140-722: The Information Committee was a select committee of the House of Lords appointed to consider its information and communications services, including the House of Lords Library and the Parliamentary Archives subject to the strategic and financial framework set out by the House Committee . It was replaced by the Services Committee . House of Lords The House of Lords is the upper house of
280-518: A contemporary worship form of service, with minimal liturgical or ritual elements, and incorporating contemporary worship music . Just as the Church of England has a large conservative or "traditionalist" wing, it also has many liberal members and clergy. Approximately one third of clergy "doubt or disbelieve in the physical resurrection". Others, such as Giles Fraser , a contributor to The Guardian , have argued for an allegorical interpretation of
420-544: A 20% elected element to the Lords, but this plan was widely criticised. A parliamentary Joint Committee was established in 2001 to resolve the issue, but it reached no conclusion and instead gave Parliament seven options to choose from (fully appointed, 20% elected, 40% elected, 50% elected, 60% elected, 80% elected, and fully elected). In a confusing series of votes in February 2003, all of these options were defeated, although
560-650: A Lord of Parliament was thus diminished. Moreover, the power of the House as a whole decreased, whilst that of the House of Commons grew. Particularly notable in the development of the Lower House's superiority was the Reform Act of 1832 . The electoral system of the House of Commons was far from democratic: property qualifications greatly restricted the size of the electorate, and the boundaries of many constituencies had not been changed for centuries. Entire cities such as Manchester had not even one representative in
700-423: A bishop, at which time they reaffirm the baptismal promises made by their parents or sponsors. The eucharist, consecrated by a thanksgiving prayer including Christ's Words of Institution , is believed to be "a memorial of Christ's once-for-all redemptive acts in which Christ is objectively present and effectually received in faith". The use of hymns and music in the Church of England has changed dramatically over
840-452: A breadth of opinion from liberal to conservative clergy and members. This tolerance has allowed Anglicans who emphasise the catholic tradition and others who emphasise the reformed tradition to coexist. The three schools of thought (or parties) in the Church of England are sometimes called high church (or Anglo-Catholic ), low church (or evangelical Anglican ) and broad church (or liberal ). The high church party places importance on
980-539: A brief restoration of papal authority under Queen Mary I and King Philip . The Act of Supremacy 1558 renewed the breach, and the Elizabethan Settlement (implemented 1559–1563), mostly ended the English reformation, and charted a course enabling the English church to describe itself as both Reformed and Catholic, that is still foundational to the current Anglican Church. In the earlier phase of
1120-481: A cathedral and an additional "1.3 million people visited Westminster Abbey, where 99% of visitors paid / donated for entry". In 2022, the church reported than an estimated 5.7 million people visited a cathedral and 6.8 million visited Westminster Abbey. Nevertheless, the archbishops of Canterbury and York warned in January 2015 that the Church of England would no longer be able to carry on in its current form unless
1260-507: A cause of despair for churches, because people may still encounter God without attending a service in a church; for example hearing the Christian message through social media sites or in a café run as a community project. Additionally, 9.7 million people visit at least one of its churches every year and 1 million students are educated at Church of England schools (which number 4,700). In 2019, an estimated 10 million people visited
1400-470: A commitment, based on the party's historic opposition to class privilege, to abolish the House of Lords, or at least expel the hereditary element. In 1968 the Labour Government of Harold Wilson attempted to reform the House of Lords by introducing a system under which hereditary peers would be allowed to remain in the House and take part in debate, but would be unable to vote. This plan, however,
1540-476: A feminist and will ordain both men and women to the priesthood. She is also considered by some to be a theological liberal. On women's reproductive rights , Mullally describes herself as pro-choice while also being personally pro-life . On marriage, she supports the current stance of the Church of England that marriage is between a man and a woman, but also said that: "It is a time for us to reflect on our tradition and scripture, and together say how we can offer
SECTION 10
#17327872574041680-656: A lot of which has come its way from the Commons in recent years". Church of England The Church of England ( C of E ) is the established Christian church in England and the Crown Dependencies . It is the origin of the Anglican tradition , which combines features of both Reformed and Catholic Christian practices. Its adherents are called Anglicans . English Christianity traces its history to
1820-646: A pair of ordained ministers to share between them until the 19th century. From 1825 to 1839, Bermuda's parishes were attached to the See of Nova Scotia . Bermuda was then grouped into the new Diocese of Newfoundland and Bermuda from 1839. In 1879, the Synod of the Church of England in Bermuda was formed. At the same time, a Diocese of Bermuda became separate from the Diocese of Newfoundland , but both continued to be grouped under
1960-472: A part of a compromise, however, it agreed to permit 92 hereditary peers to remain until the reforms were complete. Thus, all but 92 hereditary peers were expelled under the House of Lords Act 1999 (see below for its provisions), making the House of Lords predominantly an appointed house. Since 1999, however, no further reform has taken place. In 2000, the Wakeham Commission proposed introducing
2100-475: A place, including for some Christian LGBTI couples who see them as a way of gaining legal recognition of their relationship." Civil partnerships for clergy have been allowed since 2005, so long as they remain sexually abstinent, and the church extends pensions to clergy in same-sex civil partnerships. In a missive to clergy, the church communicated that "there was a need for committed same-sex couples to be given recognition and 'compassionate attention' from
2240-570: A political or non-political basis. Hereditary membership was limited in 1999 to 92 excepted hereditary peers : 90 elected through internal by-elections , plus the Earl Marshal and Lord Great Chamberlain as members ex officio . No members directly inherit their seats any longer. The House of Lords also includes up to 26 archbishops and bishops of the Church of England , known as Lords Spiritual . Since 2014, membership may be voluntarily relinquished or terminated upon expulsion . As
