136-770: The Dominion of India , officially the Union of India , was an independent dominion in the British Commonwealth of Nations existing between 15 August 1947 and 26 January 1950. Until its independence , India had been ruled as an informal empire by the United Kingdom. The empire, also called the British Raj and sometimes the British Indian Empire , consisted of regions, collectively called British India , that were directly administered by
272-504: A Dominion ended when Canadian parliament declared war on Germany on 9 September 1939, separately and distinctly from the United Kingdom's declaration of war six days earlier. By the 1950s, the term Dominion of Canada was no longer used by the United Kingdom, which considered Canada a "Realm of the Commonwealth". The government of Louis St. Laurent ended the practice of using Dominion in the statutes of Canada in 1951. This began
408-533: A block of land so placed independent and perhaps hostile." The Nizam had rejected generous terms for accession brokered by the British. Eventually, when he allowed the power of an extremist organization, the Razakars , to grow within his state, India militarily invaded the state in what was called a "police action," incorporating Hyderabad into its federal structure. The final achievement of the period of transition
544-555: A combination of threats and inducements, the latter including special privileges and tax-free pensions. Within a few months, all the states that had acceded in August 1947 had been blended in some fashion into a new federal union. Baroda State and Kathiawar were combined to form the new federal unit of Saurashtra ; and the states of Rajputana were united to form Rajasthan . The princely states of Travancore and Cochin became Kerala . Mysore being large in extent and population became
680-647: A copy of any Federal legislation that has been assented to. Then, within two years after the receipt of this copy, the (British) Monarch in Council could disallow an Act. Thirdly, at least four pieces of Imperial legislation constrained the Canadian legislatures. The Colonial Laws Validity Act of 1865 provided that no colonial law could validly conflict with, amend, or repeal Imperial legislation that either explicitly, or by necessary implication, applied directly to that colony. The Merchant Shipping Act of 1894, as well as
816-721: A dispute that has lasted until today. During this time, the new constitution of the Republic of India was drafted. It was based in large part on the Government of India Act 1935 , the last constitution of British India , but also reflected some elements in the Constitution of the United States and the Constitution of Ireland . The new constitution disavowed some aspects of India's past by abolishing untouchability and derecognising caste distinctions. A major effort
952-507: A division of the land of British India ; it had also involved a division of its assets. Assets whose amounts had been negotiated earlier needed to be transferred from India (where the treasury was) to Pakistan. The Indian government had withheld this payment in order to pressure Pakistan over the burgeoning crisis in Kashmir ; India feared an onslaught from Pakistan during the dreaded winter months. On 12 January 1948, Gandhi, who had turned 78
1088-536: A federal unit by itself. Hundreds of small states were absorbed and soon became lost within larger federal units. Some former princes such as those of Mysore and Travancore were given titular leadership roles, called " Raj Pramukh " (lit. "state leader"), in the new federal units, but their former power was absent, and the political structure was invariantly democratic. Other former princes went into public service or private business. After 1950, they survived as historical vestiges but were no longer political determinants in
1224-690: A matter of days, Sikhs and Hindus of the East Punjab were suddenly and unexpectedly attacking the Muslims there, and in the West Punjab, Muslims were returning the violence and the ferocity on the Sikhs. Trains taking the refugees to their new lands were stopped, their occupants slaughtered regardless of age and gender. Long lines of humans and oxcarts travelling East and West to their new dominions were intercepted and overwhelmed. The Hindu refugees from
1360-781: A new federation named Canada from 1867. This was instituted by the British Parliament in the British North America Act, 1867 (see also Canadian Confederation ) . Section 3 of the Act referred to the new entity as a "Dominion", the first such entity to be created. From 1870 the Dominion included two vast neighbouring British territories without self-government: Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory ; together these became over time
1496-472: A political union with India or Pakistan. For a short time, the Nawab of Bhopal and some British political agents attempted to form a third "political force," but the princes were unable to trust each other. By 15 August, all but three had acceded. Even after accession, there remained the question of deciding the place of the princes in the new political union. Sardar Patel and his assistant V. P. Menon employed
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#17327731871401632-652: A president of Ireland. At the same time, a law delegating functions to the King, not as King in Ireland but as the symbol of the co-operation amongst Commonwealth countries with which Ireland associated itself, continued to apply in external relations. The last statutory functions of the King with respect to Ireland were abolished in 1949 . The Balfour Declaration of 1926 , and the subsequent Statute of Westminster , 1931, restricted Britain's ability to pass or affect laws outside of its own jurisdiction. Until 1931, Newfoundland
1768-580: A republic within the Commonwealth. India as a free and independent dominion within the British Commonwealth of Nations (its title changed in 1949 to "Commonwealth of Nations") came into existence on 15 August 1947 under the provisions of the Indian Independence Act 1947 which had received royal assent on 18 July 1947. This act, along with the Government of India Act 1935 ( text here ) the latter to be suitably amended to
1904-711: A small section of the state. The United Nations was then invited to mediate the quarrel. The UN mission insisted that the opinion of Kashmiris must be ascertained, while India insisted that no referendum could occur until all of the state had been cleared of irregulars. In the last days of 1948, a ceasefire was agreed under UN auspices. However, since the plebiscite demanded by the UN was never conducted, relations between India and Pakistan soured, and eventually led to two more wars over Kashmir in 1965 and 1999 . Some Indians were incensed by Gandhi's last fast and accused him of being too accommodating to both Muslims and Pakistan. Among them
2040-610: A substantive role as a representative of the British government, and ultimate executive power was vested in the British Monarch —who was advised only by British ministers in its exercise. Canada's independence came about as each of these sub-ordinations was eventually removed. When the Dominion of Canada was created in 1867, it was granted powers of self-government to deal with all internal matters, but Britain still retained overall legislative supremacy. This Imperial supremacy could be exercised through several statutory measures. In
2176-644: A territory ceases to recognise the monarch as head of state, this status is changed by statute. Thus, for example, the British Ireland Act 1949 , recognised that the Republic of Ireland had "ceased to be part of His Majesty's dominions". The foundation of "Dominion" status followed the achievement of internal self-rule in British Colonies, in the specific form of full responsible government (as distinct from " representative government "). Colonial responsible government began to emerge during
