126-832: India has several Special Forces (SF) units, with the various branches of the Indian Armed Forces having their own separate special forces units. The Para SF of the Indian Army , MARCOS of the Indian Navy and the Garud Commando Force of the Indian Air Force . There are other special forces which are not controlled by the military, but operate under civilian organisations, such as the National Security Guard under
252-670: A 52-week basic training, which includes a three-month probation followed by special operations training, basic airborne training, and other warfare and survival skills. The last phase of basic training sees Garuds being deployed to get combat experience. Advanced training follows, which includes specialised weapons training. The mandated tasks of the Garuds include direct action, special reconnaissance, rescuing downed pilots in hostile territory, establishing airbases in hostile territory, and providing air-traffic control to these airbases. The Garuds also undertake suppression of enemy air defences and
378-433: A digitally-networked battlefield", whereas the "indirect approach includes empowering host nation forces, providing appropriate assistance to humanitarian agencies, and engaging key populations." Elements of national power must be deployed in concert without over-reliance on a single capability, such as special forces, that leaves the entire force unprepared and hollow across the spectrum of military operations. Throughout
504-504: A few days. Subsequent discovery of infiltration elsewhere along the LOC, and the difference in tactics employed by the infiltrators, caused the Indian army to realise that the plan of attack was on a much bigger scale. The total area seized by the ingress is generally accepted to between 130 and 200 km (50 and 80 sq mi). The Government of India responded with Operation Vijay,
630-406: A final assault on the peak in which ten Pakistani soldiers and five Indian soldiers were killed, Tiger Hill finally fell. A few of the assaults occurred atop hitherto unheard of peaks—most of them unnamed with only Point numbers to differentiate them—which witnessed fierce hand to hand combat . As the operation was fully underway, about 250 artillery guns were brought in to clear the infiltrators in
756-532: A fortress. Any attack to dislodge a defender from high ground in mountain warfare requires a far higher ratio of attackers to defenders, and the difficulties would be exacerbated by the high altitude and freezing temperatures. Kargil is just 173 km (107 mi) from the Pakistani-controlled town of Skardu , which was capable of providing logistical and artillery support to Pakistani combatants. A road between Kargil and Skardu exists , which
882-429: A manoeuvre India was not willing to exercise due to the likely expansion of the theatre of war and reduced international support for its cause. Two months into the conflict, Indian troops had slowly retaken most of the ridges that were encroached upon by the infiltrators; according to the official count, an estimated 75–80% of the intruded area and nearly all the high ground were back under Indian control. Following
1008-692: A meeting with the C-in-C Middle East, General Claude Auchinleck , his plan was endorsed by the Army High Command. The force initially consisted of five officers and 60 other ranks . Following extensive training at Kabrit camp , by the River Nile , L Detachment, SAS Brigade, undertook its first operations in the Western Desert . Stirling's vision was eventually vindicated after a series of successful operations. In 1942,
1134-581: A mobilisation of 200,000 Indian troops. However, because of the nature of the terrain, division and corps operations could not be mounted; subsequent fighting was conducted mostly at the brigade or battalion level. In effect, two divisions of the Indian Army, numbering 20,000, plus several thousand from the Paramilitary forces of India and the air force were deployed in the conflict zone. The total number of Indian soldiers that were involved in
1260-535: A product of the Reagan administration under Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger . Admiral William H. McRaven , formerly the ninth commanding officer of USSOCOM (2011–2014), described two approaches to special forces operations in the 2012 posture statement to the U.S. Senate Committee on Armed Services : "the direct approach is characterized by technologically enabled small-unit precision lethality, focused intelligence , and inter-agency cooperation integrated on
1386-641: A proposal to General Sir John Dill , the Chief of the Imperial General Staff . Dill, aware of Churchill's intentions, approved Clarke's proposal and on 23 June 1940, the first Commando raid took place. By the autumn of 1940 more than 2,000 men had volunteered and in November 1940 these new units were organised into a Special Service Brigade consisting of four battalions under the command of Brigadier J. C. Haydon. The Special Service Brigade
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#17327937137161512-436: A sector commander of Mukti Bahini , planned to deploy a special commando team. The task assigned to the team was to carry out commando operations and to terrorize Dhaka . The major objective of this team was to prove that the situation was not actually normal. Moreover, Pakistan, at that time, was expecting economic aid from World Bank, which was assumed to be spent to buy arms. The plan was to make World Bank Mission understand
1638-516: A separate combat arm. The Macheteros de Jara was an auxiliary cavalry regiment that was organized since August 15, 1932, before the Battle of Boquerón began. The regiment was recruited from former outlaws from Paraguay who fought against Bolivian officers and soldiers. The 50th Infantry Regiment (Cuchilleros de la Muerte) was a Bolivian infantry regiment that fought in the Chaco War. Nicknamed
1764-690: A sharpshooter under the command of General Licerio Gerónimo , killed General Henry Ware Lawton of the United States Army , making the latter the highest ranking casualty during the course of the war. The German Stormtroopers and the Italian Arditi were the first modern shock troops. They were both elite assault units trained to a much higher level than that of average troops and tasked to carry out daring attacks and bold raids against enemy defenses. Unlike Stormtroopers, Arditi were not units within infantry divisions, but were considered
1890-469: A standard infantry battalion , and it lacked any form of artillery , and had to rely on other units for logistical support. Its men were no longer parachute-trained, but relied on aircraft for transport. Some 750 men from the 2nd Raiding Brigade , of this group were assigned to attack American air bases on Luzon and Leyte on the night of 6 December 1944. They were flown in Ki-57 transports , but most of
2016-598: Is a clandestine special forces unit of the Research and Analysis Wing . It was formed in 1981. The responsibilities of the Special Group includes clandestine intelligence operations and covert operations , with which the Government of India may not wish to be overtly associated. The National Security Guard (NSG) is a specialized counter-terrorism federal contingency force. It was formally created in 1986. It
