DRV and SRV , the RVN also commemorated the Hùng kings' in a national holiday. The Hùng kings Memorial Day was one of the twenty official holidays at the inception of the RVN but was dropped in January 1956 from the official list as Ngô Đình Diệm as prime minister decided that citizens would not have time off for the holiday. The Hùng kings was hence rejected at the official level. However, at

1596-622: The Lĩnh Nam chích quái liệt truyện (Arrayed Tales of Selected Oddities from South of the Passes), compiled by Trần Thế Pháp under the late-fourteenth-century Trần dynasty, and amended in the fifteenth century under the Lê dynasty by Vũ Quỳnh and Kiều Phú. This source is of great importance in providing core information for Ngo Si Lien 's Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư (Complete Book of the Historical Records of Đại Việt) created in 1479, which marked

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1672-672: The Vietic languages was atonal and sesquisyllabic , featured many consonant clusters, and made use of affixes . The northern Vietic varieties ancestral to Vietnamese and Muong have long been in contact with Tai languages and Chinese as part of a zone of convergence known as the Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area . As a result, most languages of this area, including Middle Chinese and Vietnamese, are analytic , with almost all morphemes monosyllabic and lacking inflection . The phonological structure of their syllables

1748-408: The legitimisation process included eliminating colonial (Chinese) influences, ironically, it was this ease with Chinese characters and sources that caused them to utilise Chinese history and sources to validate their own. Academics have argued that the historicization and utilisation of the Hùng kings epic can be explained by developments from the thirteenth century. Three devastating invasions – by

1824-562: The literary readings in various parts of China and Sino-Xenic pronunciations in the other countries. As contact with the West grew, Western works were translated into Literary Chinese and read by the literate. In order to translate words for new concepts (political, religious, scientific, medical and technical terminology) scholars in these countries coined new compounds formed from Chinese morphemes and written with Chinese characters. The local readings of these compounds were readily adopted into

1900-409: The 1000s and worked at the transition to an independent Đại Việt , the question of political legitimisation was an urgent one that needed tackling – especially given the lack of ancient Viet sources to base on, and after about a thousand years of Chinese rule. This explained why it attempted to reach back in time and create a mythic past for itself to serve its present political needs. Although part of

1976-561: The 978 anthology Extensive Records of the Taiping Era . It said: Jiaozhi's land was very fertile. After people settled there, they began to cultivate. Its soils are black, its climate gloomy and fierce (慘 雄 ; SV: thảm hùng ). So hitherto its fields were called Hùng fields ( 雄 田; SV : Hùng điền ) and its people were Hùng people ( 雄 民, SV: Hùng dân ). Their leader was Hùng king ( 雄 王; SV: Hùng vương), and his chief advisors were hùng lords ( 雄 侯; SV: Hùng hầu ),

2052-623: The Confucian teacher Chu Văn An into the capital, and the latter's emphasis on the classical beliefs of China and its antiquity set the intellectual tone of Thang-long. Antiquity was now seen as providing solutions for the difficult present. The disastrous invasion by the Cham under Chế Bồng Nga destroyed the Trần dynasty , and caused Vietnamese literati to seek desperately for a means to restore harmony. The Ming occupation of 1407–1427 dramatically deepened

2128-490: The Dong Son culture and the period of the Hùng kings. However, Haydon Cherry has argued that contrary to the assertions of Vietnamese scholars, such relics cannot provide such a support. He notes that the earliest Vietnamese text to describe this kingdom, the Đại Việt sử lược , dates from the thirteenth century, eighteen hundred years after the kingdom it is supposed to describe. The earliest Chinese text, which mentions not

2204-401: The Historical Records of Đại Việt), was used by the emperor as a tool to promote Việt 'national feeling'. Thus, Ngô Sĩ Liên was tasked to promote Đại Việt's supernatural and millennial ancestry. This marked the first time a Việt state traced its origins back to the first realm of Văn Lang of the Hùng kings, calculated by Ngô Sĩ Liên to be in 2879 BCE. Prior to this, official dynastic histories of