2312-452: Is a terrible blow, not only for me, but for millions and millions in this country. Gandhi was mourned around the world. The British prime minister Clement Attlee said in a radio address to the United Kingdom on the night of 30 January 1948: Everyone will have learnt with profound horror of the brutal murder of Mr. Gandhi, and I know that I am expressing the views of the British people in offering to his fellow-countrymen our deep sympathy in
2448-480: Is based on the Constitution of the United States , and the constitutional directives, or goals of endeavor, are based on the Constitution of Ireland . An Indian institution recommended by the constitution is the panchayat or village committees. Untouchability is illegal (Article 17) and caste distinctions are derecognized (Articles 15(2) and 16(2)). The promulgation of the Indian constitution transformed India into
2584-402: Is now central and eastern Canada for almost 20 years. The Fathers of Confederation simply continued the system they knew, the system that was already working, and working well. The constitutional scholar Andrew Heard argues that Confederation did not legally change Canada's colonial status to anything approaching its later status of a Dominion. At its inception in 1867, Canada's colonial status
2720-479: Is that it was achieved with a minimum of legislative amendments. Much of Canada's independence arose from the development of new political arrangements, many of which have been absorbed into judicial decisions interpreting the constitution—with or without explicit recognition. Canada's passage from being an integral part of the British Empire to being an independent member of the Commonwealth richly illustrates
2856-634: The Canadian Citizenship Act, 1946 , following which the British Nationality Act 1948 created Commonwealth citizenship and the Dominions subsequently created their own citizenships. As Heard later explained, the British government seldom invoked its powers over Canadian legislation. British legislative powers over Canadian domestic policy were largely theoretical and their exercise was increasingly unacceptable in
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#17327731871402992-553: The 1926 Imperial Conference to designate "autonomous communities within the British Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by a common allegiance to the Crown and freely associated as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations". The British government of Lloyd George had emphasised the use of the capital "D" when referring to
3128-646: The British Empire . The Congress's vision of an independent India based on religious pluralism was challenged in the early 1940s by a new Muslim nationalism, led by the All-India Muslim League and Muhammad Ali Jinnah , which demanded a separate homeland for the Muslims of British India. In the 1945 general elections in Britain, Labour Party won. A government headed by Clement Attlee , with Stafford Cripps and Lord Pethick-Lawrence in
3264-736: The British government created the Dominion Office from the Colonial Office , although for the next five years they shared the same secretary in charge of both offices. "Dominion status" was first accorded to Canada , Australia , New Zealand , Newfoundland , South Africa , and the Irish Free State at the 1926 Imperial Conference through the Balfour Declaration of 1926 , recognising Great Britain and
3400-598: The Canadian Encyclopedia (1999), "The word came to be applied to the federal government and Parliament, and under the Constitution Act, 1982, 'Dominion' remains Canada's official title." Usage of the phrase Dominion of Canada was employed as the country's name after 1867, predating the general use of the term Dominion as applied to the other autonomous regions of the British Empire after 1907. The phrase Dominion of Canada does not appear in
3536-858: The Constituent Assembly of India was drawn up during the British Raj , following negotiations between nationalist leaders and the 1946 Cabinet Mission to India . Its members were elected by the new provincial assemblies formed after the 1946 Indian provincial elections held in January. The Constituent Assembly had 299 representatives consisting of 15 women and 284 men. The female members were: Purnima Banerjee , Kamla Chaudhry , Malati Choudhury , Durgabai Deshmukh , Rajkumari Amrit Kaur , Sucheta Kriplani , Annie Mascarene , Hansa Jivraj Mehta , Sarojini Naidu , Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit , Begum Aizaz Rasul , Renuka Ray , Leela Roy , Ammu Swaminathan and Dakshayani Velayudhan . Most were associated with
3672-503: The Indian National Congress . Lord Mountbatten , the last Viceroy, stayed on until June 1948 as independent India's first governor-general ; he was replaced by C. Rajagopalachari . The religious violence was soon stemmed in good part by the efforts of Mahatma Gandhi , but not before resentment of him grew among Hindu fundamentalists, eventually costing him his life . To Patel fell the responsibility for integrating
3808-590: The Indian nationalist movement . The Interim Government of India was formed on 2 September 1946 from the newly elected members of the Constituent Assembly. The Indian National Congress secured 69 percent of all of the seats, whereas the Muslim League had a smaller number, but significantly all of the seats that were reserved for Muslims. There were also fewer numbers from other parties, such as
3944-624: The Irish Free State in the Anglo-Irish Treaty to assure it the same constitutional status in order to avoid confusion with the wider term "His Majesty's dominions", which referred to the British Empire as a whole. At the time of the founding of the League of Nations in 1924, the League Covenant made provision for the admission of any "fully self-governing state, Dominion, or Colony", the implication being that "Dominion status
4080-600: The League of Nations with full power over appointing ambassadors to other countries. Following the Second World War , the changes in the constitutional relationship between the countries that continued to share a common sovereign with the United Kingdom led to the upper case term Dominion falling out of use. The Dominions Office was formally changed to the Commonwealth Relations Office in 1947. The status of "Dominion" established by
4216-717: The Purana Qila , or Old Fort —ruins from the Delhi Sultanate —which were milling with Muslims waiting to be expatriated to Pakistan. Religious passions were running high; a pogrom of the remaining Muslims in Delhi was feared. His mission of quelling the violence in Bengal accomplished, Mahatma Gandhi arrived in Delhi in October 1947. His new mission was to bring back the peace in the city, and this entailed standing up for
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4352-596: The Raj years: the integration of the princely states and the drawing up of a constitution, and they were addressed in that order. There were 362 princely states in India. The premier 21-gun salute state of Hyderabad had an area of 200,000 km (77,000 sq mi). Its population was 17 million. At the other end of the spectrum, some two hundred states had an area of less than 25 km (10 sq mi). The British had revoked their treaty rights and advised them to join in
4488-768: The Scheduled Caste Federation , the Communist Party of India , and the Unionist Party . In June 1947, members from the provinces of Sindh , East Bengal , Baluchistan , West Punjab , and the North West Frontier Province withdrew to form the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan , which met in Karachi . On 15 August 1947, all the members of the Constituent Assembly who had not withdrawn to Karachi came to constitute