2142-712: Is based on the British Army 's Special Air Service and the German GSG 9 . The NSG is popularly referred to as the 'Black Cats' due to its distinct black uniforms. It consists of the following two elements- Special Forces Special forces or special operations forces ( SOF ) are military units trained to conduct special operations . NATO has defined special operations as "military activities conducted by specially designated, organized, selected, trained and equipped forces using unconventional techniques and modes of employment". Special forces emerged in
2268-486: Is composed of 8 soldiers. Some of the responsibilities of MARCOS are- The Garud commandos are the special forces of the Indian Air Force (IAF). Their tasks include counter-terrorism, hostage rescue, providing security to IAF's assets, and various air force-specific special operations. First conceived in 2002, this unit was officially established on February 6, 2004. All Garuds are volunteers who have imparted
2394-537: Is located 205 km (127 mi) from Srinagar , facing the Northern Areas across the LOC. Like other areas in the Himalayas , Kargil has a continental climate. Summers are cool with frigid nights, while winters are long and chilly with temperatures often dropping to −48 °C (−54 °F). An Indian national highway ( NH 1 ) connecting Srinagar to Leh cuts through Kargil. The area that witnessed
2520-488: The 1971 Indo-Pakistani war in which they undertook raids against Pakistan's military. In 1988, 6 Para spearheaded the only foreign intervention operation conducted by Indian Armed Forces to restore democracy in Maldives by the order of prime minister Rajiv Gandhi . The operation was code-named Operation Cactus . Operation Cactus was launched to thwart a coup against the government of President Maumoon Abdul Gayoom . In
2646-601: The 2008 Mumbai attacks alongside the National Security Guards but their effectiveness was diluted due to bureaucratic indecision. MARCOS have also been deployed in anti-piracy operations. After a 10-week-long basic training, MARCOS are sent to train alongside Indian Army's Para (SF) for 3 weeks. Advanced training follows, during which MARCOS learn skills such as sky-diving, weapons training, counter-insurgency, languages, and warfare in different terrains, among other things. Each MARCOS squad, called Prahar ,
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#17327937137162772-690: The 2016 Surgical Strikes . The list of PARA (SF) Battalions is as follows: First conceived in 1985, the Marine Commando Force, also called MARCOS, was raised in February 1987. It is the special forces unit of the Indian Navy. Initially, the U.S. Navy SEALs and British special forces trained a few officers of the Indian navy who formed the first core of MARCOS. Months after their creation, MARCOS were deployed in Sri Lanka against
2898-597: The ASEAN Regional Forum too supported India's stand on the inviolability of the LOC. Faced with growing international pressure, Sharif managed to pull back the remaining soldiers from Indian territory. The joint statement issued by Clinton and Sharif conveyed the need to respect the LOC and resume bilateral talks as the best forum to resolve all disputes. A number of Indian soldiers earned awards for gallantry. Four Param Vir Chakras and 11 Maha Vir Chakras were awarded. The following units were awarded
3024-768: The Barisha Raid in Syria of 2019. The U.S. invasion of Afghanistan involved special forces from several coalition nations, who played a major role in removing the Taliban from power in 2001–2002. Special forces have continued to play a role in combating the Taliban in subsequent operations. Kargil War Indian victory Indian official figures: Pakistani claims: Independent figures: Pakistani figures: Indian claims: Other conflicts Border skirmishes Strikes The Kargil War , also known as
3150-515: The Battle of Ilomantsi , Soviet supply lines were harassed to the point that the Soviet artillery was unable to exploit its massive numerical advantage over Finnish artillery. Their operations were also classified as secret because of the political sensitivity of such operations. Only authorized military historians could publish on their operations; individual soldiers were required to take the secrets to
3276-531: The Battle of Palembang , on Sumatra in the Netherlands East Indies , on 14 February 1942. The operation was well-planned, with 425 men of the 1st Parachute Raiding Regiment seizing Palembang airfield, while the paratroopers of the 2nd Parachute Raiding Regiment seized the town and its important oil refinery. Paratroops were subsequently deployed in the Burma campaign . The 1st Glider Tank Troop
3402-888: The Home Ministry and the Special Group under the Research and Analysis Wing , the external intelligence agency of India. Small groups from the military SF units are deputed in the Armed Forces Special Operations Division , a unified command and control structure. R&AW, has separate special forces under its control, namely the Special Group and the Special Frontier Force . COBRA commandos are special guerrilla warfare fighter of CRPF known for their jungle fighting tactics India's only jungle warriors special force The Paratrooper (Special Forces) , or Para (SF), are
3528-525: The Indian Army to flush out the Pakistan Army and paramilitary troops from vacated Indian positions along the LoC, in what was designated as Operation Safed Sagar ( Hindi : ऑपरेशन सफेद सागर , lit. ' White Sea ' ). The conflict was triggered by the infiltration of Pakistani troops—disguised as Kashmiri militants —into strategic positions on the Indian side of the LoC, which serves as
3654-891: The Iranian Embassy siege (London), the Air France Flight 8969 ( Marseille ), Operation Defensive Shield , Operation Khukri , the Moscow theater hostage crisis , Operation Orchard , the Japanese Embassy hostage crisis ( Lima ), in Sri Lanka against the LTTE , the raid on Osama Bin Laden's compound in Pakistan, the 2016 Indian Line of Control strike the 2015 Indian counter-insurgency operation in Myanmar and
3780-541: The Kargil conflict , was fought between India and Pakistan from May to July 1999 in the Kargil district of Ladakh (erstwhile Jammu and Kashmir ) and elsewhere along the Line of Control (LoC). In India, the conflict is also referred to as Operation Vijay ( Sanskrit : विजय , lit. ' Victory ' ), which was the codename of the Indian military operation in the region. The Indian Air Force acted jointly with
3906-515: The Leh–Manali Highway . The infiltrators, apart from being equipped with small arms and grenade launchers , were also armed with mortars , artillery and anti-aircraft guns . Many posts were also heavily mined , with India later stating to have recovered more than 8,000 anti-personnel mines according to an ICBL report. Pakistan's reconnaissance was done through unmanned aerial vehicles and AN/TPQ-36 Firefinder radars supplied by
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4032-836: The Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) in July 1987. In the 1990s, MARCOS undertook numerous operations such as Operation Tasha (1991) against the LTTE, and Operation Zabardust (1992) against a ship that was smuggling arms and in support of the United Nations in Somalia (1993). They also participated in the 1999 Kargil War . Since 1995, MARCOS are permanently deployed for counter-terrorism operations in Jammu and Kashmir against militants. MARCOS had participated in efforts against