2380-628: A province of the Anglican Communion, under the name Hong Kong Sheng Kung Hui . From 1796 to 1818 the Church began operating in Sri Lanka (formerly Ceylon ), following the 1796 start of British colonisation, when the first services were held for the British civil and military personnel. In 1799, the first Colonial Chaplain was appointed, following which CMS and SPG missionaries began their work, in 1818 and 1844 respectively. Subsequently
2520-493: A response that is about it being inclusive love." The Church of England has been discussing same-sex marriages and LGBT clergy. The church holds that marriage is a union of one man with one woman. The church does not allow clergy to perform same-sex marriages, but in February 2023 approved of blessings for same-sex couples following a civil marriage or civil partnership. The church teaches "Same-sex relationships often embody genuine mutuality and fidelity." In January 2023,
2660-460: A seven-month enquiry by Naomi Ellenbogen found that one in five staff of the House had experienced bullying or harassment which they did not report for fear of reprisals. This was preceded by several cases, including Liberal Democrat Anthony Lester, Lord Lester of Herne Hill , of Lords using their position to sexually harass or abuse women. In 2020, the Johnson government considered moving
2800-440: A wholly appointed, a 20% elected, a 40% elected, a 50% elected, and a 60% elected House of Lords were all defeated in turn. Finally, the vote for an 80% elected Lords was won by 305 votes to 267, and the vote for a wholly elected Lords was won by an even greater margin, 337 to 224. Significantly, this last vote represented an overall majority of MPs. Furthermore, examination of the names of MPs voting at each division shows that, of
2940-549: Is also larger than the Supreme People's Assembly of North Korea (687 members)", and that "Peers grumble that there is not enough room to accommodate all of their colleagues in the Chamber, where there are only about 400 seats, and say they are constantly jostling for space – particularly during high-profile sittings", but added, "On the other hand, defenders of the Lords say that it does a vital job scrutinising legislation,
SECTION 20
#17327872574043080-464: Is needed for the proper ordering of the church. In sum these express the 'Via Media' viewpoint that the first five centuries of doctrinal development and church order as approved are acceptable as a yardstick by which to gauge authentic catholicity, as minimum and sufficient; Anglicanism did not emerge as the result of charismatic leaders with particular doctrines. It is light on details compared to Roman Catholic, Reformed and Lutheran teachings. The Bible,
3220-602: Is the only upper house of any bicameral parliament in the world to be larger than its lower house, and is the second-largest legislative chamber in the world , behind the National People's Congress of China. The King's Speech is delivered in the House of Lords chamber during the State Opening of Parliament . In addition to its role as the upper house, the House of Lords, through the Law Lords , acted as
3360-478: The Agnus Dei before communion.) The Order One rite follows the pattern of more modern liturgical scholarship. The liturgies are organised according to the traditional liturgical year and the calendar of saints . The sacraments of baptism and the eucharist are generally thought necessary to salvation. Infant baptism is practised. At a later age, individuals baptised as infants receive confirmation by
3500-671: The Acts of Union that implemented and executed the Treaty in 1707 and created a new Parliament of Great Britain to replace the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland . This new parliament was, in effect, the continuation of the Parliament of England with the addition of 45 Members of Parliament (MPs) and 16 Peers to represent Scotland. The House of Lords developed from the "Great Council" ( Magnum Concilium ) that advised
3640-575: The Bishop of Newfoundland and Bermuda until 1919, when Newfoundland and Bermuda each received its own bishop. The Church of England in Bermuda was renamed in 1978 as the Anglican Church of Bermuda , which is an extra-provincial diocese , with both metropolitan and primatial authority coming directly from the Archbishop of Canterbury. Among its parish churches is St Peter's Church in
3780-486: The Church of Ceylon was established: in 1845 the diocese of Colombo was inaugurated, with the appointment of James Chapman as Bishop of Colombo. It served as an extra-provincial jurisdiction of the archbishop of Canterbury , who served as its metropolitan . Under the guidance of Rowan Williams and with significant pressure from clergy union representatives, the ecclesiastical penalty for convicted felons to be defrocked
3920-752: The Dissolution Honours , the total number of eligible members of the Lords increased to 826. In a report entitled "Does size matter?" the BBC said: "Increasingly, yes. Critics argue the House of Lords is the second largest legislature after the Chinese National People's Congress and dwarfs upper houses in other bicameral democracies such as the United States (100 senators), France (348 senators), Australia (76 senators), Canada (105 appointed senators) and India (250 members). The Lords
4060-757: The English Reformation there were both Roman Catholic martyrs and Protestant martyrs. The later phases saw the Penal Laws punish Roman Catholics and nonconforming Protestants . In the 17th century, the Puritan and Presbyterian factions continued to challenge the leadership of the church, which under the Stuarts veered towards a more Catholic interpretation of the Elizabethan Settlement, especially under Archbishop Laud and
4200-412: The House of Commons (consisting of the shire and borough representatives) and the House of Lords (consisting of the archbishops, bishops, abbots and nobility). The authority of Parliament continued to grow, and during the early 15th century both Houses exercised powers to an extent not seen before. The Lords were far more powerful than the Commons because of the great influence of the great landowners and
4340-586: The House of Commons the " People's Budget ", which proposed a land tax targeting wealthy landowners. The popular measure, however, was defeated in the heavily Conservative House of Lords. Having made the powers of the House of Lords a primary campaign issue, the Liberals were narrowly re-elected in January 1910 . The Liberals had lost most of their support in the Lords, which was routinely rejecting Liberals' bills. Prime Minister H. H. Asquith then proposed that
Information Committee - Misplaced Pages Continue