4624-529: The Second Boer War (1899–1902). The self-governing colonies contributed significantly to British efforts to stem the insurrection, but ensured that they set the conditions for participation in these wars. Colonial governments repeatedly acted to ensure that they determined the extent of their participation in imperial wars in the military build-up to the First World War . The assertiveness of
4760-527: The Union of South Africa in 1910. In connection with proposals for the future government of British North America, use of the term "Dominion" was suggested by Samuel Leonard Tilley at the London Conference of 1866 discussing the confederation of the Province of Canada (subsequently becoming the provinces of Ontario and Quebec ), Nova Scotia and New Brunswick into "One Dominion under
4896-555: The average annual income of an Indian to be Rs. 260 (or $ 55), with many earning well below that amount. The government faced low levels of literacy among its population, soon to be estimated at 23.54% for men and 7.62% for women in the 1951 Census of India . The government also began plans to improve the status of women. It bore fruit eventually in the passage of the Hindu code bills of the mid-1950s, which outlawed patrilineality , marital desertion and child marriages , though evasion of
5032-474: The princely states of the British Indian Empire into the new India. Lasting through the remainder of 1947 and the better part of 1948, integration was accomplished by the means of inducements, and on occasion threats. It went smoothly except in the instances of Junagadh State , Hyderabad State , and, especially, Kashmir and Jammu , the last leading to a war between India and Pakistan and to
5168-455: The " White Dominions ". Four colonies of Australia had enjoyed responsible government since 1856: New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia. Queensland had responsible government soon after its founding in 1859. Because of ongoing financial dependence on Britain, Western Australia became the last Australian colony to attain self-government in 1890. During the 1890s, the colonies voted to unite and in 1901 they were federated under
5304-672: The 16th century and was sometimes used to describe Wales from 1535 to around 1800: for instance, the Laws in Wales Act 1535 applies to "the Dominion, Principality and Country of Wales". Dominion , as an official title, was conferred on the Colony of Virginia about 1660 and on the Dominion of New England in 1686. Under the British North America Act, 1867 , the partially self-governing colonies of British North America were united into
5440-684: The 1867 act nor in the Constitution Act, 1982 , but does appear in the Constitution Act, 1871 , other contemporaneous texts, and subsequent bills. References to the Dominion of Canada in later acts, such as the Statute of Westminster , do not clarify the point because all nouns were formally capitalised in British legislative style. Indeed, in the original text of the Constitution Act, 1867 , "One" and "Name" were also capitalised. Frank Scott theorised that Canada's status as
5576-434: The 1870s and 1880s. The rise to the status of a Dominion and then full independence for Canada and other possessions of the British Empire did not occur by the granting of titles or similar recognition by the British Parliament but by initiatives taken by the new governments of certain former British dependencies to assert their independence and to establish constitutional precedents. What is remarkable about this whole process
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5712-516: The 1920s and 1930s, they began to represent themselves in international bodies, in treaty making, and in foreign capitals. Later India , Pakistan , and Ceylon (now Sri Lanka ) also became dominions for short periods. With the transition of the British Empire into the Commonwealth of Nations after World War II, it was decided that the term Commonwealth country should formally replace dominion for official Commonwealth usage. This decision
5848-671: The 1941 census. No census was done for Jammu and Kashmir in 1951 and its figures were interpolated from 1941 and 1961 state census. National Register of Citizens for Assam (NRC) was prepared soon after the census. In 1951, at the time of the first population census, just 18% of Indians were literate while life expectancy was 32 years. Based on 1951 census of displaced persons, 7,226,000 Muslims went to Pakistan (both West and East Pakistan) from India, while 7,249,000 Hindus and Sikhs moved to India from Pakistan (both West and East Pakistan). Languages of India in 1951 Separate figures for Hindi, Urdu, and Punjabi were not issued, due to
5984-493: The 1951 censuses of India and Pakistan in both of which citizens were queried about Partition-related migrations. In addition, census data based on comparison of the 1941 and 1951 censuses, showed only long term effects; for example, in Bengal, it proved difficult to separate the effects of the Bengal famine of 1943 and the 1947 Partition. Still, one study by Bharadwaj, Khwaja, and Mian using 1951 census data has suggested that during
6120-453: The 435 districts in India had Muslim majority populations. These districts were home to 60% of the 94.4 million Muslims. The Muslim population was clustered in two regions: the northwest, which included the Punjab, and the east, which included a large part of Bengal. These Muslim-majority districts were to constitute the western and eastern half of Pakistan that came into being in 1947. But there
6256-627: The British Crown as the Commonwealth of Australia by the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act . The Constitution of Australia had been drafted in Australia and approved by popular consent. Thus Australia is one of the few countries established by a popular vote. Under the Balfour Declaration of 1926 , the federal government was regarded as coequal with (and not subordinate to) the British and other Dominion governments, and this
6392-454: The British government, and regions, called the princely states , that were ruled by Indian rulers under a system of paramountcy , in favor of the British. The Dominion of India was formalised by the passage of the Indian Independence Act 1947 , which also formalised an independent Dominion of Pakistan —comprising the regions of British India that are today Pakistan and Bangladesh . The Dominion of India remained "India" in common parlance but
6528-536: The British monarch's regnal titles, " Emperor of India ," was abandoned. The Dominion of India came into existence on the partition of India and was beset by religious violence. Its creation had been preceded by a pioneering and influential anti-colonial nationalist movement which became a major factor in ending the British Raj. A new government was formed led by Jawaharlal Nehru as prime minister, and Vallabhbhai Patel as deputy prime minister, both members of
6664-666: The Cabinet, was sworn in. Many in the new government, including Attlee, had a long history of supporting the decolonization of India. Late in 1946, the Labour government, its exchequer, and population, moreover, exhausted by the Second World War, decided to end British rule in India, and in early 1947 Britain announced its intention of transferring power no later than June 1948. Earlier in 1946, elections had been called in India. The Congress had won electoral victories in eight of
6800-496: The Chief Commissioners' Provinces are under the sovereignty of His Majesty the King of the United Kingdom." The princely states were governed by rulers who had ceded power in the areas of defence, external affairs, and communications to the dominion; such states were called "Acceding States." The provinces comprised approximately three-fourths of the dominion's population and three-fifths of the area. Constitutionally,