4158-962: The Marpo La ridgeline in Dras, in Kaksar near Kargil, in the Batalik sector east of the Indus River , on the heights above of the Chorbat La sector where the LOC turns North and in the Turtuk sector south of the Siachen area. Initially, these incursions were not detected for a number of reasons: Indian patrols were not sent into some of the areas infiltrated by the Pakistani forces and heavy artillery fire by Pakistan in some areas provided cover for
4284-754: The Mirage 2000 fleet, which commenced operations on 30 May. The Indian Navy also prepared to blockade the Pakistani ports (primarily the Karachi port ) to cut off supply routes under Operation Talwar . The Indian Navy's western and eastern fleets joined in the North Arabian Sea and began aggressive patrols and threatened to cut Pakistan's sea trade. This exploited Pakistan's dependence on sea-based oil and trade flows. Later, then– Prime Minister of Pakistan Nawaz Sharif disclosed that Pakistan
4410-536: The Mushkoh Valley and the town of Drass , southwest of Kargil, as well as the Batalik sector and other areas northeast of Kargil. Kargil was targeted partly because the terrain was conducive to the preemptive seizure of several unoccupied military positions. With tactically vital features and well-prepared defensive posts atop the peaks, a defender on the high ground would enjoy advantages akin to that of
4536-511: The Napoleonic wars , rifle regiments and sapper units were formed that held specialised roles in reconnaissance and skirmishing and were not committed to the formal battle lines. Between the 17th and 18th centuries, there were wars between American colonists and Native American tribes. In Colonial America specialized Rangers formed and first mentioned by Capt. John Smith , in 1622. Learning frontier skills from friendly Native Americans
4662-552: The No. 8 (Guards) Commando (later named " Layforce "). After Layforce was disbanded, Stirling remained convinced that due to the mechanized nature of war a small team of highly trained soldiers with the advantage of surprise could exact greater damage to the enemy's ability to fight than an entire platoon. His idea was for small teams of parachute trained soldiers to operate behind enemy lines to gain intelligence, destroy enemy aircraft, and attack their supply and reinforcement routes. Following
4788-613: The Sino-Soviet border conflict ). India had conducted its first successful test in 1974 ; Pakistan, which had been developing its nuclear capability in secret since around the same time, conducted its first known tests in 1998 , just two weeks after a second series of tests by India . Before the Partition of India in 1947, Kargil was a tehsil of Ladakh , a sparsely populated region with diverse linguistic, ethnic and religious groups, living in isolated valleys separated by some of
4914-588: The United States , the term special forces often refers specifically to the U.S. Army Special Forces , while the term special operations forces is used more broadly for these types of units. Special forces capabilities include the following: Other capabilities can include close personal protection ; waterborne operations involving combat diving/combat swimming , maritime boarding and amphibious missions; as well as support of air force operations . Special forces have played an important role throughout
5040-557: The United States Army Rangers specialist soldier dates back to the 17th through 19th century from military units such as United States Mounted Rangers , United States Rangers and Texas Rangers . In WWII mid-1942, Major-General Lucian Truscott of the U.S. Army, a General Staff submitted a proposal to General George Marshall onceived under the guidance of then Army Chief of Staff, General George C. Marshall, that selectively trained Ranger soldiers were recruited for
5166-432: The de facto border between the two countries in the disputed region of Kashmir . During its initial stages, Pakistan blamed the fighting entirely on independent Kashmiri insurgents, but documents left behind by casualties and later statements by Pakistan's Prime Minister and Chief of Army Staff showed the involvement of Pakistani paramilitary forces, led by General Ashraf Rashid . The Indian Army, later supported by
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5292-460: The military operation on the Kargil-Drass sector was thus close to 30,000. The number of infiltrators, including those providing logistical backup, has been put at approximately 5,000 at the height of the conflict. This figure includes troops from Pakistan-administered Kashmir who provided additional artillery support. The Indian Air Force launched Operation Safed Sagar in support of
5418-587: The wind chill factor, the temperatures were often as low as −15 to −11 °C (5 to 12 °F) near the mountain tops. Based on military tactics , much of the costly frontal assaults by the Indians could have been avoided if the Indian Military had chosen to blockade the supply route of the opposing force, creating a siege . Such a move would have involved the Indian troops crossing the LOC as well as initiating aerial attacks on Pakistani soil, however,
5544-779: The 19th-20th century until the modern formation of the Army Ranger Battalions in WWII. The British Indian Army deployed two special forces during their border wars: the Corps of Guides formed in 1846 and the Gurkha Scouts (a force that was formed in the 1890s and was first used as a detached unit during the 1897–1898 Tirah Campaign ). During the Second Boer War (1899–1902) the British Army felt
5670-412: The 2 Para (SF) participated in Operation Khukri in Sierra Leone to rescue 223 soldiers of the Indian Army's 5/8 Gorkha Rifles who were deployed as UN peacekeepers but were surrounded by militants from the Revolutionary United Front of Sierra Leone. Some of the later reported missions carried out by Para (SF) include the counter-insurgency operation purportedly undertaken inside Myanmar in 2015, and
5796-422: The Allied lines by mis-directing convoys away from the front lines. A handful of his men were captured by the Americans and spread a rumor that Skorzeny was leading a raid on Paris to kill or capture General Dwight Eisenhower . Although this was untrue, Eisenhower was confined to his headquarters for several days and Skorzeny was labelled "the most dangerous man in Europe". In Italy , the Decima Flottiglia MAS
5922-430: The American colonies, including Knowlton's Rangers , an elite corps of Rangers who supplied reconnaissance and espionage for George Washington 's Continental Army. Daniel Morgan , was known as leader of The Corps of Rangers for the Continental Army . Rogers' Rangers on Roger's Island, in modern-day Fort Edward, New York, is regarded as the "spiritual home" of the United States Special Operations Forces , specifically
6048-406: The Army Chief and a senior Pakistani general where the latter is recorded saying: "the scruff of [the militants] necks is in our hands", although Pakistan dismissed it as a "total fabrication". Concurrently, Pakistan made several contradicting statements, confirming its role in Kargil, when it defended the incursions saying that the LOC itself was disputed. Pakistan also attempted to internationalise