4480-474: The Leader of the House of Lords . The House of Lords does not control the term of the prime minister or of the government; only the Commons may vote to require the prime minister to resign or call an election. Unlike the House of Commons, which has a defined number of seats, the number of members in the House of Lords is not fixed. As of 22 November 2024 , it has 806 sitting members . The House of Lords
4620-762: The New Model Army . After the Stuart Restoration in 1660, Parliament restored the Church of England to a form not far removed from the Elizabethan version. Until James II of England was ousted by the Glorious Revolution in November 1688, many Nonconformists still sought to negotiate terms that would allow them to re-enter the church. In order to secure his political position, William III of England ended these discussions and
4760-677: The Parliament of the United Kingdom . Like the lower house , the House of Commons , it meets in the Palace of Westminster in London , England. One of the oldest institutions in the world, its origins lie in the early 11th century and the emergence of bicameralism in the 13th century. In contrast to the House of Commons, membership of the Lords is not generally acquired by election . Most members are appointed for life , on either
4900-599: The Secretary of State for Justice and Lord Chancellor , introduced a white paper to the House of Commons proposing to replace the House of Lords with an 80–100% elected chamber, with one third being elected at each general election, to serve a term of approximately 12–15 years. The white paper stated that, as the peerage would be totally separated from membership of the Upper House, the name "House of Lords" would no longer be appropriate. It went on to explain that there
5040-546: The Synod of Whitby in 664. The king decided Northumbria would follow the Roman tradition because Saint Peter and his successors, the bishops of Rome, hold the keys of the kingdom of heaven. By the late Middle Ages , Catholicism was an essential part of English life and culture. The 9,000 parishes covering all of England were overseen by a hierarchy of deaneries , archdeaconries , dioceses led by bishops, and ultimately
5180-655: The UNESCO World Heritage Site of St George's Town , which is the oldest Anglican church outside of the British Isles, and the oldest Protestant church in the New World. The first Anglican missionaries arrived in Nigeria in 1842 and the first Anglican Nigerian was consecrated a bishop in 1864. However, the arrival of a rival group of Anglican missionaries in 1887 led to infighting that slowed
5320-706: The dissolution of the monasteries , which controlled much of the richest land. He disbanded religious houses, appropriated their income, disposed of their assets, and provided pensions for the former residents. The properties were sold to pay for the wars. Historian George W. Bernard argues: The dissolution of the monasteries in the late 1530s was one of the most revolutionary events in English history. There were nearly 900 religious houses in England, around 260 for monks, 300 for regular canons, 142 nunneries and 183 friaries; some 12,000 people in total, 4,000 monks, 3,000 canons, 3,000 friars and 2,000 nuns....one adult man in fifty
5460-425: The enactment of bills for up to one year. In this capacity, as a body independent from the pressures of the political process, the House of Lords is said to act as a "revising chamber" focusing on legislative detail, while occasionally asking the House of Commons to reconsider its plans. While peers may also serve as government ministers , they are typically only selected to serve as junior ministers, except for
5600-467: The nine parishes of Bermuda , subsequently transferred to the Diocese of Newfoundland . As they developed, beginning with the United States of America, or became sovereign or independent states, many of their churches became separate organisationally, but remained linked to the Church of England through the Anglican Communion . In the provinces that made up Canada, the church operated as
5740-454: The ordination of women and homosexuality . The British monarch (currently Charles III ) is the supreme governor and the archbishop of Canterbury (vacant since 12 November 2024, most recently Justin Welby ) is the most senior cleric . The governing structure of the church is based on dioceses , each presided over by a bishop. Within each diocese are local parishes. The General Synod of
Information Committee - Misplaced Pages Continue
5880-549: The real presence of Christ in the Eucharist . During the reign of Mary I (1553–1558), England was briefly reunited with the Catholic Church. Mary died childless, so it was left to the new regime of her half-sister Queen Elizabeth I to resolve the direction of the church. The Elizabethan Religious Settlement returned the Church to where it stood in 1553 before Edward's death. The Act of Supremacy made
6020-520: The virgin birth of Jesus . The Independent reported in 2014 that, according to a YouGov survey of Church of England clergy, "as many as 16 per cent are unclear about God and two per cent think it is no more than a human construct." Moreover, many congregations are seeker-friendly environments. For example, one report from the Church Mission Society suggested that the church open up "a pagan church where Christianity [is] very much in
6160-708: The "Church of England in Canada" until 1955 when it became the Anglican Church of Canada . In Bermuda, the oldest remaining British overseas possession, the first Church of England services were performed by the Reverend Richard Buck, one of the survivors of the 1609 wreck of the Sea Venture which initiated Bermuda's permanent settlement. The nine parishes of the Church of England in Bermuda , each with its own church and glebe land , rarely had more than
6300-538: The 19th century. Roman Catholics, perhaps 5% of the English population (down from 20% in 1600) were grudgingly tolerated, having had little or no official representation after the Pope's excommunication of Queen Elizabeth in 1570, though the Stuarts were sympathetic to them. By the end of 18th century they had dwindled to 1% of the population, mostly amongst upper middle-class gentry, their tenants, and extended families. By
6440-628: The 305 who voted for the 80% elected option, 211 went on to vote for the 100% elected option. Given that this vote took place after the vote on 80% – whose result was already known when the vote on 100% took place – this showed a clear preference for a fully elected Upper House among those who voted for the only other option that passed. But this was nevertheless only an indicative vote, and many political and legislative hurdles remained to be overcome for supporters of an elected House of Lords. Lords, soon after, rejected this proposal and voted for an entirely appointed House of Lords. In July 2008, Jack Straw ,
6580-495: The 80% elected option fell by just three votes in the Commons. Socialist MPs favouring outright abolition voted against all the options. In 2005, a cross-party group of senior MPs ( Kenneth Clarke , Paul Tyler , Tony Wright , George Young , and Robin Cook ) published a report proposing that 70% of members of the House of Lords should be elected – each member for a single long term – by the single transferable vote system. Most of