6936-711: The Colonial Courts of Admiralty Act of 1890 required reservation of Dominion legislation on those topics for approval by the British Government. Also, the Colonial Stock Act of 1900 provided for the disallowance of any Dominion legislation the British government felt would harm British stockholders of Dominion trustee securities. Most importantly, however, the British Parliament could exercise the legal right of supremacy that it possessed over common law to pass any legislation on any matter affecting
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#17327731871407072-443: The Congress were both shaken by the course of events, a Congress-led interim government was installed in September, with Jawaharlal Nehru as united India's prime minister. By March 1947 when the new viceroy, Lord Louis Mountbatten arrived, the violence between Hindus and Muslims in the provinces of Punjab and Bengal had not abated. With the British Army unprepared for the potential for increased violence, Mountbatten wanted to advance
7208-481: The Constituent Assembly. The allotment of seats to Provinces and Princely States in this assembly were approximately in the ratio of one seat to a million individuals in the population. In the instance of Governors' Provinces, seats were distributed between the main religious communities (General (which included Hindus), Muslims, and in the East Punjab, Sikh) in each provinces in proportion to their population. The representatives from each Governors' Province were elected by
7344-400: The Crown , were notionally foreign territory and not "within the crown's dominions". When these territories—including protectorates and protected states (a status with greater powers of self-government), as well as League of Nations mandates (which later became United Nations Trust Territories )—were granted independence and at the same time recognised the British monarch as head of state,
7480-434: The Dominion legislature. In the case of the Princely States, the areas of legislation which they chose to hand over to the Dominion were expected to be specified in the Instruments of Accession" that were executed by the rulers and accepted the Governor-General; these areas were limited largely to defence, external affairs and communications. The executive authority of the Dominion was exercised on behalf of King George VI by
7616-407: The Dominion of Canada. The new federal and provincial governments split considerable local powers, but Britain retained overall legislative supremacy. At the 1907 Imperial Conference , the self-governing polities of Canada and the Commonwealth of Australia were referred to collectively as Dominions for the first time. Two other self-governing colonies — New Zealand and Newfoundland —were granted
7752-450: The Dominion of India's legislature. Only 28 members of the Muslim League finally joined. Later, 93 members were nominated from the princely states . The Congress secured a majority of 82%. Jawaharlal Nehru took charge as Prime Minister of India on 15 August 1947. Vallabhbhai Patel served as the Deputy Prime Minister . Lord Mountbatten , and later C. Rajagopalachari, served as Governor-General until 26 January 1950, when Rajendra Prasad
7888-412: The Dominion was a federation with authority and responsibility devolving in the following manner. In the case of the Governors' Provinces: in the areas of defence, external affairs, currency and coinage, and communications, authority and responsibility lay with the Dominion legislature; in the administration of justice, public health, religious endowments, land and education, among others, authority lay with
8024-405: The Dominions as "autonomous communities within the British Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by a common allegiance to the Crown and freely associated as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations". Their full legislative independence was subsequently confirmed in the 1931 Statute of Westminster . In
8160-414: The Governor-General, who acted on the advice of his Council of Ministers. The cabinet system of responsible government prevailed at the centre. By convention, the cabinet includes members of minority and backward communities. The Chief Commissioners' Provinces were administered by the Governor-General through a Chief Commissioner appointed by him. The power to legislate in the Dominion legislature lay with
8296-498: The Gurdaspur district in the Punjab region. However, its population was 77% Muslim, and it shared a border with what would later become Pakistan. A significant portion of its economic activity had taken place down the Jhelum River with the Punjab region of Pakistan. Gulab Singh's descendant, Hari Singh , who was the reigning Maharaja of Kashmir in August 1947, had signed a "standstill agreement" with Pakistan to facilitate trade and communication. According to historian Burton Stein , It
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#17327731871408432-470: The Indian Punjab, districts that were 66% Hindu in 1941 became 80% Hindu in 1951; those that were 20% Sikh became 50% Sikh in 1951. In Pakistani Punjab, the districts became exclusively Muslim by 1951. As for mortality, Bharadwaj and his colleagues divide the 3.4 million missing people by assigning 2.1 million to the northwest and 1.3 million to the east. Hill and colleagues suggested a mortality range of 2.3–3.2 million people. However, according to Dyson,
8568-416: The Lower House of the provincial legislature, the voting being by the method of proportional representation with single transferable vote , with the members of the main communities voting in separate constituencies. Of the assembly representatives allotted to the Princely States, half were elected by the State legislatures (or other representative bodies); the remainder was nominated by the ruler. The plan of
8704-435: The Name of Canada", the first federation internal to the British Empire. Tilley's suggestion was taken from the 72nd Psalm , verse eight, "He shall have dominion also from sea to sea, and from the river unto the ends of the earth", which is echoed in the national motto, " A Mari Usque Ad Mare ". The new government of Canada under the British North America Act, 1867 began to use the phrase "Dominion of Canada" to designate
8840-466: The Partition occurred in the period immediately before and after August 1947. Although many people did die in the religious violence, many also perished for reasons only indirectly related to violence. According to historical demographer Tim Dyson : It is damning that the British authorities made few preparations to cope with vast numbers of refugees. Many people died from exhaustion, starvation, crowding, and in epidemics. The systems of administration of
8976-418: The Punjab and Bengal were disrupted not only because of the turmoil but also the boundary changes. As a consequence, the systems in place for the registration of populations in the censuses were affected severely. Analysis of birth statistics in India suggests that most research on the demographic effects of the Partition are based on the 1931 and 1941 censuses of British India and some incomplete information from
9112-541: The Sikh-dominated regions of the Punjab in equal proportion between the two dominions. Sikh groups, which had feared the worst, had been preparing to mount a vigorous opposition to the award. To counter the expected violence, the British Raj government had formed a 50,000-strong Indian Boundary Force . When the violence began, the Force proved ineffectual. Most units, which had been recruited locally, had stronger ties to one or other of Punjab's three religious' groups, rendering them unable to maintain neutrality under stress. In