6174-404: The Australians also raised the Z Special Unit and M Special Unit . M Special Unit was largely employed in an intelligence-gathering role, while Z Special Force undertook direct action missions. One of its most notable actions came as part of Operation Jaywick , in which several Japanese ships were sunk in Singapore Harbour in 1943. A second raid on Singapore in 1944, known as Operation Rimau ,
6300-529: The British Special Forces, with the curricula differing according to each soldier's specialization. Their task, on deployment to Poland, was to sustain the structures of the Polish state, training the members of the Resistance in fighting the German occupant. This included taking part in the Warsaw Uprising . Following advice from the British, Australia began raising special forces. The first units to be formed were independent companies , which began training at Wilson's Promontory in Victoria in early 1941 under
6426-612: The Chindits and took part in similar operations in Burma. In late November 1943, the Alamo Scouts (Sixth Army Special Reconnaissance Unit) were formed to conduct reconnaissance and raider work in the Southwest Pacific Theater under the personal command of then Lt. General Walter Krueger , Commanding General, Sixth U.S. Army. Krueger envisioned that the Alamo Scouts, consisting of small teams of highly trained volunteers, would operate deep behind enemy lines to provide intelligence-gathering and tactical reconnaissance in advance of Sixth U.S. Army landing operations. In 1983, nearly 40 years after
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#17327937137166552-436: The Commando training depot at Achnacarry in the Scottish Highlands was established by Brigadier Charles Haydon. Under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Charles Vaughan, the Commando depot was responsible for training complete units and individual replacements. The training regime was for the time innovative and physically demanding, and far in advance of normal British Army training. The depot staff were all hand picked, with
6678-400: The Commandos served in all theatres of war from the Arctic Circle to Europe and from the Mediterranean and Middle East to South-East Asia . Their operations ranged from small groups of men landing from the sea or by parachute to a brigade of assault troops spearheading the Allied invasions of Europe and Asia. The first modern special forces units were established by men who had served with
6804-490: The Commandos, including the Parachute Regiment , Special Air Service , and Special Boat Service . The No. 10 (Inter-Allied) Commando organised by British of volunteers from occupied Europe led to French Commandos Marine , Dutch Korps Commandotroepen , Belgian Paracommando Brigade . The first modern special forces unit was the Special Air Service (SAS), formed in July 1941 from an unorthodox idea and plan by Lieutenant David Stirling . In June 1940 he volunteered for
6930-492: The Indian Air Force, recaptured a majority of the positions on the Indian side of the LoC; facing international diplomatic opposition, Pakistani forces withdrew from all remaining Indian positions along the LoC. The Kargil War is the most recent example of high-altitude warfare in mountainous terrain , and as such, posed significant logistical problems for the combatting sides. It also marks one of only two instances of conventional warfare between nuclear-armed states (alongside
7056-448: The Indian side of the LOC. Following the Washington accord of 4 July 1999, when Sharif agreed to withdraw Pakistani troops, most of the fighting came to a gradual halt, but some Pakistani forces remained in positions on the Indian side of the LoC. In addition, the United Jihad Council (an umbrella for extremist groups) rejected Pakistan's plan for a climb-down, instead deciding to fight on. The Indian army launched its final attacks in
7182-404: The Kargil War. First, Pakistan infiltrated forces into the Indian-controlled section of Kashmir and occupied strategic locations enabling it to bring NH1 within range of its artillery fire. The next stage consisted of India discovering the infiltration and mobilising forces to respond to it. The final stage involved major battles by Indian and Pakistani forces resulting in India recapturing most of
7308-414: The Kargil region, but the plans had been shelved for fear of drawing the nations into all-out war. Some analysts believe that the blueprint of attack was reactivated soon after Pervez Musharraf was appointed chief of army staff in October 1998. After the war, Nawaz Sharif , Prime Minister of Pakistan during the Kargil conflict, claimed that he was unaware of the plans, and that he first learned about
7434-411: The Kashmir issue, by linking the crisis in Kargil to the larger Kashmir conflict , but such a diplomatic stance found few backers on the world stage. As the Indian counter-attacks picked up momentum, Pakistani prime minister Nawaz Sharif flew to meet US President Bill Clinton on 4 July to obtain support from the United States. Clinton rebuked Sharif, however, and asked him to use his contacts to rein in
7560-665: The Kashmir issue, helping it to secure a speedy resolution. Yet another goal may have been to boost the morale of the decade-long rebellion in Jammu and Kashmir by taking a proactive role. Pakistani Lieutenant General Shahid Aziz , and then head of ISI analysis wing, has confirmed there were no mujahideen but only regular Pakistan Army soldiers who took part in the Kargil War. "There were no Mujahideen, only taped wireless messages, which fooled no one. Our soldiers were made to occupy barren ridges, with hand held weapons and ammunition", Lt Gen Aziz wrote in his article in The Nation daily in January 2013. Some writers have speculated that
7686-483: The Knives of Death (Spanish: Cuchillos de la Muerte), the regiment relied almost exclusively on the use of blade weapons, particularly bayonets. Modern special forces emerged during the Second World War . In 1940, the British Commandos were formed following Winston Churchill 's call for "specially trained troops of the hunter class, who can develop a reign of terror down the enemy coast." A staff officer , Lieutenant Colonel Dudley Clarke , had already submitted such
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#17327937137167812-409: The LOC and escalating the conflict into an all-out war. G8 nations supported India and condemned the Pakistani violation of the LOC at the Cologne summit. The European Union also opposed Pakistan's violation of the LOC. China , a long-time ally of Pakistan, insisted on a pullout of forces to the pre-conflict positions along the LOC and settling border issues peacefully. Other organisations like
7938-400: The OSS. On February 16, 1942, the U.S. Marine Corps activated a battalion of Marines with the specific purpose of securing beach heads, and other special operations. The battalion became the first modern special operations force of the U.S. The battalion became known as Marine Raiders due to Admiral Chester Nimitz 's request for "raiders" in the Pacific front of the war. The history of