2280-549: The Hung but the Lac kings, dates from the fourth century CE, eight hundred years after the period it discusses. Hence, such texts are not reliable transmissions of any written or oral tradition over eight or eighteen hundred years. Analyses of the earliest sources on the Hùng kings have illustrated problems with these sources that have been used as historical evidence of the existence of the Hùng kings. In particular, historians have examined

2356-514: The Hùng kings came to be venerated as the ancestral founders of the Việt nation in temples throughout the Red River Delta and beyond. The dissemination of the Hùng kings myth was also facilitated by the use of the lục bát (six-eight) verse form – tales recounted using this form, aided with the use of Quốc Âm (National Sound) instead of Literary Chinese, and the use of colourful verse close to

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2432-675: The Hùng kings epic. Emperor Lê Thánh Tông authorised in 1470 the Hùng Vương ngọc phả thập bát thế truyền (Precious genealogy of the eighteen reigns of the Hùng Kings). The text was reproduced in the successive dynasties, and court-issued copies were worshipped in village temples. Spirit promulgation was promoted by imperial decrees and intensified as the dynasties passed. In the 16th and 17th century, court academicians compiled, recopied, and modified collections of myths and genealogies about supernatural beings and national heroes, including that of

2508-477: The Hùng kings narrative, the eighteen Hùng kings belonged to the Hong Bang dynasty (2879–258 BCE) that ruled over the northern part of Vietnam and southern part of modern China in antiquity. Their progenitors were Lạc Long Quân and his consort Goddess Âu Cơ who produced a sac containing one hundred eggs from which one hundred sons emerged. Dragon Lord Lạc preferred to live by the sea, and Goddess Âu Cơ preferred

2584-578: The Hùng kings worship rite amongst overseas Vietnamese. In 2012, the worship of the Hùng kings in Phú Thọ was recognised by UNESCO as an Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity, and the UNESCO page notes that this "tradition embodies spiritual solidarity and provides an occasion to acknowledge national origins and sources of Vietnamese cultural and moral identity". Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary ( Vietnamese : từ Hán Việt , Chữ Hán : 詞漢越, literally 'Chinese-Vietnamese words')

2660-417: The Hùng kings". With the Đổi Mới reforms from 1986, Vietnam saw a resurrection of traditional festivals, including the Hùng kings Temple Festival. Celebrations of the Hùng kings moved from the local to the provincial and then to the state levels. This revival has been perceived as an attempt by the government to maintain the Vietnamese identity of its people in view of increasing foreign influence. In 1999,

2736-506: The Hùng kings. This were then accepted and perpetuated by villages. The Hùng kings were transformed into Thành hoàng (tutelary god) sanctified by imperial orders and by popular feeling stemming from long traditions of ancestor worship. Over time, the worship of Hùng kings evolved; they acquired sons-in-laws who became Mountain Spirits, when migrating south with the territorial expansion, and transformed themselves into Whale Spirits when near

2812-595: The Mongols in the thirteenth century, the Cham in the fourteenth century, and the Ming in the fifteenth century, corresponded with the myth's emergence and absorption into historiography. By late 1330, with social problems growing in the countryside, the Trần ruler Minh Tông started to move away from Thiền (Zen) Buddhism which did not seem to be working in its integrative function, and looked to Confucianism and antiquity. He brought

2888-605: The Old Sino-Vietnamese layer. Sino-Vietnamese shows a number of distinctive developments from Middle Chinese: Up until the early 20th century, Literary Chinese was the vehicle of administration and scholarship, not only in China, but also in Vietnam, Korea and Japan, similar to Latin in medieval Europe. Though not a spoken language, this shared written language was read aloud in different places according to local traditions derived from Middle Chinese pronunciation:

2964-499: The Party such as regarding the establishment of the date of the death anniversary of the Hùng kings and its celebration in festivals. The Institute of Archaeology was established in 1968 with the highest priority given to scientifically documenting the Hùng kings. The Institute launched excavations and organised conferences between 1968 and 1971 to discuss the findings and published their proceedings. Historian Patricia Pelley posits that