9248-523: The Statute of Westminster in 1931 was capitalised to distinguish it from the more general sense of "within the crown's dominions". The phrase the crown's dominions or His/Her Majesty's dominions is a legal and constitutional phrase that refers to all the realms and territories of the British sovereign, whether independent or not. These territories include the United Kingdom and its colonies, including those that had become Dominions. Dependent territories that had never been annexed and were not colonies of
9384-403: The UK Government. After protracted negotiations (that initially included New Zealand), six Australian colonies with responsible government (and their dependent territories) agreed to federate, along Canadian lines, becoming the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901. In South Africa, the Cape Colony became the first British self-governing Colony, in 1872. (Until 1893, the Cape Colony also controlled
9520-486: The United Kingdom act granting independence declared that such and such a territory "shall form part of Her Majesty's dominions", and so become part of the territory in which the Queen exercises sovereignty , not merely suzerainty . Under British nationality law , the status of "Dominion" ceased to exist on January 1, 1949, when it was decided that each Dominion would enact laws pertaining to its own citizenship. However, "Dominion status" itself never ceased to exist within
9656-540: The act states: "Whereas the Provinces of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick have expressed their Desire to be federally united into One Dominion under the Crown of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, with a Constitution similar in Principle to that of the United Kingdom ..." Furthermore, Sections 3 and 4 indicate that the provinces "shall form and be One Dominion under the Name of Canada; and on and after that Day those Three Provinces shall form and be One Dominion under that Name accordingly". According to
9792-583: The approval of its own legislature, Britain suspended self-government in Newfoundland and instituted a " Commission of Government ", which continued until Newfoundland became a province of Canada in 1949. Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the Irish Free State, Newfoundland and South Africa (prior to becoming a republic and leaving the Commonwealth in 1961), with their large populations of European descent, were sometimes collectively referred to as
9928-512: The changed context, served as the constitution of the dominion. Under the Indian Independence Act, the British government relinquished all responsibility of governing the territories that formerly constituted British India ; the legislatures of the new dominions could "repeal or amend" any existing act of the British parliament; no future act of the British parliament would extend to the dominions unless extended so and enacted by
10064-436: The colonies. For decades, the Dominions did not have their own embassies or consulates in foreign countries. International travel and commerce were transacted through British embassies and consulates. For example, matters concerning visas and lost or stolen passports of Dominion citizens were carried out at British diplomatic offices. In the late 1930s and early 1940s, Dominion governments established their own embassies,
10200-563: The constitutional head of government, has reserve powers for taking over the administration of a state. The central legislature has two houses, the Lok Sabha whose delegates are directly elected by the people in general elections every five years, and the Rajya Sabha , whose members are nominated by the elected representatives in the states. There are also features not to be found in the Act of 1935. The definition of fundamental rights
10336-576: The creation of the Imperial War Cabinet in 1917, which gave them a say in the running of the war. Dominion status as self-governing states, as opposed to symbolic titles granted various British colonies, waited until 1919, when the self-governing Dominions signed the Treaty of Versailles independently of the British government and became individual members of the League of Nations. This ended
10472-402: The crown as head of state. Gradually, particularly after 1953, the term was replaced by the term realm , as equal realms of the crown of the Commonwealth. The term dominion means "that which is mastered or ruled". It was used by the British to describe their colonies or territorial possessions. Use of dominion to refer to a particular territory within the British Empire dates back to
10608-586: The current provinces of Manitoba , Saskatchewan , and Alberta , and the three current territories, the Northwest Territories , Yukon and Nunavut . In 1871, the Crown Colony of British Columbia became a Canadian province, as did Prince Edward Island in 1873. Newfoundland , having become a Dominion itself in 1907, was restored to direct British rule in 1934, finally joining Canada in 1949 after referendums . The conditions under which
10744-532: The date for independence and the transfer of power. In June 1947 the nationalist leaders, including Nehru representing the Congress, Jinnah representing the Muslim League, and Baldev Singh representing the Sikhs , agreed to a partition of the country and Mountbatten was able to rush the British withdrawal forward. The predominantly Hindu and Sikh areas were assigned to the new India and predominantly Muslim areas to
10880-692: The defeat of the Sikh empire by the British in the First Anglo-Sikh War . Upon the purchase of the region from the British under the Treaty of Amritsar , the Raja of Jammu, Gulab Singh , became the new ruler of Kashmir. The rule of his descendants, under the paramountcy (or tutelage) of the British Crown , lasted until the Partition of India in 1947. Kashmir was connected to India through
11016-686: The dominion legislature. Reflecting the changed status, the royal style and titles "Indiae Imperator" and "Emperor of India" was abandoned. In January 1949, India consisted of nine Governors' Provinces, Madras, Bombay, West Bengal, the United Provinces, East Punjab, Bihar, the Central Provinces and Berar, Assam and Orissa; five Chief Commissioners' Provinces, Delhi, Ajmer-Merwara, Coorg, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, and Panth Piploda ; and around 500 princely states . The Statesman's Yearbook (1949) stated, "The Governors' Provinces and
11152-603: The eleven provinces. The negotiations between the Congress and the Muslim League, however, stalled over the issue of a division of India. Jinnah proclaimed 16 August 1946 " Direct Action Day " with the stated goal of peacefully highlighting the demand for a Muslim homeland in British India. The following day Hindu-Muslim riots broke out in Calcutta and quickly spread throughout India. Although the Government of India and
11288-586: The embattled Muslims. He chose to direct his activities from the scheduled caste (or "untouchables') "Balmiki Temple" in the Gole Market area of the city. (Eventually, as the temple was requisitioned for sheltering the incoming refugees, Gandhi moved to two rooms in Birla House , a large mansion in central Delhi.) Some groups within the Indian government opposed Gandhi's activities. Soon another issue sprouted up. The partition of India had not just been
11424-552: The empire. The Colony of New Zealand , which chose not to take part in Australian federation, became the Dominion of New Zealand on 26 September 1907; Newfoundland became a Dominion on the same day. The Union of South Africa was referred to as a Dominion upon its creation in 1910. The initiatives and contributions of British colonies to the British war effort in the First World War were recognised by Britain with
11560-693: The first place, the British North America Act of 1867 provided in Section 55 that the Governor General may reserve any legislation passed by the two Houses of Parliament for "the signification of Her Majesty's pleasure", which is determined according to Section 57 by the British Monarch in Council. Secondly, Section 56 provides that the Governor General must forward to "one of Her Majesty's Principal Secretaries of State" in London