8064-460: The Rangers helped carry out offensive strikes " frontier combat " against hostile Natives. Thus Ranger companies were formed to provide reconnaissance, intelligence, light infantry, and scouting. Colonel Benjamin Church (c. 1639–1718) was the captain of the first Ranger force in America (1676). Many Colonial officers would take the philosophies of Benjamin Church's ranging and form their own Ranger units. Several Ranger companies were established in
8190-527: The SAS attacked Bouerat. Transported by the Long Range Desert Group (which carried out deep penetration, covert reconnaissance patrols, intelligence missions and attacks behind the enemy lines from 1940), they caused severe damage to the harbour, petrol tanks and storage facilities. This was followed up in March by a raid on Benghazi harbour with limited success but they did damage to 15 aircraft at Al-Berka . The June 1942 Crete airfield raids at Heraklion , Kasteli , Tympaki and Maleme significant damage
8316-407: The US. The initial Indian attacks were aimed at controlling the hills overlooking NH 1, with high priority being given to the stretches of the highway near the town of Kargil. The majority of posts along the LOC were adjacent to the highway, and therefore the recapture of nearly every infiltrated post increased both the territorial gains and the security of the highway. The protection of this route and
8442-450: The United States Army Rangers. These early American light infantry battalions were trained under Robert Rogers' 28 "Rules of Ranging" , which is considered the first known manual of modern asymmetric warfare tactics used in modern special operations. Various military Ranger units such as the United States Mounted Rangers , United States Rangers , Loudoun Rangers , 43rd Virginia Rangers , and Texas Military Rangers continued throughout
8568-424: The ability nor the wherewithal to seize land and defend it. Moreover, while the army had initially denied the involvement of its troops in the intrusion, two soldiers were awarded the Nishan-E-Haider (Pakistan's highest military honour). Another 90 soldiers were also given gallantry awards, most of them posthumously , confirming Pakistan's role in the episode. India also released taped phone conversations between
8694-525: The ability to outperform any of the volunteers. Training and assessment started immediately on arrival, with the volunteers having to complete an 8-mile (13 km) march with all their equipment from the Spean Bridge railway station to the commando depot. Exercises were conducted using live ammunition and explosives to make training as realistic as possible. Physical fitness was a prerequisite, with cross country runs and boxing matches to improve fitness. Speed and endurance marches were conducted up and down
8820-433: The air. Special forces have been used in both wartime and peacetime military operations such as the Laotian Civil War , Bangladesh Liberation War-1971 , Vietnam War , Portuguese Colonial War , South African Border War , Falklands War , The Troubles in Northern Ireland, the Jaffna University Helidrop , the first and second Gulf Wars, Afghanistan, Croatia , Kosovo , Bosnia , the first and second Chechen Wars ,
8946-603: The aircraft were shot down. Some 300 commandos managed to land in the Burauen area on Leyte. The force destroyed some planes and inflicted numerous casualties, before they were annihilated. During World War II, the Finnish Army and Border Guard organized sissi forces into a long-range reconnaissance patrol ( kaukopartio ) units. These were open only to volunteers and operated far behind enemy lines in small teams. They conducted both intelligence-gathering missions and raids on e.g. enemy supply depots or other strategic targets. They were generally highly effective. For example, during
9072-542: The command of the divisional cavalry regiments that were re-designated as cavalry commando regiments. As a part of this structure, a total of 11 commando squadrons were raised. They continued to act independently and were often assigned at brigade level during the later stages of the war, taking part in the fighting in New Guinea, Bougainville and Borneo , where they were employed largely in long-range reconnaissance and flank protection roles. In addition to these units,
9198-664: The conducting of nuclear tests by both countries in 1998, led to an increasingly belligerent atmosphere. In an attempt to defuse the situation, both countries signed the Lahore Declaration in February 1999, promising to provide a peaceful and bilateral solution to the Kashmir conflict . During the winter of 1998–1999, some elements of the Pakistani Armed Forces were covertly training and sending Pakistani troops and paramilitary forces, some allegedly in
9324-636: The destruction of other enemy assets such as radars, evaluation of the outcomes of Indian airstrikes and use laser designators to guide Indian airstrikes. The security of IAF installations and assets is usually performed by the Air Force Police and the Defence Security Corps even though some critical assets are protected by the Garuds. The Special Frontier Force was raised in 1962 to defend India's eastern border and to perform covert cross border operations. The Special Group
9450-671: The early 20th century, with a significant growth in the field during World War II , when "every major army involved in the fighting" created formations devoted to special operations behind enemy lines. Depending on the country, special forces may perform functions including airborne operations , counter-insurgency , counter-terrorism , foreign internal defense , covert ops , direct action , hostage rescue , high-value targets / manhunt , intelligence operations , mobility operations , and unconventional warfare . In Russian-speaking countries, special forces of any country are typically called spetsnaz , an acronym for "special purpose". In
9576-880: The end of World War II, the US Army created the Special Forces Tab . It was later decided that personnel with at least 120 days' wartime service prior to 1955 in certain units, including the Devil's Brigade, the Alamo Scouts and the OSS Operational Groups, would receive the Tab for their services in World War ;II, placing them all in the lineage of today's U.S. and Canadian (via Devil's Brigade) Special Forces. The Axis powers did not adopt
9702-670: The grave. A famous LRRP commander was Lauri Törni , who later joined the U.S. Army to train U.S. personnel in special operations. In June 1971, during the Bangladesh Liberation War , the World Bank sent a mission to observe the situation in East Pakistan . The media cell of Pakistan's government was circulating the news that the situation in East Pakistan was stable and normal. Khaled Mosharraf ,
9828-466: The guise of mujahideen , into territory on the Indian side of the LOC. The infiltration was codenamed "Operation Badr"; its aim was to sever the link between Kashmir and Ladakh, and cause Indian forces to withdraw from the Siachen Glacier , thus forcing India to negotiate a settlement of the broader Kashmir dispute. Pakistan also believed that any tension in the region would internationalise
9954-583: The hazardous situation prevailing in East Pakistan and urged ending the military regime in East Pakistan. The Crack Platoon carried out several successful and important operations. The power supply in Dhaka was devastated which caused severe problems for the Pakistan Army and the military administration in Dhaka. Stemming from Resolution 598 , Operation Prime Chance was the first deployment of U.S. Special Operations Command (USSOCOM) troops, which were