3040-585: The Shady and Spiritual World of the Viet Realm ' ) is a collection of Vietnamese history written in chữ Nho compiled by Lý Tế Xuyên in 1329 . The English "Viet Realm" (or "Yue Territory") derives from alternative Chinese characters designating Vietnam under the Chinese domination as Jiaozhi . Chinese sources tend to use the Chinese title Yuedian (粵甸, Yue as in Nanyue ) whereas Vietnamese sources tend to use

3116-418: The Vietnamese and are not used in any Chinese languages, such as linh mục 'priest' from 靈 'soul' and 牧 'shepherd', or giả kim thuật ( 假金術 'art of artificial metal'), which has been applied popularly to refer to 'alchemy'. Another example is linh cẩu ( 靈狗 , 'alert dog') meaning 'hyena'. Others are no longer used in modern Chinese languages or have other meanings. Since Sino-Vietnamese provides

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3192-613: The Việt started with Triệu Đà, acknowledging a Qin general as the founder of the Nam Việt . This was done based mostly on da su (chronicles) and in particular, the Arrayed Tales. Court historians in the later dynasties followed Ngô Sĩ Liên's example in integrating the Hùng kings into Việt official historiography. There was likely already a long oral tradition in the Red River Delta of the re-enactment of myths and legends at

3268-777: The correct pronunciation for common foreign names. For example, while the Sino-Vietnamese Luân Đôn remains in common usage in Vietnamese, the English equivalent London is also commonplace. Calques have also arisen to replace some Sino-Vietnamese terms. For example, the White House is usually referred to as Nhà Trắng (literally, "white house") in Vietnam, though Tòa Bạch Ốc (based on 白屋 ) retains some currency among overseas Vietnamese. However, China-specific names such as Trung Quốc ( Middle Kingdom , 中國 ), as well as Korean names with Chinese roots , continue to be rendered in Sino-Vietnamese rather than

3344-477: The death anniversary of our Hung king ancestors at the Temple of the Hùng kings." He commented that the Hùng kings were the "origins of the nation" as they "built the country", and "if there had been no Hùng kings, then there would be no Đinh, Lê, Lý, Trần, Hồ, or Nguyễn, and also no Democratic Republic of Vietnam". Trần Huy Liệu also wrote that the "patriotic spirit and indomitable tradition of our nation broke out in

3420-595: The early 20th century. Around 3,000 words entered Vietnamese over this period. Some of these were re-introductions of words borrowed at the Old Sino-Vietnamese stage, with different pronunciations due to intervening sound changes in Vietnamese and Chinese, and often with a shift in meaning. Wang Li followed Henri Maspero in identifying a problematic group of forms with "softened" initials g- , gi , d- and v- as Sino-Vietnamese loans that had been affected by changes in colloquial Vietnamese. Most scholars now follow André-Georges Haudricourt in assigning these words to

3496-537: The existence of the latter's information on the Hùng Kings. In doing so he also shows how this practice of drawing upon old texts for material to create a local history was also practiced at that time in parts of the Chinese empire like Sichuan and Guangdong, hence placing the "Biography" in the broader literary trends of the time. The Hùng kings are perceived as the founders of the Viet civilisation, and are promoted by

3572-473: The fifty-fifth anniversary of the August Revolution, and the start of the twenty-first century. The Hùng Kings' Temple Festival (Vietnamese: Giỗ Tổ Hùng Vương or lễ hội đền Hùng ) is a Vietnamese festival held annually from the 8th to the 11th days of the third lunar month in honour of the Hùng Kings. The main festival day – which has been designated a public holiday in Vietnam since 2007 –

