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127-536: Founded in 1989 by Bill Kaliardos, an undergraduate student in Aerospace Engineering and Mechanical Engineering, the University of Michigan Solar Car Team is one of the largest and most successful student projects at the university. The inaugural 1990 team, which formed in 1989, was eventually managed by Susan Fancy, with Professor and Dean Gene Smith serving as the team's Faculty Advisor. Gene Smith

254-449: A Halbach array configuration for the neodymium-iron-boron magnets, and Litz wire for the windings. Cheaper alternatives are asynchronous AC or brushed DC motors. The mechanical systems are designed to keep friction and weight to a minimum while maintaining strength and stiffness. Designers normally use aluminium, titanium and composites to provide a structure that meets strength and stiffness requirements whilst being fairly light. Steel

381-519: A counterweight to the known landmasses in the Northern Hemisphere. The cartographic depictions of the southern continent in the 16th and early 17th centuries, as might be expected for a concept based on such abundant conjecture and minimal data, varied wildly from map to map; in general, the continent shrank as potential locations were reinterpreted. At its largest, the continent included Tierra del Fuego , separated from South America by

508-481: A multicultural country . Sydney is the most multicultural city in Oceania, having more than 250 different languages spoken, with about 40 percent of residents speaking a language other than English at home. Furthermore, 36 percent of the population reported having been born overseas , with top countries being Italy , Lebanon , Vietnam and Iraq , among others. Melbourne is also fairly multicultural, having

635-416: A 2-year cycle. During those two years, the team is typically anywhere from 50 to 100 students. The vast majority of these students volunteer their time freely, although in the past a small percentage opt to receive credit via the university's Undergraduate Research Opportunities Program (or UROP). A race crew of approximately 20 students is selected to race the vehicle in competition. These students' function

762-634: A car or boat. This event is currently held at ScienceWorks ( Melbourne ) in October each year. The first event was held in 1986. The goal of the challenge is to provide students with an experience of what it is like to work in STEM and to understand what can be achieved with renewable technology . Junior Solar Sprint was created in the 1980s by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) to teach younger children about

889-771: A continent in the book, but did note that it was one of the six major divisions of the world. He considered it to encompass the insular Pacific area between Asia and the Americas, and claimed it extended up to the Aleutian Islands , which are among the northernmost islands in the Pacific Ocean. However, definitions of Oceania varied during the 19th century. In the 19th century, many geographers divided up Oceania into mostly racially-based subdivisions; Australasia , Malaysia (encompassing Malay Archipelago ) , Melanesia , Micronesia and Polynesia . Today,

1016-413: A large equation (approximately 100 terms). Using the power equation as the arbiter, vehicle designers can compare various car designs and evaluate the comparative performance over a given route. Combined with CAE and systems modeling, the power equation can be a useful tool in solar car design. The directional orientation of a solar car race route affects the apparent position of the sun in the sky during

1143-492: A long-standing ally of the United States when threatened by Imperial Japan during World War II . Trade with Asia increased and a post-war immigration program received more than 6.5 million migrants from every continent. Supported by immigration of people from more than 200 countries since the end of World War II, the population increased to more than 23 million by 2014. For about 40 million years Australia–New Guinea

1270-404: A race day, which in turn affects the energy input to the vehicle. This is significant to designers, who seek to maximize energy input to a panel of solar cells (often called an "array" of cells) by designing the array to point directly toward the sun for as long as possible during the race day. Thus, a south-north race car designer might increase the car's total energy input by using solar cells on

1397-666: A role that is distinct from his position as monarch of the other Commonwealth realms . The King is represented in Australia by the Governor-General at the federal level and by the Governors at the state level, who by convention act on the advice of the government's ministers. There are two major political groups that usually form government, federally and in the states: the Australian Labor Party and

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1524-582: A single battery charge. This particular record was overseen by the Confederation of Australian Motorsport on behalf of the FIA and is not exclusive to solar-powered cars but to any electric car, and so during the attempt, the solar panels were disconnected from the electrical systems. The previous record of 73 kilometres per hour (45 mph) - which had been set in 1988 - was broken by the team with an average speed of 107 kilometres per hour (66 mph) over

1651-569: A small strait; New Guinea ; and what would come to be called Australia. In 1606, Dutch navigator Willem Janszoon made the first documented European sight and landing on the continent of Australia in Cape York Peninsula . Dutch explorer Abel Janszoon Tasman circumnavigated and landed on parts of the Australian continental coast and discovered Van Diemen's Land (now Tasmania ), New Zealand in 1642, and Fiji islands. He

1778-512: A typical day on the WSC. Some cars have employed free-standing or integrated sails to harness wind energy. Races including the WSC and ASC , consider wind energy to be solar energy, so their race regulations allow this practice. Aerodynamic drag is the main source of losses on a solar race car. The aerodynamic drag of a vehicle is the product of the frontal area and its C d . For most solar cars

1905-615: A unique fauna , flora and mycobiota developed. Marsupials and monotremes also existed on other continents, but only in Australia–New Guinea did they out-compete the placental mammals and come to dominate. New Guinea has 284 species and six orders of mammals: monotremes, three orders of marsupials, rodents and bats ; 195 of the mammal species (69%) are endemic. New Guinea has a rich diversity of coral life and 1,200 species of fish have been found. Also about 600 species of reef-building coral—the latter equal to 75 percent of

2032-413: A variety of solar cell technologies; most often polycrystalline silicon, mono-crystalline silicon, or gallium arsenide. The cells are wired together into strings while strings are often wired together to form a panel. Panels normally have voltages close to the nominal battery voltage. The main aim is to get as much cell area in as small a space as possible. Designers encapsulate the cells to protect them from

2159-454: Is a small canopy in the middle of a curved wing-like array, entirely covered in cells, with 3 wheels. Before, the cockroach style with a smooth nose fairing into the panel was more successful. At lower speeds, with less powerful arrays, other configurations are viable and easier to construct, e.g. covering available surfaces of existing electric vehicles with solar cells or fastening solar canopies above them. The electrical system controls all of