10080-517: The highway which was under Pakistani fire) a priority for India. From their 130+ covertly occupied observation posts , the Pakistani forces had a clear line-of-sight to lay down indirect artillery fire on NH 1, inflicting heavy casualties on the Indians. This was a serious problem for the Indian Army as the highway was the main logistical and supply route. The Pakistani shelling of the arterial road threatened to cut Leh off, though an alternative (and longer) road to Leh existed via Himachal Pradesh ,
10206-736: The history of warfare, whenever the aim was to achieve disruption by "hit and run" and sabotage , rather than more traditional conventional combat. Other significant roles lay in reconnaissance , providing essential intelligence from near or among the enemy and increasingly in combating irregular forces, their infrastructure and activities. Chinese strategist Jiang Ziya , in his Six Secret Teachings , described recruiting talented and motivated men into specialized elite units with functions such as commanding heights and making rapid long-distance advances. Hamilcar Barca in Sicily (249 BC) had specialized troops trained to launch several offensives per day. In
10332-413: The infiltration and fighting is a 160-kilometre (100 mi) long stretch of ridges overlooking this only road linking Srinagar and Leh. The military outposts on the ridges above the highway were generally around 5,000 m (16,000 ft) high, with a few as high as 5,485 m (17,995 ft). Apart from the district capital, Kargil, the populated areas near the front line in the conflict included
10458-421: The infiltrators. But by the second week of May, the ambushing of an Indian patrol team led by Capt Saurabh Kalia , who acted on a tip-off by a local shepherd in the Batalik sector, led to the exposure of the infiltration. Initially, with little knowledge of the nature or extent of the infiltration, the Indian troops in the area assumed that the infiltrators were jihadis and claimed that they would evict them within
10584-478: The international arena, its precarious economic situation, and the mounting international pressure, the Pakistani establishment was compelled to negotiate a face saving withdrawal from the residual areas on the Indian side of the LoC, thereby restoring the sanctity of the LoC, as was established in July 1972 as per the Simla Agreement . Pakistan was heavily criticised by other countries for instigating
10710-495: The invading force back across the LOC. The Battle of Tololing , amongst other assaults, slowly tilted the combat in India's favour. The Pakistani troops at Tololing were aided by Pakistani fighters from Kashmir. Some of the posts put up a stiff resistance, including Tiger Hill (Point 5140) that fell only later in the war. Indian troops found well-entrenched Pakistani soldiers at Tiger Hill, and both sides suffered heavy casualties. After
10836-572: The last week of July in co-ordination with relentless attacks by the IAF, both by day and night, in their totally successful Operation Safed Sagar ; as soon as the Drass subsector had been cleared of Pakistani forces, the fighting ceased on 26 July. The day has since been marked as Kargil Vijay Diwas (Kargil Victory Day) in India. In the wake of its successive military defeats in Kargil, diplomatic isolation in
10962-525: The late 1980s, the Para (SF) were deployed in Sri Lanka where they conducted helicopter-borne assaults and security operations. Since the 1990s, the Para (SF) have been deployed on counter-terrorism operations in the Kashmir region against insurgents. These operations include raids and ambushes. In 1999, Para (SF) undertook operations against Pakistan's military during the Kargil war which included raids against Pakistani infantry and special forces. In 2002,
11088-1011: The late Roman or early Byzantine period, Roman fleets used small, fast, camouflaged ships crewed by selected men for scouting and commando missions. In the Middle Ages , special forces trained to conduct special operations were employed in several occasions. An example of this were the special forces of Gerald the Fearless , a Portuguese warrior and folk hero of the Reconquista . Muslim forces also had naval special operations units, including one that used camouflaged ships to gather intelligence and launch raids and another of soldiers who could pass for Crusaders who would use ruses to board enemy ships and then capture and destroy them. In Japan , ninjas were used for reconnaissance , espionage and as assassins , bodyguards or fortress guards, or otherwise fought alongside conventional soldiers. During
11214-575: The latter half of the 20th century and into the 21st century, special forces have come to higher prominence, as governments have found objectives can sometimes be better achieved by a small team of anonymous specialists than a larger and much more politically controversial conventional deployment. In both Kosovo and Afghanistan , special forces were used to co-ordinate activities between local guerrilla fighters and air power . Typically, guerrilla fighters would engage enemy soldiers and tanks causing them to move, where they could be seen and attacked from
11340-658: The loss of men who required such extensive and expensive training limited their operations to only the most critical ones. Two regiments of Teishin Shudan were formed into the 1st Raiding Group, commanded by Major General Rikichi Tsukada under the control of the Southern Expeditionary Army Group , during the Philippines campaign . Although structured as a division, its capabilities were much lower, as its six regiments had manpower equivalent to
11466-607: The militants and withdraw Pakistani soldiers from Indian territory. Clinton would later reveal in his autobiography that "Sharif's moves were perplexing" since the Indian Prime Minister had travelled to Lahore to promote bilateral talks aimed at resolving the Kashmir problem and "by crossing the Line of Control, Pakistan had wrecked the [bilateral] talks". On the other hand, he applauded Indian restraint for not crossing
11592-570: The mobilisation of Indian land forces on 26 May. The Indian government cleared limited use of Air Power only on 25 May, for fear of undesirable escalation, with the fiat that IAF fighter jets were not to cross the LOC under any circumstance. This was the first time any air war was fought at such high altitudes globally, with targets at altitudes between 1,800 to 5,500 metres (6,000 to 18,000 ft) above sea level . The rarified air at these altitudes affected ballistic trajectories of air to ground weapons, such as rockets, dumb and laser guided bombs. There
11718-400: The nearby mountain ranges and over assault courses that included a zip-line over Loch Arkaig , all while carrying arms and full equipment. Training continued by day and night with river crossings, mountain climbing, weapons training, unarmed combat , map reading, and small boat operations on the syllabus. Reaching a wartime strength of over 30 individual units and four assault brigades ,