6720-483: The Anglo-Saxons . This mission was led by Augustine , who became the first archbishop of Canterbury . The Church of England considers 597 the start of its formal history. In Northumbria , Celtic missionaries competed with their Roman counterparts. The Celtic and Roman churches disagreed over the date of Easter , baptismal customs, and the style of tonsure worn by monks. King Oswiu of Northumbria summoned
6860-496: The Archbishop of Canterbury to annul the marriage without reference to Rome. In November 1534, the Act of Supremacy formally abolished papal authority and declared Henry Supreme Head of the Church of England . Henry's religious beliefs remained aligned to traditional Catholicism throughout his reign, albeit with reformist aspects in the tradition of Erasmus and firm commitment to royal supremacy. In order to secure royal supremacy over
7000-508: The BCP. Like its predecessor, the 1980 Alternative Service Book , it differs from the Book of Common Prayer in providing a range of alternative services, mostly in modern language, although it does include some BCP-based forms as well, for example Order Two for Holy Communion. (This is a revision of the BCP service, altering some words and allowing the insertion of some other liturgical texts such as
7140-673: The Bible known as the King James Version , which was published in 1611 and authorised for use in parishes, although it was not an "official" version per se. The Church of England's official book of liturgy as established in English Law is the 1662 version of the Book of Common Prayer (BCP). In the year 2000, the General Synod approved a modern liturgical book , Common Worship , which can be used as an alternative to
SECTION 50
#17327872574047280-593: The Bishops approved "prayers of thanksgiving, dedication and for God's blessing for same-sex couples." The commended prayers of blessing for same-sex couples, known as "Prayers of Love and Faith," may be used during ordinary church services, and in November 2023 General Synod voted to authorise "standalone" blessings for same-sex couples on a trial basis, while permanent authorisation will require additional steps. The church also officially supports celibate civil partnerships; "We believe that Civil Partnerships still have
7420-474: The Catholicism that had created it; and would result in the rejection of predestinarian theology in favor of sacraments, especially the eucharist, ceremonial, and anti-Calvinist doctrine". The existence of cathedrals "without substantial alteration" and "where the "old devotional world cast its longest shadow for the future of the ethos that would become Anglicanism," This is "One of the great mysteries of
7560-487: The Christian hierarchy recorded as existing in the Roman province of Britain by the 3rd century and to the 6th-century Gregorian mission to Kent led by Augustine of Canterbury . It renounced papal authority in 1534, when King Henry VIII failed to secure a papal annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon . The English Reformation accelerated under the regents of his successor, King Edward VI , before
7700-644: The Church Fathers, unless these are considered contrary to scripture. It accepts the decisions of the first four ecumenical councils concerning the Trinity and the Incarnation . The Church of England also preserves catholic order by adhering to episcopal polity , with ordained orders of bishops, priests and deacons. There are differences of opinion within the Church of England over the necessity of episcopacy. Some consider it essential, while others feel it
7840-744: The Church of England is the legislative body for the church and comprises bishops, other clergy and laity . Its measures must be approved by the Parliament of the United Kingdom . There is evidence for Christianity in Roman Britain as early as the 3rd century. After the fall of the Roman Empire , England was conquered by the Anglo-Saxons , who were pagans , and the Celtic church was confined to Cornwall and Wales. In 597, Pope Gregory I sent missionaries to England to Christianise
7980-452: The Church of England admitted that it was embarrassed to be paying staff under the living wage. The Church of England had previously campaigned for all employers to pay this minimum amount. The archbishop of Canterbury acknowledged it was not the only area where the church "fell short of its standards". The COVID-19 pandemic had a sizeable effect on church attendance, with attendance in 2020 and 2021 dropping well below that of 2019. By 2022,
8120-430: The Church of England's continuity with the pre-Reformation Catholic Church, adherence to ancient liturgical usages and the sacerdotal nature of the priesthood. As their name suggests, Anglo-Catholics maintain many traditional catholic practices and liturgical forms. The Catholic tradition, strengthened and reshaped from the 1830s by the Oxford movement, has stressed the importance of the visible Church and its sacraments and
8260-519: The Church of England. The Diocese of Nova Scotia was created on 11 August 1787 by Letters Patent of George III which "erected the Province of Nova Scotia into a bishop's see" and these also named Charles Inglis as first bishop of the see. The diocese was the first Church of England see created outside England and Wales (i.e. the first colonial diocese). At this point, the see covered present-day New Brunswick, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island and Quebec. From 1825 to 1839, it included
8400-464: The Church's growth. In this large African colony, by 1900 there were only 35,000 Anglicans, about 0.2% of the population. However, by the late 20th century the Church of Nigeria was the fastest growing of all Anglican churches, reaching about 18 percent of the local population by 2000. The church established its presence in Hong Kong and Macau in 1843. In 1951, the Diocese of Hong Kong and Macao became an extra-provincial diocese, and in 1998 it became
8540-441: The Church, including special prayers." "There is no prohibition on prayers being said in church or there being a 'service'" after a civil union. After same-sex marriage was legalised, the church sought continued availability of civil unions, saying "The Church of England recognises that same-sex relationships often embody fidelity and mutuality. Civil partnerships enable these Christian virtues to be recognised socially and legally in
SECTION 60
#17327872574048680-405: The Commons was at its highest pitch only six months before, and the Labourite leadership under Janet Royall, Baroness Royall of Blaisdon determined that something sympathetic should be done. Meg Russell stated in an article, "Is the House of Lords already reformed?", three essential features of a legitimate House of Lords: The first was that it must have adequate powers over legislation to make