11696-537: The first two of which were established by Australia and Canada in Washington, D.C. , in the United States. Until 1948 any resident of a British colony or Dominion had the status of British subject . In 1935 the Irish Nationality and Citizenship Act created a separate status of Irish national , but stopped short of creating a full citizenship. Canada was the first to create its own citizenship with
11832-573: The four separate Australian colonies— New South Wales , Tasmania , Western Australia , South Australia —and New Zealand could gain full responsible government were set out by the British government in the Australian Constitutions Act 1850 . The Act also separated the Colony of Victoria (in 1851) from New South Wales. During 1856, responsible government was achieved by New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, and Tasmania, and New Zealand. The remainder of New South Wales
11968-487: The greater scope of British law, because acts pertaining to "Dominion status", such as the Statute of Westminster 1931 , have not been repealed in both the United Kingdom and historic Dominions such as Canada. The term "within the crown's dominions" continues to apply in British law to those territories in which the British monarch remains head of state, and the term "self-governing dominion" is used in some legislation. When
12104-543: The late 19th century through the 1930s. Vestiges of empire lasted in some dominions well into the late 20th century. With the evolution of the British Empire following the 1945 conclusion of the Second World War into the modern Commonwealth of Nations (after which the former Dominions were often referred to as the Old Commonwealth ), finalised in 1949, the dominions became independent states, either as Commonwealth republics or Commonwealth realms . In 1925,
12240-523: The law continued for years thereafter. The Dominion of India lasted until 1950, whereupon India became a republic within the Commonwealth with a president as head of state . By the early 1920s, the Indian National Congress had become the principal leader of Indian nationalism . Led by Mahatma Gandhi , the Congress was to lead India to independence from the United Kingdom , and powerfully influence other anti-colonial nationalist movements in
12376-628: The loss of their greatest citizen. Mahatma Gandhi, as he was known in India, was one of the outstanding figures in the world today, ... For a quarter of a century this one man has been the major factor in every consideration of the Indian problem. After the mourning period was over, the finger of blame was firmly pointed at the Hindu extremists who had plotted the assassination, bringing not only them into disrepute, but Hindu nationalism in general, which did not recover its political reputation until many decades later. The Deputy Prime Minister, Sardar Patel , who
12512-664: The mid-19th century. The legislatures of Colonies with responsible government were able to make laws in all matters other than foreign affairs, defence and international trade, these being powers which remained with the Parliament of the United Kingdom . Nova Scotia soon followed by the Province of Canada (which included modern southern Ontario and southern Quebec ) were the first colonies to achieve responsible government, in 1848. Prince Edward Island followed in 1851, and New Brunswick and Newfoundland in 1855. All except for Newfoundland and Prince Edward Island agreed to form
12648-438: The nation by radio: Friends and comrades, the light has gone out of our lives, and there is darkness everywhere, and I do not quite know what to tell you or how to say it. Our beloved leader, Bapu as we called him, the father of the nation, is no more. Perhaps I am wrong to say that; nevertheless, we will not see him again, as we have seen him for these many years, we will not run to him for advice or seek solace from him, and that
12784-516: The new India. Except for Kashmir, where a major military conflict had begun in October 1947, two states, Hyderabad, and Junagadh had remained independent. Junagadh was a small state on the coast of the Kathiawar peninsula , but its land border was with India. It had a majority Hindu population but with a Muslim Nawab. The Nawab acceded to Pakistan after independence. Within a few weeks, Indian troops marched into Junagadh. A plebiscite took place and
12920-593: The new nation of Pakistan ; the plan included a partition of the Muslim-majority provinces of Punjab and Bengal. On 14 August 1947, the new Dominion of Pakistan came into being, with Muhammad Ali Jinnah sworn in as its first Governor-General in Karachi . The following day, 15 August 1947, the Dominion of India (officially the Union of India ), became an independent country with official ceremonies taking place in New Delhi , and with Jawaharlal Nehru assuming
13056-583: The new, larger country. However, neither the Confederation nor the adoption of the title of "Dominion" granted extra autonomy or new powers to this new federal level of government. Senator Eugene Forsey wrote that the powers acquired since the 1840s that established the system of responsible government in Canada would simply be transferred to the new Dominion government: By the time of Confederation in 1867, this system had been operating in most of what
13192-416: The office of the prime minister , and the viceroy, Louis Mountbatten, staying on as its first Governor General . Mountbatten's decision to hasten the transfer of power has received both praise and criticism over the years. Supporters feel that an early transfer had the effect of forcing Indian politicians into abandoning petty quarrels and accepting their obligations in stopping an outrage that Great Britain
13328-452: The order of five and a half million travelling each way across the new border. From Sind, some 400,000 Hindus migrated to India, as did a million Hindus from East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) to West Bengal province in India. Migrations coming in the wake of the massacres severely taxed the strength of the new government. The religious killings had abated by the Autumn of 1947, but the government
13464-470: The partition 1947 and fact that returns were intentionally recorded incorrectly in states such as East Punjab , Himachal Pradesh , Delhi , PEPSU , and Bilaspur . Major religious groups in India in 1951 In 1951, India had 305 million Hindus (84.1% of the population), 35.4 million Muslims (9.8%), 8.3 million Christians, (2.3%), and 6.86 million Sikhs, (1.9%). 1951 Indian census showed that there were 8.3 million Christians. Hindus had made up about 73% of
13600-584: The period 1947–1951 the Partition caused approximately 14.5 million people to migrate into (i.e. arrived in) India or Pakistan. The authors also estimated that during the same period 17.9 million people left India to go to Pakistan or vice versa, suggesting a figure of 3.4 million missing people. Refugee movement across the border in Bengal was a third of that in the northwest. 25% of Pakistani Punjab's population had come from India; 16% of Indian Punjab's population had come from Pakistan. In contrast, only 2% of
13736-483: The phasing out of the use of Dominion , which had been used largely as a synonym of "federal" or "national" such as "Dominion building" for a post office, "Dominion-provincial relations", and so on. The last major change was renaming the national holiday from Dominion Day to Canada Day in 1982. Official bilingualism laws also contributed to the disuse of Dominion , as it has no acceptable equivalent in French. While