11844-555: The need for more specialised units. Scouting units such as the Lovat Scouts , a Scottish Highland regiment made up of exceptional woodsmen outfitted in ghillie suits and well practised in the arts of marksmanship , field craft , and military tactics filled this role. This unit was formed in 1900 by Lord Lovat and early on reported to an American, Major Frederick Russell Burnham , the Chief of Scouts under Lord Roberts . After
11970-574: The newly established special operations Army Ranger Battalion . The United States and Canada formed the 1st Special Service Force as a sabotage ski brigade for operations in Norway. Later known as the "Devil's Brigade" (and called "The Black Devils" by mystified German soldiers), the First Special Service Force was dispatched to the occupied Aleutian Islands, Italy and Southern France. Merrill's Marauders were modeled on
12096-499: The operation's objective may also have been retaliation for India's Operation Meghdoot in 1984 that seized much of Siachen Glacier. According to India's then army chief Ved Prakash Malik , and many scholars, much of the background planning, including construction of logistical supply routes, had been undertaken much earlier. On several occasions during the 1980s and 1990s, the army had given Pakistani leaders ( Zia ul Haq and Benazir Bhutto ) similar proposals for infiltration into
12222-421: The outbreak of armed fighting, Pakistan sought American help in de-escalating the conflict. Bruce Riedel , who was then an aide to President Bill Clinton , reported that US intelligence had imaged Pakistani movements of nuclear weapons to forward deployments for fear of the Kargil hostilities escalating into a wider conflict. However, President Clinton refused to intervene until Pakistan had removed all forces from
12348-423: The outposts manned by the Pakistani soldiers, who were out of visible range. The Indian Army mounted some direct frontal ground assaults which were slow and took a heavy toll given the steep ascent that had to be made on peaks as high as 5,500 metres (18,000 ft). Since any daylight attack would be suicidal, all the advances had to be made under the cover of darkness, escalating the risk of freezing. Accounting for
12474-631: The platoon split and deployed in different areas surrounding Dhaka city. The basic objectives of the Crack Platoon were to demonstrate the strength of Mukti Bahini, terrorising Pakistan Army and their collaborators. Another major objective was proving to the international community that the situation in East Pakistan was not normal. That commando team also aimed at inspiring the people of Dhaka, who were frequently victims of killing and torture. The Crack Platoon successfully fulfilled these objectives. The World Bank mission, in its report, clearly described
12600-403: The posts that were in the line-of-sight . The Bofors FH-77B field howitzer played a vital role, with Indian gunners making maximum use of the terrain. However, its success was limited elsewhere due to the lack of space and depth to deploy it. The Indian Air Force was tasked to act jointly with ground troops on 25 May. The code name assigned to their role was Operation Safed Sagar It
12726-671: The recapture of the forward posts were thus ongoing objectives throughout the war. The Indian Army's first priority was to recapture peaks that were in the immediate vicinity of NH 1. This resulted in Indian troops first targeting the Tiger Hill and Tololing complex in Dras, which dominated the Srinagar-Leh route. This was soon followed by the Batalik-Turtok sub-sector which provided access to Siachen Glacier . The recapture of Point 4590 on Tololing by Indian troops on 14 June
12852-546: The regular Filipino army soldiers. Most of the members of this unit came from the old Spanish Army filipino members which fought during the Philippine Revolution . The sharpshooters became famous for their fierce fighting and proved their worth by being the usual spearheading unit in every major battle in the Philippine–American War . In the Battle of Paye on December 19, 1899, Bonifacio Mariano,
12978-531: The regular Pakistani army at that time) covertly and overtly set up bases on 132 vantage points of the Indian-controlled region. According to some reports, these Pakistani forces were backed by Kashmiri guerrillas and Afghan mercenaries . According to General Ved Malik , the bulk of the infiltration occurred in April. Pakistani intrusions took place in the heights of the lower Mushkoh Valley, along
13104-494: The situation when he received an urgent phone call from Atal Bihari Vajpayee , his counterpart in India. Sharif attributed the plan to Musharraf and "just two or three of his cronies ", a view shared by some Pakistani writers who have stated that only four generals, including Musharraf, knew of the plan. Musharraf, however, asserted that Sharif had been briefed on the Kargil operation 15 days ahead of Vajpayee's journey to Lahore on 20 February. There were three major phases to
13230-581: The special forces of the Indian Army. This unit was created in June 1966 in the aftermath of the 1965 Indo-Pakistani war . An impromptu commando unit called Meghdoot Force, which took part in the 1965 war, formed the first nucleus of the permanent Para commando battalion which was to be raised under the Parachute Regiment. By 1969, the unit had grown into 2 battalions, viz. the 9 Para and the 10 Para. The unit's first combat missions were conducted during
13356-602: The start of World War II “September campaign,” the Polish Government did not sign the capitulation, but moved to Paris and then to London. In an attempt to achieve its aims the government in exile gave orders to the Polish resistance and formed a special military unit in Britain with the soldiers called Cichociemni (“silent and unseen”) paratroopers to be deployed into Poland. The Cichociemni were trained similar to
13482-483: The territories held by Pakistani forces and the subsequent withdrawal of Pakistani forces back across the LOC after international pressure. During February 1999, the Pakistan Army sent forces to occupy some posts on the Indian side of the LOC. Troops from the elite Special Services Group as well as four to seven battalions of the Northern Light Infantry (a paramilitary regiment not part of
13608-535: The true situation of East Pakistan and to stop sanctioning the aid. Khaled, along with A. T. M. Haider , another sector commander, formed the Crack Platoon . Initially, the number of commandos in the platoon was 17, trained in Melaghar Camp . From Melaghar, commandos of Crack Platoon headed for Dhaka on 4 June 1971 and launched a guerrilla operation on 5 June. Later, the number of commandos increased,
13734-734: The tutelage of British instructors. With an establishment of 17 officers and 256 men, the independent companies were trained as "stay behind" forces, a role that they were later employed in against the Japanese in the South West Pacific Area during 1942–43, most notably fighting a guerrilla campaign in Timor , as well as actions in New Guinea . In all, a total of eight independent companies were raised before they were re-organised in mid-1943 into commando squadrons and placed under
13860-630: The use of special forces on the same scale as the British. The German army's Brandenburger Regiment was founded as a special forces unit used by the Abwehr for infiltration and long distance reconnaissance in Fall Weiss of 1939 and the Fall Gelb and Barbarossa campaigns of 1940 and 1941. Later during the war the 502nd SS Jäger Battalion , commanded by Otto Skorzeny , sowed disorder behind