3648-529: The flood's ebbs and flows. The people cultivated these fields for foods, so they were called Lạc people ( 雒 民; SV: Lạc dân ). The Lạc King ( 雒 王; SV: Lạc vương ) and Lạc Lords ( 雒 侯; SV: Lạc hầu ) [were] established to govern all those commanderies and prefectures. [In the] prefectures many [were] made Lạc generals ( 雒 將; SV Lạc tướng ). Lạc generals [wore] copper seals and blue-green ribbons. Therefore, French scholar Henri Maspéro and Vietnamese scholar Nguyễn Văn Tố proposed that 雄 (SV: Hùng )

3724-711: The government as a source of national pride and solidarity through platforms such as the state-sponsored commemoration of an annual holiday, the Hùng kings Temple Festival , to honour the Hùng kings, and the promotion of the Hung King National Museum in Việt Trì City. In the Museum of Vietnamese History in Ho Chi Minh City, the exhibits are arranged chronologically, with the first one on the "Rise of

3800-486: The government issued a directive on the celebration on what it perceived as the most important events in 2000. Other than the Hùng kings Festival, the other events perceived to be important were: the seventieth anniversary of the Vietnamese Communist Party, the 110th anniversary of Hồ Chí Minh's birthday, the twenty-fifth anniversary of the victory in the campaign against Americans to save the country,

3876-460: The influence of the literati through promoting schools and scholarship. Developments from the thirteenth century then combined to set the stage for the state promotion of the Hùng king founding myth by the 15th century. There was a shift away from a more indigenous, pre-Southeast Asian phase, to the 'Neo-Confucian revolution" of Lê Thánh Tông . This, together with the chaos created by the devastating invasions and internal social problems, encouraged

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3952-536: The lands [were] distributed to Hùng generals ( 雄 將; SV: Hùng tướng). However, the 4th century Almanacs of the Outer Territories of the Jiao province (交州外域記) mentioned Lạc fields, Lạc people , Lạc generals, and Lạc lords, ruled by Lạc king, instead: During the time before Jiaozhi had commanderies and prefectures , the soil and land had Lạc fields ( 雒 田; SV: lạc điền ). These fields followed

4028-441: The large number of homophones in Sino-Vietnamese. For example, both 明 (bright) and 冥 (dark) are read as minh , thus the word "minh" has two contradictory meanings: bright and dark (although the "dark" meaning is now esoteric and is used in only a few compound words). Perhaps for this reason, the Vietnamese name for Pluto is not Minh Vương Tinh ( 冥王星 – lit. "underworld king star") as in other East Asian languages, but

4104-453: The level of the village even before myths were written into literature. Each village held yearly festivities at the communal temple with public recitations and re-enactments ( diễn xướng ) during which villagers recreated a specific myth, historical event, or character. Thus, Hùng kings worship may have existed locally before the 15th century, manifesting in the construction of temples and shrines, and in oral propagation of different variations of

4180-662: The meaning of the compound word is preserved even if individually each has multiple meanings. Today Sino-Vietnamese texts are learnt and used mostly only by Buddhist monks since important texts such as the scriptures to pacify spirits (recited during the ritual for the Seventh Lunar month - Trai đàn Chẩn tế; 齋壇振濟 ) are still recited in Sino-Vietnamese pronunciations. Such as the chant, Nam mô A Di Đà Phật coming from 南無阿彌陀佛. Vi%E1%BB%87t %C4%90i%E1%BB%87n U Linh T%E1%BA%ADp Việt Điện U Linh Tập ( chữ Hán : 粵甸幽靈集 or 越甸幽靈集 lit.   ' Collection of Stories on

4256-635: The medieval period when the Sinicised elite in the Red River Delta first constructed a separate identity in relation to China's cultural heritage. Kelley exposes the problems of the "Biography" in a few ways – for example, by showing how it borrowed figures and accounts from ancient Chinese texts and stories, and by highlighting issues with terms such as "Hùng", "Lạc", and "Việt". He does this by examining ancient Chinese historical sources to highlight similar terms and stories as in "Biography", and search for terms and accounts mentioned in "Biography" to corroborate