13872-521: The population losses may have also resulted in part because of reduced birth rates and also by the inadequacies in the 1951 census (especially in Pakistan). Dominion List of forms of government A dominion was any of several largely self-governing countries of the British Empire , once known collectively as the British Commonwealth of Nations . Progressing from colonies, their degrees of colonial self-governance increased unevenly over
14008-435: The population of East Pakistan (as recorded in the 1951 census) had migrated from India. The disparity was chalked to the greater perception of the threat of violence in the Punjab. Another study by Hill and colleagues suggested that migrants preferred to settle in districts with a high proportion of co-religionists, leading to more religiously homogeneous populations on either side of the newly drawn borders after Partition. In
14144-404: The previous October, undertook several hunger strike to stop the religious violence. On 15 January, the government took the decision to release assets it owed to Pakistan. On 18 January Gandhi broke his fast only after significant politicians and leaders of communal bodies showed their commitment to a joint plan for restoration of peace. The princely state of Kashmir was created in 1846, after
14280-423: The prime minister ship. It was thought he might assert his claim now, but Gandhi's loss had affected him equally deeply, and although there was still some discord between him and Nehru, he buried himself resolutely in his work on the integration of the princely states. By the year's end, this was complete. Patel died in 1950, and thereafter, Nehru ruled without any opposition. Two matters had been left unsettled from
14416-432: The provincial legislature; in the criminal law and procedure, marriage and divorce, succession, factories, labor welfare, workmen's compensation, health, insurance and old-age pensions, responsibility lay concurrently with both, with overriding powers to the Dominion. In the case of the Chief Commissioners' Provinces: the administration was directly by the central government, with the plenary power of legislation belonging to
14552-473: The purely colonial status of the Dominions. The Irish Free State , set up in 1922 after the Anglo-Irish War , was the third Dominion to appoint a non-UK born, non-aristocratic Governor-General when Timothy Michael Healy , following the tenures of Sir Gordon Drummond in Canada and of Sir Walter Edward Davidson and Sir William Allardyce in Newfoundland, took the position in 1922. Dominion status
14688-554: The self-governing countries was recognised in the Imperial Conference of 1907 which, on the motions of the Prime Ministers of Canada and Australia, introduced the idea of the Dominions as self-governing countries by referring to Canada and Australia as Dominions. It also retired the name "Colonial Conference" and mandated that meetings take place regularly to consult the Dominions in running the foreign affairs of
14824-578: The separate Colony of Natal .) Following the Second Boer War (1899–1902), the British Empire assumed direct control of the Boer Republics , but transferred limited self-government to Transvaal in 1906, and the Orange River Colony in 1907. The Commonwealth of Australia was recognised as a Dominion in 1901, and the Dominion of New Zealand and the Dominion of Newfoundland were officially given Dominion status in 1907, followed by
14960-410: The status of Dominion in the same year. These were followed by the Union of South Africa in 1910. The Order in Council annexing the island of Cyprus in 1914 declared that, from 5 November 1914, the island "shall be annexed to and form part of His Majesty's dominions". Dominion status was formally accorded to Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Newfoundland, South Africa, and the Irish Free State at
15096-533: The term may be found in older official documents, and the Dominion Carillonneur still tolls at Parliament Hill , it is now hardly used to distinguish the federal government from the provinces or (historically) Canada before and after 1867. Nonetheless, the federal government continues to produce publications and educational materials that specify the currency of these official titles. The Constitution Act, 1982 does not mention and does not remove
15232-435: The title, and therefore a constitutional amendment may be required to change it. The word Dominion has been used with other agencies, laws, and roles: Notable Canadian corporations and organisations (not affiliated with government) that have used Dominion as a part of their name have included: Ceylon , which, as a Crown colony, was originally promised "fully responsible status within the British Commonwealth of Nations",
15368-575: The various colonies they incorporated could have done separately. They provided a new model which politicians in New Zealand, Newfoundland, South Africa, Ireland, India, Malaysia could point to for their own relationship with Britain. Ultimately, "[Canada's] example of a peaceful accession to independence with a Westminster system of government came to be followed by 50 countries with a combined population of more than 2-billion people." Issues of colonial self-government spilled into foreign affairs with
15504-561: The way in which fundamental constitutional rules have evolved through the interaction of constitutional convention, international law, and municipal statute and case law. What was significant about the creation of the Canadian and Australian federations was not that they were instantly granted wide new powers by the Imperial centre at the time of their creation; but that they, because of their greater size and prestige, were better able to exercise their existing powers and lobby for new ones than
15640-564: The west Punjab arriving in Delhi ended up tearing away the Muslim community there from their established cultural patterns and values, and temporarily destabilized the new government. The death toll in the partition violence may never be known, but Judge G. D. Khosla, in Stern Reckoning thought it to be about 500,000. In addition, there was what historian Percival Spear has called "an involuntary exchange of population," which might be of
15776-522: The wishes of the opposition and officials in London. The governments of the states (colonies before 1901) remained under the Commonwealth but retained links to the UK until the passage of the Australia Act 1986 . The term Dominion is employed in the Constitution Act, 1867 (originally the B ritish North America Act, 1867 ), and describes the resulting political union. Specifically, the preamble of
15912-504: Was Nathuram Godse , a Hindu nationalist, a member of the political party Hindu Mahasabha as well as a former member of the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), a right-wing Hindu paramilitary volunteer organization. On 30 January 1948, Godse assassinated Gandhi in Birla House as Gandhi was on his way to his evening prayer meeting there, shooting Gandhi in the chest three times. Later that evening, Nehru addressed
16048-485: Was also a fairly large and spatially spread out minority population of Muslims in India, and a minority of Hindus in Pakistan. It was therefore inevitable that there would be an exchange of the populations involving migration of Muslims into West and East Pakistan and migrations of non-Muslims (mainly Hindus, but also Sikhs in the northwest) from Pakistan into India. The majority of the population movement associated with
16184-559: Was also the Home Minister, was reproached for inadequate security arrangements. Gandhi's loss had the effect of giving Nehru more power. According to historian Percival Spear, "The government was really a duumvirate between him (Nehru), who represented the idealism and left-wing tendencies of the party, and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, the realist and party boss from Gujarat who leaned to authoritarianism, orthodoxy, and big business." At Gandhi's pressing, Patel had twice put off claiming