13986-623: The war, Lovat's Scouts went on to formally become the British Army's first sniper unit. Additionally, the Bushveldt Carbineers , formed in 1901, can be seen as an early unconventional warfare unit. The Luna Sharpshooters , also known as the " Marksmen of Death " ( Spanish : Tiradores de la Muerte ), was an elite unit formed on 1899 by General Antonio Luna to serve under the Philippine Revolutionary Army . They became famous for fighting fiercer than
14112-445: The war, as its paramilitary forces and insurgents had crossed the LOC ( Line of Control ). Pakistan's primary diplomatic response, one of plausible deniability linking the incursion to what it officially termed as "Kashmiri freedom fighters ", was in the end not successful. Veteran analysts argued that the battle was fought at heights where only seasoned troops could survive, so poorly equipped "freedom fighters" would neither have
14238-587: The world's highest mountains. The Indo-Pakistani War of 1947-1948 concluded with the Line of Control bisecting the Ladakh district, with the Skardu tehsil going to Pakistan (now part of Gilgit-Baltistan ). After Pakistan's defeat in the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 , the two nations signed the Simla Agreement promising not to engage in armed conflict with respect to that boundary. The town of Kargil
14364-600: Was apparently killed by his captors as his body was returned riddled with bullet wounds. One Indian Mi-8 helicopter was also lost due to Stinger SAMs . French made Mirage 2000H of the IAF were tasked to drop laser-guided bombs to destroy well-entrenched positions of the Pakistani forces and flew its first sortie on 30 May. The effects of the pinpoint non-stop bombing by the Mirage-2000, by day and by night, became evident with almost immediate effect. In many vital points, neither artillery nor air power could dislodge
14490-544: Was caused, and raids at Fuka and Mersa Matruh airfields destroyed 30 aircraft. In the Burma Campaign , the Chindits , whose long-range penetration groups were trained to operate from bases deep behind Japanese lines, contained commandos ( King's Regiment (Liverpool) , 142 Commando Company) and Gurkhas . Their jungle expertise, which would play an important part in many British special forces operations post-war,
14616-614: Was closed in 1949. After the Indo-Pakistani war of 1971 , there had been a long period with relatively few direct armed conflicts involving the military forces of the two neighbours—notwithstanding the efforts of both nations to control the Siachen Glacier by establishing military outposts on the surrounding mountains ridges and the resulting military skirmishes in the 1980s. During the 1990s, however, escalating tensions and conflict due to separatist activities in Kashmir , some of which were supported by Pakistan, as well as
14742-528: Was formed in 1943, with four Type 95 Ha-Go light tanks. The paratroop brigades were organized into the Teishin Shudan as the first division-level raiding unit, at the main Japanese airborne base, Karasehara Airfield, Kyūshū , Japan. However, as with similar airborne units created by the Allies and other Axis powers , the Japanese paratroops suffered from a disproportionately high casualty rate, and
14868-762: Was formed under Cavalry Major Antonios Stefanakis in Palestine, with 200 men. In 1942, the unit was renamed Sacred Band . In close cooperation with the commander of the British SAS Regiment, Lt. Colonel David Stirling , the company moved to the SAS base at Qabrit in Egypt to begin its training in its new role. The special forces unit fought alongside the SAS in the Western Desert and the Aegean . During
14994-525: Was in this type of terrain that aerial attacks were used, initially with limited effectiveness. On 27 May 1999, the IAF lost a MiG-27 strike aircraft piloted by Flt. Lt. Nachiketa , which it attributed to an engine failure , and a MiG-21 fighter piloted by Sqn Ldr Ajay Ahuja which was shot down by the Pakistani army, both over Batalik sector.; initially Pakistan said it shot down both jets after they crossed into its territory. According to reports, Ahuja had bailed out of his stricken plane safely but
15120-711: Was learned at a great cost in lives in the jungles of Burma fighting the Japanese. Immediately after the German occupation of Greece in April–May 1941, the Greek government fled to Egypt and started to form military units in exile. Air Force Lt. Colonel G. Alexandris suggested the creation of an Army unit along the lines of the British SAS. In August 1942 the Company of Chosen Immortals ( Greek : Λόχος Επιλέκτων Αθανάτων )
15246-441: Was left with just six days of fuel to sustain itself if a full-scale war had broken out. The terrain of Kashmir is mountainous and at high altitudes; even the best roads, such as National Highway 1 (India) (NH1) from Srinagar to Leh, are only two lanes. The rough terrain and narrow roads slowed down traffic, and the high altitude, which affected the ability of aircraft to carry loads, made control of NH 1 (the actual stretch of
15372-498: Was no opposition at all by the Pakistani Air Force, leaving the IAF free to carry out its attacks with impunity. The total air dominance of the IAF gave the aircrew enough time to modify aiming indices and firing techniques, increasing its effectiveness during the high altitude war. Poor weather conditions and range limitations intermittently affected bomb loads and the number of airstrips that could be used, except for
15498-481: Was quickly expanded to 12 units which became known as Commandos. Each Commando had a lieutenant colonel as the commanding officer and numbered around 450 men (divided into 75 man troops that were further divided into 15 man sections ). In December 1940 a Middle East Commando depot was formed with the responsibility of training and supplying reinforcements for the Commando units in that theatre. In February 1942
15624-557: Was responsible for the sinking and damage of considerable British tonnage in the Mediterranean . Also there were other Italian special forces like A.D.R.A. ( Arditi Distruttori Regia Aeronautica ). This regiment was used in raids on Allied airbases and railways in North Africa in 1943. In one mission they destroyed 25 B-17 Flying Fortress bombers. The Imperial Japanese Army first deployed army paratroops in combat during
15750-418: Was significant, notwithstanding the fact that it resulted in the Indian Army suffering the most casualties in a single battle during the conflict. Although most of the posts in the vicinity of the highway were cleared by mid-June, some parts of the highway near Drass witnessed sporadic shelling until the end of the war. Once India regained control of the hills overlooking NH 1, the Indian Army turned to driving
15876-582: Was unsuccessful. The United States formed the Office of Strategic Services (OSS) during World War II under the Medal of Honor recipient William J. Donovan . This organization was the predecessor of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and was responsible for both intelligence and special forces missions. The CIA's elite Special Activities Division is the direct descendant of
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