8820-469: The Creeds, Apostolic Order, and the administration of the Sacraments are sufficient to establish catholicity. The Reformation in England was initially much concerned about doctrine but the Elizabethan Settlement tried to put a stop to doctrinal contentions. The proponents of further changes, nonetheless, tried to get their way by making changes in Church Order (abolition of bishops), governance (Canon Law) and liturgy ('too Catholic'). They did not succeed because
8960-472: The Ecclesiastical Committee of the Parliament before it could be finally implemented at the November 2014 synod. In December 2014, Libby Lane was announced as the first woman to become a bishop in the Church of England. She was consecrated as a bishop in January 2015. In July 2015, Rachel Treweek was the first woman to become a diocesan bishop in the Church of England when she became the Bishop of Gloucester . She and Sarah Mullally , Bishop of Crediton, were
9100-420: The English Reformation, the Church of England has used the English language in the liturgy . As a broad church , the Church of England contains several doctrinal strands: the main traditions are known as Anglo-Catholic , high church , central church , and low church , the latter producing a growing evangelical wing. Tensions between theological conservatives and liberals find expression in debates over
9240-459: The English Reformation," that there was no complete break with the past but a muddle that was per force turned into a virtue. The story of the English Reformation is the tale of retreat from the Protestant advance of 1550 which could not proceed further in the face of the opposition of the institution which was rooted in the medieval past, and the adamant opposition of Queen Elizabeth I. The Church of England has, as one of its distinguishing marks,
9380-414: The Fifth Article of the Union with Ireland 1800 , the Church of England and Church of Ireland were united into "one Protestant Episcopal church, to be called, the United Church of England and Ireland". Although "the continuance and preservation of the said united church ... [was] deemed and taken to be an essential and fundamental part of the union", the Irish Church Act 1869 separated the Irish part of
9520-458: The First World War, some women were appointed as lay readers, known as " bishop's messengers ", who also led missions and ran churches in the absence of men. After the war, no women were appointed as lay readers until 1969. Legislation authorising the ordination of women as deacons was passed in 1986 and they were first ordained in 1987. The ordination of women as priests was approved by the General Synod in 1992 and began in 1994 . In 2010, for
9660-500: The General Synod voted overwhelmingly in support of a plan to allow the ordination of women as bishops, with 378 in favour, 8 against and 25 abstentions. On 14 July 2014, the General Synod approved the ordination of women as bishops. The House of Bishops recorded 37 votes in favour, two against with one abstention. The House of Clergy had 162 in favour, 25 against and four abstentions. The House of Laity voted 152 for, 45 against with five abstentions. This legislation had to be approved by
9800-450: The House of Commons passed a Reform Bill to correct some of these anomalies in 1831, the House of Lords rejected the proposal. The popular cause of reform, however, was not abandoned by the ministry, despite a second rejection of the bill in 1832. Prime Minister Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey advised the King to overwhelm opposition to the bill in the House of Lords by creating about 80 new pro-Reform peers. William IV originally balked at
9940-424: The House of Commons, while the 11 voters of Old Sarum retained their ancient right to elect two MPs despite living elsewhere. A small borough was susceptible to bribery, and was often under the control of a patron, whose nominee was guaranteed to win an election. Some aristocrats were patrons of numerous " pocket boroughs ", and therefore controlled a considerable part of the membership of the House of Commons. When
10080-632: The House of Lords during the middle 17th century. Conflicts between the King and the Parliament (for the most part, the House of Commons) ultimately led to the English Civil War during the 1640s. In 1649, after the defeat and execution of King Charles I , the Commonwealth of England was declared, but the nation was effectively under the overall control of Oliver Cromwell , Lord Protector of England, Scotland and Ireland . The House of Lords
10220-633: The House of Lords from London to a city in Northern England , likely York , or Birmingham , in the Midlands , in an attempt to "reconnect" the area. It was unclear how the King's Speech would be conducted in the event of a move. The idea was received negatively by many peers. With the advent of democratic politics in the United Kingdom, beginning with the Reform Acts from 1832 to 1928,
10360-485: The House of Lords until 1958, when a small number came into the chamber as a result of the Life Peerages Act 1958 . One of these was Irene Curzon, 2nd Baroness Ravensdale , who had inherited her father's peerage in 1925 and was made a life peer to enable her to sit. After a campaign stretching back in some cases to the 1920s, another twelve women who held hereditary peerages in their own right were admitted with
10500-544: The House of Lords, favoured an 80% elected Lords, while the Liberal Democrats called for a fully elected Senate . During 2006, a cross-party committee discussed Lords reform, with the aim of reaching a consensus: its findings were published in early 2007. On 7 March 2007, members of the House of Commons voted ten times on a variety of alternative compositions for the Upper Chamber. Outright abolition,
10640-626: The House of Lords, called on the Prime Minister David Cameron to stop creating new peers. He had created 117 new peers between entering office in May 2010 and leaving in July 2016, a faster rate of elevation than any PM in British history; at the same time his government had tried (in vain) to reduce the House of Commons by 50, from 650 to 600 MPs. In August 2014, despite there being a seating capacity for only around 230 to 400 on
10780-516: The House of Lords. She also criticised successive prime ministers for filling the second chamber with "lobby fodder" in an attempt to help their policies become law. She made her remarks days before a new batch of peers were due to be created and several months after the passage of the House of Lords Reform Act 2014 , enabling life peers to retire or resign their seats in the House, which had previously only been possible for hereditary peers and bishops. In August 2015, when 45 more peers were created in
10920-442: The Lords useless. Third was the perceived legitimacy of the Lords. She stated, "In general legitimacy comes with election." The Conservative–Liberal Democrat coalition agreed, after the 2010 general election, to outline clearly a provision for a wholly or mainly elected second chamber, elected by proportional representation. These proposals sparked a debate on 29 June 2010. As an interim measure, appointment of new peers would reflect