2286-504: Is an English creole language spoken in Papua New Guinea. Papua New Guinea has more languages than any other country, with over 820 indigenous languages, representing 12% of the world's total, but most have fewer than 1,000 speakers. Since 1945, more than 7 million people have settled in Australia. From the late 1970s, there was a significant increase in immigration from Asian and other non-European countries, making Australia

2413-580: Is associated with seasonal abnormality in many areas in the world. Australia is one of the continents most affected and experiences extensive droughts alongside considerable wet periods. Christianity is the predominant religion in the continent, although large proportions of Australians belong to no religion . Other religions in the region include Islam , Buddhism and Hinduism , which are prominent minority religions in Australia. Traditional religions are often animist , found in New Guinea. Islam

2540-417: Is controlled. Here tactical decisions are made based on information from the solar car and environmental information about the weather and terrain. Behind the mission control there might be one or more other vehicles carrying replacement drivers and maintenance support as well as supplies and camping equipment for the entire team. This race features a field of competitors from around the world who race to cross

2667-476: Is especially the case with the World Solar Challenge where sections of the race run through very remote country. The solar car will travel escorted by a small caravan of support cars. In a long distance race each solar car will be preceded by a lead car that can identify problems or obstacles ahead of the race car. Behind the solar car there will be a mission control vehicle from which the race pace

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2794-734: Is held each year on the Saturday closest to the summer solstice in Wenatchee, Washington, USA. The world record for this event is 29.5 seconds set by the South Whidbey High School team on June 23, 2007. Solar vehicle technology can be applied on a small scale, which makes it ideal for educational purposes in the STEM areas. Some events are: The Victorian Model Solar Vehicle Challenge is an engineering competition undertaken by students across Victoria , year 1 to Year 12. Students design and construct their own vehicle, be it

2921-670: Is one of the major electric car companies in India), David Bell, Jef Pavlat, Andy Swiecki, Chris Gregory, and many more. The second generation team built its car, Maize & Blue , and competed in Sunrayce 93 (the predecessor to the North American Solar Challenge ) finishing in first place in the national race, and 11th in the World Solar Challenge . After 1993's races, all projects have run on

3048-707: Is otherwise the same as the UN definition, and it is also used for statistical purposes. In countries such as Argentina , Brazil , China , Chile , Costa Rica , Ecuador , France , Greece , Italy , Mexico , the Netherlands , Peru , Spain , Switzerland or Venezuela , Oceania is treated as a continent in the sense that it is "one of the parts of the world", and Australia is only seen as an island nation. In other countries, including Kazakhstan , Poland and Russia , Australia and Eurasia are thought of as continents, while Asia, Europe and Oceania are regarded as "parts of

3175-470: Is similar to that of a pit crew in professional auto racing . As of 2024, UM's solar car project has won the North American championship ten times. The team has been featured in the following local, national, and international media: Solar car racing Solar car racing refers to competitive races of electric vehicles which are powered by solar energy obtained from solar panels on

3302-422: Is sometimes known by the names Sahul, Australinea, or Meganesia to differentiate it from the country of Australia, and consists of the landmasses which sit on Australia's continental plate. This includes mainland Australia , Tasmania , and the island of New Guinea , which comprises Papua New Guinea and Western New Guinea (Papua and West Papua, provinces of Indonesia ). The name "Sahul" takes its name from

3429-776: Is the double wishbone suspension . The rear suspension is often a trailing-arm suspension as found in motorcycles. Solar cars are required to meet rigorous standards for brakes. Disc brakes are the most commonly used due to their good braking ability and ability to adjust. Mechanical and hydraulic brakes are both widely used. The brake pads or shoes are typically designed to retract to minimize brake drag, on leading cars. Steering systems for solar cars also vary. The major design factors for steering systems are efficiency, reliability and precision alignment to minimize tire wear and power loss. The popularity of solar car racing has led to some tire manufacturers designing tires for solar vehicles. This has increased overall safety and performance. All

3556-740: Is the highest mountain . The Australian continent and Sunda were points of early human migrations after leaving Africa. Recent research points to a planned migration of hundreds of people using bamboo rafts, which eventually landed on Sahul. Indigenous Australians , that is Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islanders people, are the original inhabitants of the Australian continent and nearby islands. They migrated from Africa to Asia around 70,000 years ago and arrived in Australia at least 50,000 years ago, based on archaeological evidence. More recent research points to earlier arrival, possibly 65,000 years ago. They are believed to be among

3683-649: Is the smallest of the seven traditional continents . The continent includes a continental shelf overlain by shallow seas which divide it into several landmasses—the Arafura Sea and Torres Strait between mainland Australia and New Guinea, and Bass Strait between mainland Australia and Tasmania. When sea levels were lower during the Pleistocene ice age , including the Last Glacial Maximum about 18,000 BC, they were connected by dry land into

3810-448: Is too often confused with Australia ." Some 19th century definitions of Oceania grouped Australia, New Zealand and the islands of Melanesia together under the label of Australasia , in other 19th century definitions of Oceania, the term was only used to refer to Australia itself, with New Zealand being categorized with the islands of Polynesia in such definitions. Archaeological terminology for this region has changed repeatedly. Before

3937-471: Is used for some suspension parts on many cars. Solar cars usually have three wheels, but some have four. Three-wheelers usually have two front wheels and one rear wheel: the front wheels steer and the rear wheel follows. Four-wheel vehicles are set up like normal cars or similarly to three-wheeled vehicles with the two rear wheels close together. Solar cars have a wide range of suspensions because of varying bodies and chassis. The most common front suspension

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4064-481: Is widespread in the Indonesian New Guinea . Many Papuans combine their Christian faith with traditional indigenous beliefs and practices . " Aboriginal Australian languages ", including the large Pama–Nyungan family, " Papuan languages " of New Guinea and neighbouring islands, including the large Trans–New Guinea family, and " Tasmanian languages " are generic terms for the native languages of