4332-403: The name's similarity with the country name. However, the homograph/homophone problem is not as serious as it appears, because although many Sino-Vietnamese words have multiple meanings when written with the Vietnamese alphabet, usually only one has widespread usage, while the others are relegated to obscurity. Furthermore, Sino-Vietnamese words are usually not used alone, but in compound words, thus

4408-511: The official transformation of the Hùng kings into the founders of dynasties. The Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư was in turn the core text that DRV historians used as proof of the ancient origins of the Vietnamese people and the Vietnamese nation. Based on an analysis of an essay called "Biography of the Hồng Bàng Clan" from the Arrayed Tales, historian Liam Kelley posits that the Hùng kings did not exist. Instead, he argues that they were invented in

4484-402: The proportion of words of Sinitic origin in the Vietnamese lexicon vary from one third to half and even to 70%. The proportion tends towards the lower end in speech and towards the higher end in technical writing. In the famous Từ điển tiếng Việt  [ vi ] dictionary by Vietnamese linguist Hoàng Phê  [ vi ] , about 40% of the vocabulary is of Sinitic origin. As

4560-585: The public level, commemorations were allowed. The Saigon News Review and the Vietnam News Agency reported on celebrations around the state with the participation of many officials. With the assassination of Ngô Đình Diệm and changes in the RVN government, the Hùng kings Memorial Day was restored to the list of official holidays in February 1964, allocating a whole day off for government employees and students. The Hùng kings Memorial Day became one of

4636-422: The respective local vernaculars of Japan, Korea and Vietnam. For example, the Chinese mathematician Li Shanlan created hundreds of translations of mathematical terms, including 代數學 ('replace-number-study') for 'algebra', yielding modern Mandarin dàishùxué , Vietnamese đại số học , Japanese daisūgaku and Korean daesuhak . Often, multiple compounds for the same concept were in circulation for some time before

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4712-444: The romanization systems used in other languages. Examples include Triều Tiên ( Joseon , 朝鮮 ) for both Korea as a whole and North Korea in particular, Hàn Quốc ( Hanguk , 韓國 ) for South Korea , Bình Nhưỡng ( Pyongyang , 平壤 ), and Bàn Môn Điếm ( Panmunjom , 板門店 ). Seoul , unlike most Korean place names, has no corresponding hanja ; it is therefore phonetically transliterated as Xê-un . Sino-Vietnamese words have

4788-541: The rule of the Hùng kings would eventually become the orthodox position of historians at the Research Committee, the Institute of History, and later the Institute of Archaeology. Bronze Age relics have been used to support the existence of the kingdom of Van Lang and the Hùng kings. The official DRV national history, Lịch Sử Việt Nam , published in 1971, asserted the connection between the Bronze Age and

4864-493: The sea. Land was also provided to temples in Phú Thọ province, the site of the main Hung temple, to meet the expense of Hùng kings worship. As late as 1945, the Nguyễn court continued to delegate officials to oversee rituals in the Hùng kings temples of Phú Thọ. Nguyễn Thị Diệu argues that as the result of the meeting of the two currents, that of the state's mythographic construction and that of popular, village-based animistic worship,

4940-487: The selection of the Hùng Kings and the Hung dynasty during the Văn Lang period was part of Hanoi's quest to create a "cult of antiquity" to illustrate the historical longevity and prestige of Vietnam that predated the Chinese occupation. The transformation of the Hùng kings into historical fact was based on the conflation of different kinds of evidence such as archaeological remains, dynastic chronicles, collections of legends, and

5016-407: The seven official holidays in the RVN with a full day of rest. In an April 1964 decree, the Hùng kings Memorial Day also became one of the four holidays requiring private businesses to give their employees paid time off. This elevated the status of the Hùng kings and highlighted their importance for official discourse. Perhaps the most important indication of the Hùng kings Memorial Day's significance