11060-459: The Ordinal containing the rites for the ordination of deacons , priests , and the consecration of bishops. Unlike other traditions, the Church of England has no single theologian that it can look to as a founder. However, Richard Hooker 's appeal to scripture, church tradition , and reason as sources of authority, as well as the work of Thomas Cranmer , which inspired the doctrinal status of
11200-711: The Tudor ideal of encompassing all the people of England in one religious organisation was abandoned. The religious landscape of England assumed its present form, with the Anglican established church occupying the middle ground and Nonconformists continuing their existence outside. One result of the Restoration was the ousting of 2,000 parish ministers who had not been ordained by bishops in the apostolic succession or who had been ordained by ministers in presbyter's orders. Official suspicion and legal restrictions continued well into
11340-485: The aristocratic House of Lords was increasingly perceived as an anachronism . Many attempts to reform it have been made, and some have succeeded, most notably the removal of most hereditary peers in 1999. As of 2024, the policy of the Labour Party is to abolish the House of Lords, and to replace it with an elected second chamber, albeit not in the first term of a Labour government. There were no women sitting in
11480-412: The authority of a bishop who is a woman. On 7 July 2008, the synod voted to approve the ordination of women as bishops and rejected moves for alternative episcopal oversight for those who do not accept the ministry of bishops who are women. Actual ordinations of women to the episcopate required further legislation, which was narrowly rejected in a General Synod vote in November 2012. On 20 November 2013,
11620-505: The belief that the ministry of bishops, priests and deacons is a sign and instrument of the Church of England's Catholic and apostolic identity. The low church party is more Protestant in both ceremony and theology. It has emphasized the significance of the Protestant aspects of the Church of England's identity, stressing the importance of the authority of Scripture, preaching, justification by faith and personal conversion. Historically,
11760-407: The benches in the Lords chamber, the House had 774 active members (plus 54 who were not entitled to attend or vote, having been suspended or granted leave of absence). This made the House of Lords the largest parliamentary chamber in any democracy. In August 2014, former Speaker of the House of Commons Betty Boothroyd requested that "older peers should retire gracefully" to ease the overcrowding in
11900-485: The centre" to reach out to spiritual people. The Church of England is launching a project on "gendered language" in Spring 2023 in efforts to "study the ways in which God is referred to and addressed in liturgy and worship". Women were appointed as deaconesses from 1861, but they could not function fully as deacons and were not considered ordained clergy. Women have historically been able to serve as lay readers . During
12040-605: The centuries. Traditional Choral evensong is a staple of most cathedrals. The style of psalm chanting harks back to the Church of England's pre-reformation roots. During the 18th century, clergy such as Charles Wesley introduced their own styles of worship with poetic hymns. In the latter half of the 20th century, the influence of the Charismatic Movement significantly altered the worship traditions of numerous Church of England parishes, primarily affecting those of evangelical persuasion. These churches now adopt
12180-680: The church again and disestablished it, the Act coming into effect on 1 January 1871. As the English Empire (after the 1707 union of the Kingdom of England with the Kingdom of Scotland to form the Kingdom of Great Britain , the British Empire ) expanded, English (after 1707, British ) colonists and colonial administrators took the established church doctrines and practices together with ordained ministry and formed overseas branches of
12320-574: The church and enact more far-reaching Protestant reforms, and those who wanted to retain traditional beliefs and practices. In a period when many believed "true religion" and "good government" were the same thing, religious disputes often included a political element, one example being the struggle over bishops. In addition to their religious function, bishops acted as state censors, able to ban sermons and writings considered objectionable, while lay people could be tried by church courts for crimes including blasphemy , heresy , fornication and other 'sins of
12460-484: The church's only official confessional statement. Though not a complete system of doctrine, the articles highlight areas of agreement with Lutheran and Reformed positions, while differentiating Anglicanism from Roman Catholicism and Anabaptism . While embracing some themes of the Protestant Reformation, the Church of England also maintains Catholic traditions of the ancient church and teachings of
12600-453: The church, continue to inform Anglican identity. The Church of England's doctrinal character today is largely the result of the Elizabethan Settlement, which sought to establish a comprehensive middle way between Roman Catholicism and Protestantism. The Church of England affirms the protestant reformation principle that scripture contains all things necessary to salvation and is the final arbiter in doctrinal matters. The Thirty-nine Articles are
12740-669: The church, however, Henry allied himself with Protestants, who until that time had been treated as heretics . The main doctrine of the Protestant Reformation was justification by faith alone rather than by good works. The logical outcome of this belief is that the Mass, sacraments, charitable acts, prayers to saints , prayers for the dead, pilgrimage, and the veneration of relics do not mediate divine favour. To believe they can would be superstition at best and idolatry at worst. Between 1536 and 1540, Henry engaged in
12880-489: The dead , which were made possible by the communion of saints . In 1527, Henry VIII was desperate for a male heir and asked Pope Clement VII to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon . When the pope refused, Henry used Parliament to assert royal authority over the English church. In 1533, Parliament passed the Act in Restraint of Appeals , barring legal cases from being appealed outside England. This allowed
13020-400: The delaying power of the House of Lords further to two sessions or one year. In 1958, the predominantly hereditary nature of the House of Lords was changed by the Life Peerages Act 1958 , which authorised the creation of life baronies, with no numerical limits. The number of life peers then gradually increased, though not at a constant rate. The Labour Party had, for most of the 20th century,