4191-591: The Americas . The UN's definition of Oceania utilizes four of the five subregions from the 19th century; Australasia , Melanesia , Micronesia , and Polynesia . They include American Samoa , Australia and their external territories , the Cook Islands , Easter Island ( Chile ), the Federated States of Micronesia , French Polynesia , Fiji , Galapagos Islands ( Ecuador ), Guam , Kiribati ,

4318-465: The Australian continent . The 30th Anniversary race of the World Solar Challenge was held in October 2017. Major regulation changes were released in June 2006 for this race to increase safety, to build a new generation of solar car, which with little modification could be the basis for a practical proposition for sustainable transport and intended to slow down cars in the main event, which could easily exceed

4445-462: The Australian magpie , Australian raven , the pied currawong , crested pigeons and the laughing kookaburra . The koala , emu , platypus and kangaroo are national animals of Australia, and the Tasmanian devil is also one of the well-known animals in the country. The goanna is a predatory lizard native to the Australian mainland . As the continent drifted north from Antarctica,

4572-697: The Coalition which is a formal grouping of the Liberal Party and its minor partner, the National Party . Within Australian political culture, the Coalition is considered centre-right and the Labor Party is considered centre-left . Papua New Guinea is a Commonwealth realm . As such, King Charles III is its sovereign and head of state. The constitutional convention, which prepared

4699-580: The Gweagal , who he fired upon, injuring one. His expedition became the first recorded Europeans to have encountered the eastern coastline of Australia. Captain Arthur Phillip led the First Fleet of 11 ships and about 850 convicts into Sydney on 26 January 1788. This was to be the location for the new colony. Phillip described Sydney Cove as being "without exception the finest harbour in

4826-493: The Last Glacial Maximum about 18,000 BC, they were connected by dry land. During the past 18,000 to 10,000 years, rising sea levels overflowed the lowlands and separated the continent into today's low-lying arid to semi-arid mainland and the two mountainous islands of New Guinea and Tasmania. The continental shelf connecting the islands, half of which is less than 50 metres (160 ft) deep, covers some 2.5 million square kilometres (970,000 sq mi), including

4953-648: The Malay Archipelago is typically considered part of Southeast Asia , and the term Oceania is often used to denote the region encompassing the Australian continent, Zealandia , and various islands in the Pacific Ocean that are not included in the seven-continent model. It has been recognized by the United Nations as one of the world's five major continental divisions since its foundation in 1947, along with Africa , Asia , Europe and

5080-1006: The Marshall Islands , Nauru , New Caledonia , New Zealand , Niue , the Northern Mariana Islands , Ogasawara ( Japan ), Palau , Papua New Guinea , Pitcairn Islands , Samoa , the Solomon Islands , Tokelau , Tonga , Tuvalu , Vanuatu , Wallis and Futuna , Western New Guinea , and the United States Minor Outlying Islands ( Baker Island , Howland Island , Jarvis Island , Midway Atoll , Palmyra Atoll , and Wake Island ) as well as Hawaii , one of 50 states of United States. The original UN definition of Oceania from 1947 included these same countries and semi-independent territories, which were mostly still colonies at that point. The island states of Indonesia , Japan ,

5207-633: The Philippines , Singapore and Taiwan , all located within the bounds of the Pacific or associated marginal seas , are excluded from the UN definition. The states of Hong Kong and Malaysia , located in both mainland Asia and marginal seas of the Pacific, are also excluded, as is the nation of Brunei , which shares the island of Borneo with Indonesia and Malaysia. Further excluded are East Timor and Indonesian (or Western) New Guinea , areas which are biogeographically or geologically associated with

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5334-634: The Sahul Shelf and Bass Strait . Geological forces such as tectonic uplift of mountain ranges or clashes between tectonic plates occurred mainly in Australia's early history, when it was still a part of Gondwana . Australia is situated in the middle of the tectonic plate, and therefore currently has no active volcanism. The continent primarily sits on the Indo-Australian Plate. Because of its central location on its tectonic plate, Australia does not have any active volcanic regions,

5461-548: The Sahul Shelf , which is part of the continental shelf of the Australian continent. The term Oceania , originally a "great division" of the world in the 1810s, was replaced in English language countries by the concept of Australia as one of the world's continents in the 1950s. Prior to the 1950s, before the popularization of the theory of plate tectonics , Antarctica , Australia and Greenland were sometimes described as island continents, but none were usually taught as one of

5588-522: The Stamps School of Art & Design . In 1990, the team's first car, Sunrunner, finished in first place in the inaugural GM Sunrayce USA , and third place overall (first place in Student category) in the 1990 World Solar Challenge in Australia. Core team members of the 1990 team included Susan Fancy, Paula Finnegan, David Noles, Chetan Maini (Maini went on to become the founder of Reva which

5715-599: The United Kingdom , Canada , Germany , and France in terms of purchasing power parity . The Australian Securities Exchange in Sydney is the largest stock exchange in Australia and in the South Pacific . In 2012, Australia was the 12th largest national economy by nominal GDP and the 19th-largest measured by PPP-adjusted GDP. Tourism in Australia is an important component of the Australian economy. In

5842-422: The United Nations (UN) on 10 October 1975. Migration brought large numbers of southern and central Europeans to Australia for the first time. A 1958 government leaflet assured readers that unskilled non-British migrants were needed for "labour on rugged projects ...work which is not generally acceptable to Australians or British workers". Australia fought on the side of Britain in the two world wars and became

5969-774: The World Solar Challenge and the American Solar Challenge . They are contested by a variety of university and corporate teams. Corporate teams participate in the races to give their design teams experience of working with both alternative energy sources and advanced materials. University teams participate in order to give their students experience in designing high technology cars and working with environmental and advanced materials technology. These races are often sponsored by government or educational agencies, and businesses such as Toyota keen to promote renewable energy sources. The cars require intensive support teams similar in size to professional motor racing teams. This