16320-466: Was also the first census after independence and Partition of India . 1951 census was also the first census to be conducted under 1948 Census of India Act. The first census of the Indian Republic began on February 10, 1951. The population of India was counted as 361,088,090 (1000:946 male:female) Total population increased by 42,427,510, 13.31% more than the 318,660,580 people counted during
16456-563: Was anticipated that he would accede to Pakistan when the British paramountcy ended. When he hesitated to do this, Pakistan launched a guerrilla onslaught meant to frighten its ruler into submission. Instead, the Maharaja appealed to Mountbatten for assistance, and the governor-general agreed on the condition that the ruler accede to India. Indian soldiers entered Kashmir and drove the Pakistani-sponsored irregulars from all but
16592-509: Was declared for India. Although Pakistan protested, it took no further action. Hyderabad was in a different class. Although it had an 85%-Hindu population, its Muslim rule had begun during the Mughal period . The ruling Nizams had proclaimed themselves to be equal allies of the British rather than subordinates . But the state was landlocked, surrounded on all sides by India. "No Indian government," according to Percival Spear, "could afford to have
16728-542: Was divided in three in 1859, a change that established most of the present borders of NSW; the Colony of Queensland , with its own responsible self-government, and the Northern Territory (which was not granted self-government prior to federation of the Australian Colonies). Western Australia did not receive self-government until 1891, mainly because of its continuing financial dependence on
16864-441: Was elected as the first President of India . Nehru's cabinet of 15 included one woman. The major demographic effort in the period was directed at measuring the effects of the Partition of India. The creation of Pakistan decisively depended on the proportionally high percentages of Muslims in certain geographical areas of the subcontinent. In the 1941 census, 24.3% of pre-independent India was recorded to be Muslim. In addition, 76 of
17000-595: Was formally granted independence as a Dominion in 1948. In 1972 it adopted a republican constitution to become the Free, Sovereign and Independent Republic of Sri Lanka . By a new constitution in 1978, it became the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka. 1951 Census of India The 1951 census of India was the ninth in a series of censuses held in India every decade since 1872 . It
17136-416: Was geographically reduced by the lands that went to Pakistan, as a separate dominion. Under the Act, the King remained the monarch of India but the British government relinquished all responsibility for administering its former territories. The government also revoked its treaty rights with the rulers of the princely states and advised them to join in a political union with India or Pakistan. Accordingly, one of
17272-413: Was given formal legal recognition in 1942 (when the Statute of Westminster was adopted retroactively to the commencement of the Second World War in 1939). In 1930, the Australian prime minister, James Scullin , reinforced the right of the overseas Dominions to appoint native-born governors-general, when he advised King George V to appoint Sir Isaac Isaacs as his representative in Australia, against
17408-404: Was made during the 1949 Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference when India was intending to become a republic , so that both types of governments could become and remain full members of the Commonwealth, and this term hence refers to the realms and republics. After this the term dominion , without its legal dimension, stayed in use thirty more years for those Commonwealth countries which had
17544-415: Was made during this period to document the demographic changes accompanying the partition of British India. According to most demographers, between 14 and 18 million people moved between India and Pakistan as refugees of the partition, and upwards of one million people were killed. A major effort was also made to document the poverty prevalent in India. A committee appointed by the government in 1949, estimated
17680-610: Was marked by political and legal subjugation to British Imperial supremacy in all aspects of government—legislative, judicial, and executive. The Imperial Parliament at Westminster could legislate on any matter to do with Canada and could override any local legislation, the final court of appeal for Canadian litigation lay with the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in London, the Governor General had
17816-421: Was never popular in the Irish Free State where people saw it as a face-saving measure for a British government unable to countenance a republic in what had previously been the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland . Successive Irish governments undermined the constitutional links with the United Kingdom. In 1937 Ireland, as it renamed itself, adopted a new republican constitution that included powers for
17952-410: Was no longer able to control. Critics feel that if the British had stayed on for another year, had institutions in place for a transition, had the army readied in troublesome areas, a less violent transfer might have resulted. The Radcliffe Commission , tasked with assigning each district to either Pakistan or India, announced its award on 17 August 1947, two days after the transfer of power. It divided
18088-913: Was referred to as a colony of the United Kingdom, as for example, in the 1927 reference to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council to delineate the Quebec-Labrador boundary. Full autonomy was granted by the United Kingdom parliament with the Statute of Westminster in December 1931. By the request of Australia and New Zealand, the Statute of Westminster was not applied automatically to those two Dominions until their own parliaments confirmed it. Being economically close to Britain and dependent on it for defence, they did not do so until 1942 for Australia and 1947 for New Zealand . In 1934, following Newfoundland's economic collapse, and with
18224-515: Was something between that of a colony and a state". With the adoption of the Statute of Westminster 1931 , Britain and the Dominions (except Newfoundland) formed the British Commonwealth of Nations . Dominions asserted full legislative independence, with direct access to the Monarch as Head of State previously reserved only for British governments. It also recognised autonomy in foreign affairs, including participation as autonomous countries in
18360-534: Was the new constitution. It was drafted by the Constituent Assembly with uncommon speed and absence of irregularities between 1946 and 1949. The Government of India Act 1935 was used as a model and framework. Long passages from the Act were included. The constitution describes a federal state with a parliamentary system of democracy. The federal structure is conspicuous for the strength of the central government, which has exclusively exercised control of defence, foreign affairs, railways, ports, and currency. The President,
18496-461: Was weighed down with the responsibility of settling the refugees. In the Punjab, there was land available recently vacated by the Muslims; in Delhi, there was a glut of incoming Hindu and Sikh refugees: many more were arriving there than were Muslims departing for Pakistan. The refugees were settled in several enclosed areas on the outskirts of Delhi. But they had soon overflowed into the streets and even occupied mosques. They attempted to take possession
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