13160-408: The downward spiral in membership were somehow to be reversed, as typical Sunday attendance had halved to 800,000 in the previous 40 years: The urgency of the challenge facing us is not in doubt. Attendance at Church of England services has declined at an average of one per cent per annum over recent decades and, in addition, the age profile of our membership has become significantly older than that of
13300-665: The episcopate. The Thirty-nine Articles were replaced by the Westminster Confession . Worship according to the Book of Common Prayer was outlawed and replace by the Directory of Public Worship . Despite this, about one quarter of English clergy refused to conform to this form of state presbyterianism . It was also opposed by religious Independents who rejected the very idea of state-mandated religion, and included Congregationalists like Oliver Cromwell , as well as Baptists , who were especially well represented in
13440-587: The final court of appeal in the United Kingdom judicial system until the establishment of the Supreme Court in 2009. The House of Lords also has a Church of England role, in that Church Measures must be tabled within the House by the Lords Spiritual. Today's Parliament of the United Kingdom largely descends, in practice, from the Parliament of England , through the Treaty of Union of 1706 and
13580-573: The first full year without substantial restrictions related to the pandemic, numbers were still notably down on pre-pandemic participation. According to the 2022 release of "Statistics for Mission" by the church, the median size of each church's "Worshipping Community" (those who attend in person or online at least as regularly as once a month) now stands at 37 people, with average weekly attendance having declined from 34 to 25; while Easter and Christmas services have seen falls from 51 to 38 and 80 to 56 individuals respectively. Examples of wider declines across
13720-472: The first time in the history of the Church of England, more women than men were ordained as priests (290 women and 273 men), but in the next two years, ordinations of men again exceeded those of women. In July 2005, the synod voted to "set in train" the process of allowing the consecration of women as bishops. In February 2006, the synod voted overwhelmingly for the "further exploration" of possible arrangements for parishes that did not want to be directly under
13860-516: The first woman to sit as a Lord Spiritual in the House of Lords due to the Act. As of 2023, six women bishops sit as Lords Spiritual, five of them having been accelerated due to this Act. The size of the House of Lords has varied greatly throughout its history. The English House of Lords—then comprising 168 members—was joined at Westminster by 16 Scottish peers to represent the peerage of Scotland—a total of 184 nobles—in 1707's first Parliament of Great Britain . A further 28 Irish members to represent
14000-503: The first women to be ordained as bishops at Canterbury Cathedral . Treweek later made headlines by calling for gender-inclusive language, saying that "God is not to be seen as male. God is God." In May 2018, the Diocese of London consecrated Dame Sarah Mullally as the first woman to serve as the Bishop of London . Bishop Sarah Mullally occupies the third most senior position in the Church of England. Mullally has described herself as
14140-490: The flesh', as well as matrimonial or inheritance disputes. They also sat in the House of Lords and often blocked legislation opposed by the Crown; their ousting from Parliament by the 1640 Clergy Act was a major step on the road to war. Following Royalist defeat in 1646, the episcopacy was formally abolished. In 1649, the Commonwealth of England outlawed a number of former practices and Presbyterian structures replaced
14280-609: The following suggestions: Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg introduced the House of Lords Reform Bill 2012 on 27 June 2012 which built on proposals published on 17 May 2011. However, this Bill was abandoned by the Government on 6 August 2012, following opposition from within the Conservative Party . A private member's bill to introduce some reforms was introduced by Dan Byles in 2013. The House of Lords Reform Act 2014 received Royal Assent in 2014. Under
14420-460: The government think twice before making a decision. The House of Lords, she argued, had enough power to make it relevant. (In his first year, Tony Blair was defeated 38 times in the Lords—but that was before the major reform with the House of Lords Act 1999.) Second, as to the composition of the Lords, Meg Russell suggested that the composition must be distinct from the Commons, otherwise it would render
14560-466: The importance of social and political action in forwarding God's kingdom. The balance between these strands of churchmanship is not static: in 2013, 40% of Church of England worshippers attended evangelical churches (compared with 26% in 1989), and 83% of very large congregations were evangelical. Such churches were also reported to attract higher numbers of men and young adults than others. In 1604, James I ordered an English language translation of
14700-493: The king during medieval times, dating back to the early 11th century. This royal council came to be composed of ecclesiastics, noblemen, and representatives of the counties of England and Wales (afterwards, representatives of the boroughs as well). The first English Parliament is often considered to be either Simon de Montfort's Parliament (held in 1265) or the " Model Parliament " (held in 1295), which included archbishops, bishops, abbots, earls, barons, and representatives of
14840-406: The major Lords reform ( House of Lords Act 1999 ) reduced it to 669, mostly life peers, by March 2000. The chamber's membership again expanded in the following decades, increasing to above eight hundred active members in 2014 and prompting further reforms in the House of Lords Reform Act that year. In April 2011, a cross-party group of former leading politicians, including many senior members of
14980-409: The majority (70%) in the first half of the period; only 514 being closed between 1990 and 2010. Some active use was being made of about half of the closed churches. By 2019 the rate of closure had steadied at around 20 to 25 per year (0.2%); some being replaced by new places of worship. Additionally, in 2018 the church announced a £27 million growth programme to create 100 new churches. In 2015
15120-473: The monarch the Church's supreme governor . The Act of Uniformity restored a slightly altered 1552 Book of Common Prayer . In 1571, the Thirty-nine Articles received parliamentary approval as a doctrinal statement for the Church. The settlement ensured the Church of England was Protestant, but it was unclear what kind of Protestantism was being adopted. The prayer book's eucharistic theology