6096-566: The aerospace , bicycle , alternative energy and automotive industries. Unlike most race cars, solar cars are designed with severe energy constraints imposed by the race regulations. These rules limit the energy used to only that collected from solar radiation , albeit starting with a fully charged battery pack. Some vehicle classes also allow human power input. As a result, optimizing the design to account for aerodynamic drag, vehicle weight, rolling resistance and electrical efficiency are paramount. A usual design for today's successful vehicles

6223-637: The country of Australia , is located within the Southern and Eastern hemispheres. The continent includes mainland Australia , Tasmania , the island of New Guinea ( Papua New Guinea and Western New Guinea ), the Aru Islands , the Ashmore and Cartier Islands , most of the Coral Sea Islands , and some other nearby islands . Situated in the geographical region of Oceania , Australia

6350-488: The earliest human migrations out of Africa . There is evidence of genetic and linguistic interchange between Australians in the far north and the Austronesian peoples of modern-day New Guinea and the islands, but this may be the result of recent trade and intermarriage . The earliest known human remains were found at Lake Mungo , a dry lake in the southwest of New South Wales. Remains found at Mungo suggest one of

6477-535: The world's most liveable city list, and is a leading financial centre in the Asia-Pacific region. Papua New Guinea is rich in natural resources, which account for two-thirds of their export earnings. Though PNG is filled with resources, the lack of country's development led foreign countries to take over few sites and continued foreign demand for PNG's resources and as a result, the United States constructed an oil company and began to export in 2004 and this

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6604-528: The 1970s, the single Pleistocene landmass was called Australasia , derived from the Latin australis , meaning "southern", although this word is most often used for a wider region that includes lands like New Zealand that are not on the same continental shelf. In the early 1970s, the term Greater Australia was introduced for the Pleistocene continent. Then at a 1975 conference and consequent publication,

6731-484: The 500 kilometres (310 mi) distance. Guinness World Records recognize a land speed record for vehicles powered only by solar panels. This record is currently held by the University of New South Wales with the car Sunswift IV . Its 25-kilogram (55 lb) battery was removed so the vehicle was powered only by its solar panels. The record of 88.8 kilometres per hour (55.2 mph) was set on 7 January 2011 at

6858-411: The 5th century on maps by Macrobius , who uses the term Australis on his maps. Terra Australis , a hypothetical continent first posited in antiquity , appeared on maps between the 15th and 18th centuries. Scientists, such as Gerardus Mercator (1569) and Alexander Dalrymple as late as 1767 argued for its existence, with such arguments as that there should be a large landmass in the south as

6985-428: The Australian continent is the smallest, lowest, flattest, and second-driest continent (after Antarctica ) on Earth . As the country of Australia is mostly on a single landmass, and comprises most of the continent, it is sometimes informally referred to as an island continent, surrounded by oceans. Papua New Guinea, a country within the continent, is one of the most culturally and linguistically diverse countries in

7112-426: The Australian flora are adaptations to aridity and fire which include scleromorphy and serotiny . These adaptations are common in species from the large and well-known families Proteaceae ( Banksias and Grevilleas ), Myrtaceae ( Eucalyptus or gum trees, Melaleucas and Callistemons ), Fabaceae ( Acacia s or wattles), and Casuarinaceae ( Casuarinas or she-oaks), which are typically found in

7239-537: The Australian landmass. This definition of Oceania is used in statistical reports, by the International Olympic Committee , and by many atlases. The CIA World Factbook also categorize Oceania or the Pacific area as one of the world's major continental divisions, but use the term "Australia and Oceania" to refer to the area. Their definition does not include Australia's subantarctic external territory Heard Island and McDonald Islands , but

7366-511: The Australian mainland. The flora of New Guinea is a mixture of many tropical rainforest species with origins in Asia, such as Castanopsis acuminatissima , Lithocarpus spp., elaeocarps , and laurels , together with typically Australasian flora. In the New Guinean highlands, conifers such as Dacrycarpus , Dacrydium , Papuacedrus and Libocedrus are present. For many species,

7493-581: The FIA. Late in September, all entrants will take off from Pretoria and make their way to Cape Town, then drive along the coast to Durban, before climbing the escarpment on their way back to the finish line in Pretoria 11 days later. The event has (in both 2008 and 2010) been endorsed by International Solarcar Federation (ISF), Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA), World Wildlife Fund (WWF) making it

7620-555: The New World (consisting of North America and South America) and the Old World (consisting of Africa, Asia and Europe). In his 1879 book Australasia , British naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace commented that, "Oceania is the word often used by continental geographers to describe the great world of islands we are now entering upon" and that "Australia forms its central and most important feature." He did not explicitly label Oceania

7747-520: The Oceanian sub-region known as Australasia , with New Guinea being in Melanesia . The continent includes a continental shelf overlain by shallow seas which divide it into several landmasses—the Arafura Sea and Torres Strait between mainland Australia and New Guinea, and Bass Strait between mainland Australia and Tasmania. When sea levels were lower during the Pleistocene ice age , including

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7874-513: The Solar Car Challenge typically includes a cross-country race or a track event, depending on the year. The event draws teams from across the United States and occasionally international participants, fostering a spirit of friendly competition and collaboration. Beyond the race itself, the Solar Car Challenge provides extensive educational resources, workshops, and mentorship to help students succeed. This competition not only highlights

8001-499: The South Pacific in the early part of the 16th century. On 23 April 1770, British explorer James Cook made his first recorded direct observation of indigenous Australians at Brush Island near Bawley Point . On 29 April, Cook and crew made their first landfall on the mainland of the continent at a place now known as the Kurnell Peninsula . It is here that James Cook made first contact with an Aboriginal tribe known as

8128-713: The States. With the encouragement of Queensland, in 1884, a British protectorate had been proclaimed over the southern coast of New Guinea and its adjacent islands. British New Guinea was annexed outright in 1888. The possession was placed under the authority of the newly federated Commonwealth of Australia in 1902 and with passage of the Papua Act of 1905, British New Guinea became the Australian Territory of Papua , with formal Australian administration beginning in 1906. The Bombing of Darwin on 19 February 1942