5092-454: The snow-capped mountains. The two separated with half of the sons following each parent. The most illustrious of the sons became the first Hùng king who ruled Văn Lang , the realm of all the descendants of Dragon and Goddess Âu Cơ who became the Vietnamese people, from his capital in modern Phú Thọ Province . Canh line (支庚) The earliest references to the Hung kings are found in early collections of Records of Nanyue or Nanyuezhi (南越志) in

5168-424: The territory. This layer consists of roughly 400 words, which have been fully assimilated and are treated by Vietnamese speakers as native words. It has also been theorised that some Old-Sino-Vietnamese words came from a language shift from a population of Annamese Middle Chinese speakers that lived in the Red River Delta , in northern Vietnam, to proto-Viet-Muong. The much more extensive Sino-Vietnamese proper

5244-599: The thousand years of Chinese feudal rule, and it broke out in the hundred years under the domination of the French colonizers." He concluded by lamenting that "at this time our lovely country has been provisionally divided into two regions and our fellow countrymen in the South moan and writhe under the fascist regime of the gang of Ngô Đình Diệm, lackey of the American imperialists." Historian Cherry Haydon notes that this article

5320-469: The three together as " Sino-xenic ". There is also an Old Sino-Vietnamese layer consisting of a few hundred words borrowed individually from Chinese in earlier periods, which are treated by speakers as native words. More recent loans from southern Chinese languages , usually names of foodstuffs such as lạp xưởng ' Chinese sausage ' (from Cantonese 臘腸 ; 腊肠 ; laahpchéung ), are not treated as Sino-Vietnamese but more direct borrowings. Estimates of

5396-424: The title Việt Điện (越甸). The use differs in selection of different chữ Hán characters for Viet/Yue. The text gives not only a commentated history of historical figures, but also their roles as spirits in the afterlife according to the traditions developed in Vietnam's Mahayana Buddhism . The text also cited from contributions of Tang dynasty author Zhao Chang ( fl. 791–802) and Zeng Gun (f. 866–897) who ruled

5472-452: The vernacular, allowed for the ease of memorisation and transmission of such myths. The Hùng kings seem to have been well embedded in Vietnamese collective memory by the 1950s in the RVN . Olga Dror has written about how the perception of the Hùng kings as common ancestors of all Vietnamese was mobilised for various agendas despite admitting a lack of historical evidence about them. Just like in

5548-492: Was actually a scribal error for 雒 (SV: Lạc ). The Hùng kings' eighteen generations (or dynasties) were mentioned in Đại Việt sử lược (大越史略 – Great Viet's Abridged History) by an anonymous 14th-century author: In King Zhuang of Zhou 's time, in Gia Ninh division (嘉寧部), there was a strange man, [who] could use mystical arts [to] overwhelm all the tribes; he styled [him]self Đối king ( 碓 王, SV: Đối Vương); [His] capital

5624-413: Was in Văn Lang, [his state's] appellation was Văn Lang state (文郎國). Their customs were substantively honest; strings and knots [were used] for their regulations. Passing down eighteen generations, all [were] styled Đối kings. Chinese historian Luo Xianglin, apud Lai (2013), considered 碓王 (SV: Đối Vương; lit. " Pestle King") to be 雒王 (SV: Lạc Vương) erroneously transmitted. Another early known reference

5700-524: Was introduced with Chinese rhyme dictionaries such as the Qieyun in the late Tang dynasty (618–907). Vietnamese scholars used a systematic rendering of Middle Chinese within the phonology of Vietnamese to derive consistent pronunciations for the entire Chinese lexicon. After driving out the Chinese in 880, the Vietnamese sought to build a state on the Chinese model, using Literary Chinese for all formal writing, including administration and scholarship, until

5776-415: Was originally derived from chúng cư 眾居 ("multiple dwelling"), but with the syllable chúng "multiple" replaced with chung , a "pure" Vietnamese word meaning "shared" or "together". Similarly, the literal translation of "United States", Hợp chúng quốc ( 合眾國 ) is commonly mistakenly rendered as Hợp chủng quốc , with chúng ( 眾 - many) replaced by chủng ( 種 - ethnicity, race). Another example

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