8255-929: The World Solar Challenge) first completed this journey in The Quiet Achiever in under 20 days in 1983. This vehicle is in the collection of the National Museum of Australia in Canberra . The record was beaten by Dick Smith and the Aurora Solar Vehicle Association racing in the Aurora Q1 The current record was set in 2007 by the UNSW Solar Racing Team with their car Sunswift III mk2 Solar cars combine technology used in

8382-467: The combined landmass of Sahul . The name "Sahul" derives from the Sahul Shelf , which is a part of the continental shelf of the Australian continent. During the past 18,000 to 10,000 years, rising sea levels overflowed the lowlands and separated the continent into today's low-lying arid to semi-arid mainland and the two mountainous islands of New Guinea and Tasmania. With a total land area of 8.56 million square kilometres (3,310,000 sq mi),

8509-415: The continent are endemic to Australia. This high level of endemism can be attributed to the continent's long geographic isolation, tectonic stability, and the effects of an unusual pattern of climate change on the soil and flora over geological time. Australia and its territories are home to around 800 species of bird; 45% of these are endemic to Australia. Predominant bird species in Australia include

8636-479: The continent other than those of Austronesian family. Predominant languages include English in Australia, Tok Pisin in Papua New Guinea, and Indonesian (Malay) in Indonesian New Guinea. Immigration to Australia have brought overseas languages such as Italian , Greek , Arabic , Filipino , Mandarin , Vietnamese and Spanish , among others. Contact between Austronesian and Papuan resulted in several instances in mixed languages such as Maisin . Tok Pisin

8763-471: The continent. Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle speculated of a large landmass in the southern hemisphere, saying, "Now since there must be a region bearing the same relation to the southern pole as the place we live in bears to our pole...". His ideas were later expanded by Ptolemy (2nd century AD), who believed that the lands of the Northern Hemisphere should be balanced by land in the south . The theory of balancing land has been documented as early as

8890-428: The draft constitution, and Australia, the outgoing metropolitan power, had thought that Papua New Guinea would not remain a monarchy. The founders, however, considered that imperial honours had a cachet. The monarch is represented by the Governor-General of Papua New Guinea , currently Bob Dadae . Papua New Guinea (along with Solomon Islands ) is unusual among Commonwealth realms in that governors-general are elected by

9017-478: The east coast and Mediterranean climate in the west. The northern parts of the country have a tropical climate . Snow falls frequently on the highlands near the east coast, in the states of Victoria , New South Wales , Tasmania and in the Australian Capital Territory . Temperatures in Australia have ranged from above 50 °C (122 °F) to well below 0 °C (32 °F). Nonetheless, minimum temperatures are moderated. The El Niño-Southern Oscillation

9144-477: The electrical system. The maximum power tracker adjusts the operating point of the solar array to the voltage that produces the most power for the given conditions, e.g. temperature. The battery manager protects the batteries from overcharging. The motor controller controls the desired motor power. Many controllers allow regenerative braking, i.e. power is fed back into the battery during deceleration. Some solar cars have complex data acquisition systems that monitor

9271-399: The end of 2019, the organization struggled with funding and decided to cancel the race. A few months later they declared bankruptcy. Solar drag races are another form of solar racing. Unlike long distance solar races, solar dragsters do not use any batteries or pre-charged energy storage devices . Racers go head-to-head over a straight quarter kilometer distance. Currently, a solar drag race

9398-461: The few regions close to the equator that experience snowfall , which occurs in the most elevated parts of the mainland. Some areas in the island experience an extraordinary amount of precipitation, averaging roughly 4,500 millimetres (180 in) of rainfall annually. The Australian landmass's climate is mostly desert or semi-arid , with the southern coastal corners having a temperate climate, such as oceanic and humid subtropical climate in

9525-415: The financial year 2014/15, tourism represented 3.0% of Australia 's GDP contributing A$ 47.5 billion to the national economy. In 2015, there were 7.4 million visitor arrivals. Mercer Quality of Living Survey ranks Sydney tenth in the world in terms of quality of living , making it one of the most livable cities . It is classified as an Alpha+ World City by GaWC . Melbourne also ranked highly in

9652-629: The first European to explore the Strait. When Europeans first arrived, inhabitants of New Guinea and nearby islands, whose technologies included bone, wood, and stone tools, had a productive agricultural system. In 1660, the Dutch recognised the Sultan of Tidore 's sovereignty over New Guinea . The first known Europeans to sight New Guinea were probably the Portuguese and Spanish navigators sailing in

9779-636: The first Solar Race to receive endorsement from these 3 organizations. The last race took place in 2016. Sasol confirmed their support of the South Africa Solar Challenge, by taking naming rights to the event, so that for the duration of their sponsorship, the event was known as the Sasol Solar Challenge, South Africa. The Carrera Solar Atacama is the first solar-powered car race of its kind in Latin America;

9906-450: The frontal area is 0.75 to 1.3 m . While C d as low as 0.10 have been reported, 0.13 is more typical. This needs a great deal of attention to detail. The vehicle's mass is also a significant factor. A light vehicle generates less rolling resistance and will need smaller lighter brakes and other suspension components. This is the virtuous circle when designing lightweight vehicles. Rolling resistance can be minimized by using

10033-495: The globe. Animal groups such as macropods , monotremes , and cassowaries are endemic to Australia. There were three main reasons for the enormous diversity that developed in animal, fungal and plant life. Although New Guinea is the most northerly part of the continent, and could be expected to be the most tropical in climate, the altitude of the New Guinea highlands is such that a great many animals and plants that were once common across Australia–New Guinea now survive only in

10160-481: The high and rugged mountains of New Guinea and, by reverse (downwards) buckling, the Torres Strait that now separates the two main landmasses. The collision also pushed up the islands of Wallacea , which served as island 'stepping-stones' that allowed plants from Southeast Asia 's rainforests to colonise New Guinea, and some plants from Australia–New Guinea to move into Southeast Asia. The ocean straits between

10287-511: The importance and challenges of using renewable energy . The project also teaches students how the engineering process is applied, and how solar panels , transmission , and aerodynamics can be used in practice. The FIA recognise a land speed record for vehicles powered only by solar panels. The current record was set by the Solar Team Twente , of the University of Twente with their car SolUTra. The record of 37.757 km/h

10414-439: The inaugural Cruiser Class winner with their vehicle Stella . The American Solar Challenge, previously known as the 'North American Solar Challenge' and 'Sunrayce', features mostly collegiate teams racing in timed intervals in the United States and Canada. The annual Formula Sun Grand Prix track race is used as a qualifier for ASC. The American Solar Challenge was sponsored in part by several small sponsors. However, funding

10541-461: The islands were narrow enough to allow plant dispersal, but served as an effective barrier to exchange of land mammals between Australia–New Guinea and Asia. Among the fungi, the remarkable association between Cyttaria gunnii (one of the "golf-ball" fungi) and its associated trees in the genus Nothofagus is evidence of that drift: the only other places where this association is known are New Zealand and southern Argentina and Chile . Due to

10668-477: The largest Greek-speaking population outside of Europe , and the second largest Asian population in Australia after Sydney. Australia is the only First World country on the Australia-New Guinea continent, although the economy of Australia is by far the largest and most dominant economy in the region and one of the largest in the world. Australia's per-capita GDP is higher than that of

10795-650: The last 6 times it has been held. The Solar Car Challenge is an annual event that fosters education and innovation in renewable energy by engaging high school students in the design, engineering, and racing of solar-powered vehicles. Founded in 1989 by Dr. Lehman Marks, the challenge has grown to become a premier educational program, combining science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) principles with hands-on experience. Participants are tasked with building and racing solar cars, allowing them to apply theoretical knowledge to practical problems while promoting sustainable technology and teamwork. Held over several days,

10922-695: The legislature, rather than chosen by the executive branch. Since 1788, the primary influence behind Australian culture has been Anglo-Celtic Western culture , with some Indigenous influences. The divergence and evolution that has occurred in the ensuing centuries has resulted in a distinctive Australian culture. Since the mid-20th century, American popular culture has strongly influenced Australia, particularly through television and cinema. Other cultural influences come from neighbouring Asian countries, and through large-scale immigration from non-English-speaking nations. The Australian Museum in Sydney and

11049-541: The long-established broad-leaf deciduous forest began to give way to the distinctive hard-leaved sclerophyllous plants that characterise the modern Australian landscape. Typical Southern Hemisphere flora include the conifers Podocarpus (eastern Australia and New Guinea), the rainforest emergents Araucaria (eastern Australia and New Guinea), Nothofagus (New Guinea and Tasmania ) and Agathis (northern Queensland and New Guinea), as well as tree ferns and several species of Eucalyptus . Prominent features of

11176-616: The mainland. Then between about 8,000 and 6,500 BC, the lowlands in the north were flooded by the sea, separating the Aru Islands , mainland Australia, New Guinea , and Tasmania. A northern arc consisting of the New Guinea Highlands , the Raja Ampat Islands , and Halmahera was uplifted by the northward migration of Australia and subduction of the Pacific Plate . The Outer Banda Arc was accreted along

11303-487: The name Australinea in 2004. Australia–New Guinea has also been used. The Australian continent, as a whole being part of the Australian Plate , is the lowest, flattest, and oldest landmass on Earth and it has had a relatively stable geological history. New Zealand is not part of the continent of Australia, but of the separate, submerged continent of Zealandia . New Zealand and Australia are both part of

11430-550: The name Sahul was extended from its previous use for just the Sahul Shelf to cover the continent. In 1984, the name Meganesia was suggested, meaning "great island" or "great island-group", for both the Pleistocene continent and the present-day lands, and this name has been widely accepted by biologists. Others have used Meganesia with different meanings: travel writer Paul Theroux included New Zealand in his definition and others have used it for Australia, New Zealand and Hawaii . Another biologist, Richard Dawkins , coined

11557-432: The name of Oceania. There are thus six great divisions of the earth — Europe , Asia , Africa , North America, South America and Oceania." The American author Samuel Griswold Goodrich wrote in his 1854 book History of All Nations that, "geographers have agreed to consider the island world of the Pacific Ocean as a third continent, under the name Oceania." In this book the other two continents were categorized as being

11684-608: The naval air base HMAS  Albatross in Nowra , breaking the record previously held by the General Motors car Sunraycer of 78.3 kilometres per hour (48.7 mph). The record takes place over a flying 500 metres (1,600 ft) stretch, and is the average of two runs in opposite directions. The Perth to Sydney Transcontinental record has held a certain allure in Solar Car Racing. Hans Tholstrup (the founder of

11811-511: The northwestern edge the continent; it includes the islands of Timor , Tanimbar , and Seram . Papua New Guinea has several volcanoes , as it is situated along the Pacific Ring of Fire . Volcanic eruptions are not rare, and the area is prone to earthquakes and tsunamis because of this. Mount Wilhelm in Papua New Guinea is the second highest mountain in the continent, and at 4,884 metres (16,024 ft) above sea level , Puncak Jaya

11938-407: The only continent with this distinction. The lands were joined with Antarctica as part of the southern supercontinent Gondwana until the plate began to drift north about 96 million years ago. For most of the time since then, Australia–New Guinea remained a continuous landmass. When the last glacial period ended in about 10,000 BC, rising sea levels formed Bass Strait , separating Tasmania from

12065-414: The potential of solar energy but also inspires the next generation of engineers, scientists, and environmentally-conscious citizens. The South African Solar Challenge is a biennial, two-week solar-powered car race through the length and breadth of South Africa. The first challenge in 2008 proved that this event can attract the interest of the public, and that it has the necessary international backing from

12192-409: The power entering and leaving the system. The battery pack stores surplus solar energy produced when the vehicle is stationary or travelling slowly or downhill. Solar cars use a range of batteries including lead-acid batteries , nickel-metal hydride batteries ( NiMH ), nickel-cadmium batteries ( NiCd ), lithium ion batteries and lithium polymer batteries . Power electronics may be used to optimize

12319-535: The primary refuge was the relatively cool and well-watered Great Dividing Range . Even today, pockets of remnant vegetation remain in the cool uplands, some species not much changed from the Gondwanan forms of 60 or 90 million years ago. Eventually, the Australia–New Guinea tectonic plate collided with the Eurasian plate to the north. The collision caused the northern part of the continent to buckle upwards, forming

12446-556: The race covers 2,600 km (1,600 mi) from Santiago to Arica in the north of Chile. The race's founder, La Ruta Solar, claims it is the most extreme of the vehicular races due to the high levels of solar radiation, up to 8.5 kWh/m /day, encountered while traversing the Atacama Desert, as well as challenging participating teams to climb 3,500 m (11,500 ft) above sea level. After the 2018 race, La Ruta Solar organized its next edition for 2020, but it never came to be. In

12573-400: The right tires, inflated to the right pressure, correctly aligned, and by minimizing the weight of the vehicle. The design of a solar car is governed by the following work equation: which can be usefully simplified to the performance equation for long-distance races, and values seen in practice. Briefly, the left-hand side represents the energy input into the car (batteries and power from

12700-543: The seventh century, and archipelagic rule of New Guinea by the 13th. At the beginning of the seventh century, the Sumatra -based empire of Srivijaya (7th century–13th century) engaged in trade relations with western New Guinea, initially taking items like sandalwood and birds-of-paradise in tribute to China , but later making slaves out of the natives. The rule of the Java -based empire of Majapahit (1293–1527) extended to

12827-399: The sides of the vehicle where the sun will strike them (or by creating a convex array coaxial with the vehicle's movement). In contrast, an east-west race alignment might reduce the benefit from having cells on the side of the vehicle, and thus might encourage design of a flat array. Because solar cars are often purpose-built, and because arrays do not usually move in relation to the rest of

12954-530: The speed limit (110 km/h) in previous years. In 2013 the organisers of the event introduced the Cruiser Class to the World Solar Challenge, designed to encourage contestants to design a "practical" solar powered vehicle. This race requires that vehicles have four wheels and upright seating for passengers, and is judged on a number of factors including time, payload, passenger miles, and external energy use. The Dutch TU Eindhoven solar racing team were

13081-565: The spread of animals, fungi and plants across the single Pleistocene landmass the separate lands have a related biota . There are over 300 bird species in West Papua , of which at least 20 are unique to the ecoregion, and some live only in very restricted areas. These include the grey-banded munia , Vogelkop bowerbird , and the king bird-of-paradise . Australia has a huge variety of animals; some 83% of mammals , 89% of reptiles , 24% of fish and insects and 93% of amphibians that inhabit

13208-526: The string of cells, allowing current around the non-functioning cell(s). Another consideration is that the battery itself can force current backward through the array unless there are blocking diodes put at the end of each panel. The power produced by the solar array depends on the weather conditions, the position of the sun and the capacity of the array. At noon on a bright day, a good array can produce over 2 kilowatts (2.6 hp). A 6 m array of 20% cells will produce roughly 6 kW·h (22 kJ) of energy during

13335-407: The sun) and the right-hand side is the energy needed to drive the car along the race route (overcoming rolling resistance, aerodynamic drag, going uphill and accelerating). Everything in this equation can be estimated except v . The parameters include: Note 1 For the WSC the average panel power can be approximated as (7/9)×nominal power. Solving the long form of the equation for velocity results in

13462-624: The surface of the car ( solar cars ). The first solar car race was the Tour de Sol in 1985 which led to several similar races in Europe, US and Australia. Such challenges are often entered by universities to develop their students' engineering and technological skills, but many business corporations have entered competitions in the past. A small number of high school teams participate in solar car races designed exclusively for high school students. The two most notable solar car distance (overland) races are

13589-527: The tone for the bitter final stages of the New Guinea campaign , which persisted into 1945. The offensives in Papua and New Guinea of 1943–44 were the single largest series of connected operations ever mounted by the Australian armed forces. Following the 1998 commencement of reforms across Indonesia , Papua and other Indonesian provinces received greater regional autonomy. In 2001, "Special Autonomy" status

13716-423: The top teams now use wheel motors , eliminating belt or chain drives. Testing is essential to demonstrating vehicle reliability prior to a race. It is easy to spend a hundred thousand dollars to gain a two-hour advantage, and equally easy to lose two hours due to reliability issues. The solar array consists of hundreds (or thousands) of photovoltaic solar cells converting sunlight into electricity. Cars can use

13843-558: The tropical highlands where they are severely threatened by population growth . In New Guinea, the climate is mostly monsoonal (December to March), southeast monsoon (May to October), and tropical rainforest with slight seasonal temperature variation. In lower altitudes, the temperature is around 27 °C (81 °F) year round. But the higher altitudes, such as Mendi , are constantly around 21 °C (70 °F) with cool lows nearing 11 °C (52 °F), with abundant rainfall and high humidity. The New Guinea Highlands are one of

13970-415: The vehicle (with notable exceptions), this race-route-driven, flat-panel versus convex design compromise is one of the most significant decisions that a solar car designer must make. Australian continent The continent of Oceania , sometimes known in technical contexts by the names Sahul ( / s ə ˈ h uː l / ), Australia-New Guinea , Australinea , or Meganesia to distinguish it from

14097-470: The weather and breakage. Designing a solar array is more than just stringing a bunch of cells together. A solar array acts like many very small batteries all hooked together in series. The total voltage produced is the sum of all cell voltages. The problem is that if a single cell is in shadow it acts like a diode , blocking the current for the entire string of cells. To design against this, array designers use by-pass diodes in parallel with smaller segments of

14224-517: The western fringes of New Guinea. Recent archaeological research suggests that 50,000 years ago people may have occupied sites in the highlands at New Guinean altitudes of up to 2,000 m (6,600 ft), rather than being restricted to warmer coastal areas. Legends of Terra Australis Incognita—an "unknown land of the South"—date back to Roman times and before, and were commonplace in medieval geography, although not based on any documented knowledge of

14351-499: The whole electrical system, while basic cars show battery voltage and motor current. In order to judge the range available with varying solar production and motive consumption, an ampere-hour meter multiplies battery current and rate, thus providing the remaining vehicle range at each moment in the given conditions. A wide variety of motor types have been used. The most efficient motors exceed 98% efficiency. These are brushless three-"phase" DC, electronically commutated, wheel motors, with

14478-782: The world". In 1883, the Colony of Queensland tried to annex the southern half of eastern New Guinea, but the British government did not approve. The Commonwealth of Australia came into being when the Federal Constitution was proclaimed by the Governor-General , Lord Hopetoun , on 1 January 1901. From that point a system of federalism in Australia came into operation, entailing the establishment of an entirely new national government (the Commonwealth government) and an ongoing division of powers between that government and

14605-522: The world". In the Pacific Ocean Handbook (1945), author Eliot Grinnell Mears wrote that he categorized Australia, New Zealand and Pacific islands under the label of Oceania for "scientific reasons; Australia's fauna is largely continental in character, New Zealand's are clearly insular; and neither Commonwealth realm has close ties with Asia." He further added that, "the term Australasia is not relished by New Zealanders and this name

14732-532: The world's continents in English-speaking countries. Scottish cartographer John Bartholomew wrote in 1873 that, "the New World consists of North America , and the peninsula of South America attached to it. These divisions [are] generally themselves spoken as continents, and to them has been added another, embracing the large island of Australia and numerous others in the [Pacific] Ocean, under

14859-438: The world's known total. New Guinea has 578 species of breeding birds, of which 324 species are endemic. Bird life also flourished—in particular, the songbirds (order Passeriformes , suborder Passeri) are thought to have evolved 50 million years ago in the part of Gondwana that later became Australia , New Zealand, New Guinea , and Antarctica , before radiating into a great number of different forms and then spreading around

14986-419: The world's oldest known cremations , thus indicating early evidence for religious ritual among humans. Dreamtime remains a prominent feature of Australian Aboriginal art , the oldest continuing tradition of art in the world. Papuan habitation is estimated to have begun between 42,000 and 48,000 years ago in New Guinea. Trade between New Guinea and neighboring Indonesian islands was documented as early as

15113-530: The world. It is also one of the most rural, as only 18 percent of its people live in urban centres. West Papua , a region in Indonesia, is home to an estimated 44 uncontacted tribal groups . Australia, the largest landmass in the continent, is highly urbanised , and has the world's 14th-largest economy with the second-highest human development index globally. Australia also has the world's 9th largest immigrant population . The continent of Oceania

15240-451: Was almost completely isolated. During this time, the continent experienced numerous changes in climate, but the overall trend was towards greater aridity. When South America eventually separated from Antarctica, the development of the cold Antarctic Circumpolar Current changed weather patterns across the world. For Australia–New Guinea, it brought a marked intensification of the drying trend. The great inland seas and lakes dried out. Much of

15367-517: Was also Advisor for many other U-M Solar Car Teams to follow. The teams have built eleven solar cars and competed in 15 major races. Although it draws heavily on undergraduate students from the College of Engineering , students from any academic discipline or year of study are allowed to join the team. Students have also come from the College of LS&A , the Ross School of Business , and

15494-508: Was cut near the end of 2005, and the NASC 2007 was cancelled. The North American solar racing community worked to find a solution, bringing in Toyota as a primary sponsor for a 2008 race. Toyota has since dropped the sponsorship. The last North American Solar Challenge was run 2016, from Brecksville, OH to Hot Springs, SD. The race was won by the University of Michigan . Michigan has won the race

15621-533: Was granted to Papua province, although to date, implementation has been partial and often criticised. The region was administered as a single province until 2003, when it was split into the provinces of Papua and West Papua . Elections in 1972 resulted in the formation of a ministry headed by Chief Minister Michael Somare , who pledged to lead the country to self-government and then to independence. Papua New Guinea became self-governing on 1 December 1973 and achieved independence on 16 September 1975. The country joined

15748-492: Was set in 2005. The record takes place over a flying 1000m run, and is the average speed of 2 runs in opposite directions. In July, 2014, a group of Australian students from the UNSW Sunswift solar racing team at the University of New South Wales broke a world record in their solar car, for the fastest electric car weighing less than 500 kilograms (1,100 lb) and capable of travelling 500 kilometres (310 mi) on

15875-516: Was the first known European explorer to reach these islands. In the quest for Terra Australis , Spanish explorations in the 17th century, such as the expedition led by the Portuguese navigator Pedro Fernandes de Queirós , discovered the Pitcairn and Vanuatu archipelagos, and sailed the Torres Strait between Australia and New Guinea , named after navigator Luís Vaz de Torres , who was

16002-666: Was the largest project in PNG's history. Papua New Guinea is classified as a developing economy by the International Monetary Fund . Strong growth in Papua New Guinea's mining and resource sector led to the country becoming the sixth fastest-growing economy in the world in 2011. Australia is a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy with Charles III at its apex as the King of Australia ,

16129-556: Was the largest single attack ever mounted by a foreign power on Australia. In an effort to isolate Australia, the Japanese planned a seaborne invasion of Port Moresby , in the Australian Territory of New Guinea . Between July and November 1942, Australian forces repulsed Japanese attempts on the city by way of the Kokoda Track , in the highlands of New Guinea . The Battle of Buna–Gona , between November 1942 and January 1943, set

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