15260-480: The monarchy and the Church resisted and the majority of the population were indifferent. Moreover, "despite all the assumptions of the Reformation founders of that Church, it had retained a catholic character." The Elizabethan Settlement had created a cuckoo in a nest..." a Protestant theology and program within a largely pre-Reformation Catholic structure whose continuing life would arouse a theological interest in
15400-410: The monarchy was restored. It returned to its former position as the more powerful chamber of Parliament—a position it would occupy until the 19th century. The 19th century was marked by several changes to the House of Lords. The House, once a body of only about 50 members, had been greatly enlarged by the liberality of George III and his successors in creating peerages. The individual influence of
15540-558: The name of the congregation, the priest offered to God the same sacrifice of Christ on the cross that provided atonement for the sins of humanity. The Mass was also an offering of prayer by which the living could help souls in purgatory . While penance removed the guilt attached to sin, Catholicism taught that a penalty still remained. It was believed that most people would end their lives with these penalties unsatisfied and would have to spend time in purgatory. Time in purgatory could be lessened through indulgences and prayers for
15680-476: The new law: The House of Lords (Expulsion and Suspension) Act 2015 authorised the House to expel or suspend members. This Act made provision to preferentially admit female bishops of the Church of England to the Lords Spiritual over male ones in the 10 years following its commencement (2015 to 2025). This came as a consequence of the Church of England deciding in 2014 to begin to ordain women as bishops . In 2015, Rachel Treweek , Bishop of Gloucester , became
15820-488: The passage of the Peerage Act 1963 . The Labour Party included in its 1997 general election manifesto a commitment to remove the hereditary peerage from the House of Lords. Their subsequent election victory in 1997 under Tony Blair led to the denouement of the traditional House of Lords. The Labour government introduced legislation to expel all hereditary peers from the Upper House as a first step in Lords reform. As
15960-576: The peerage of Ireland were added in 1801 to the first Parliament of the United Kingdom . From about 220 peers in the eighteenth century, the house saw continued expansion. From about 850 peers in 1951/52, the numbers rose further with more life peers after the Life Peerages Act 1958 and the inclusion of all Scottish peers and the first female peers in the Peerage Act 1963 . It reached a record size of 1,330 in October 1999, immediately before
16100-464: The pope who presided over the Catholic Church from Rome. Catholicism taught that the contrite person could cooperate with God towards their salvation by performing good works (see synergism ). God's grace was given through the seven sacraments . In the Mass , a priest consecrated bread and wine to become the body and blood of Christ through transubstantiation . The church taught that, in
16240-441: The population... Renewing and reforming aspects of our institutional life is a necessary but far from sufficient response to the challenges facing the Church of England. ... The age profile of our clergy has also been increasing. Around 40 per cent of parish clergy are due to retire over the next decade or so. Between 1969 and 2010, almost 1,800 church buildings, roughly 11% of the stock, were closed (so-called " redundant churches ");
16380-455: The power of the House of Lords to reject legislation, or to amend it in a way unacceptable to the House of Commons; and most bills could be delayed for no more than three parliamentary sessions or two calendar years. It was not meant to be a permanent solution; more comprehensive reforms were planned. Neither party, however, pursued reforms with much enthusiasm, and the House of Lords remained primarily hereditary. The Parliament Act 1949 reduced
16520-530: The powers of the House of Lords be severely curtailed. After a further general election in December 1910 , and with a reluctant promise by King George V to create sufficient new Liberal peers to overcome the Lords' opposition to the measure if necessary, the Asquith Government secured the passage of a bill to curtail the powers of the House of Lords. The Parliament Act 1911 effectively abolished
16660-539: The prelates of the realm. The power of the nobility declined during the civil wars of the late 15th century, known as the Wars of the Roses . Much of the nobility was killed on the battlefield or executed for participation in the war, and many aristocratic estates were lost to the Crown. Moreover, feudalism was dying, and the feudal armies controlled by the barons became obsolete. Henry VII (1485–1509) clearly established
16800-526: The proposal, which effectively threatened the opposition of the House of Lords, but at length relented. Before the new peers were created, however, the Lords who opposed the bill admitted defeat and abstained from the vote, allowing the passage of the bill. The crisis damaged the political influence of the House of Lords but did not altogether end it. A vital reform was effected by the Lords themselves in 1868, when they changed their standing orders to abolish proxy voting, preventing Lords from voting without taking
16940-434: The proposals, members would also serve single non-renewable terms of 15 years. Former MPs would be allowed to stand for election to the Upper House, but members of the Upper House would not be immediately allowed to become MPs. The details of the proposal were: The proposals were considered by a Joint Committee on House of Lords Reform made up of both MPs and Peers, which issued its final report on 23 April 2012, making
17080-570: The remainder were to be appointed by a Commission to ensure a mix of "skills, knowledge and experience". This proposal was also not implemented. A cross-party campaign initiative called " Elect the Lords " was set up to make the case for a predominantly elected Upper Chamber in the run up to the 2005 general election . At the 2005 election, the Labour Party proposed further reform of the Lords, but without specific details. The Conservative Party, which had, prior to 1997, opposed any tampering with
17220-721: The rise of the concept of Anglicanism as a via media between Roman Catholicism and radical Protestantism. After the victory of the Parliamentarians , the Book of Common Prayer was abolished and the Presbyterian and Independent factions dominated. The episcopacy was abolished in 1646 but the Restoration restored the Church of England, episcopacy and the Book of Common Prayer . Papal recognition of George III in 1766 led to greater religious tolerance . Since
17360-401: The shares of the vote secured by the political parties in the last general election. Detailed proposals for Lords reform, including a draft House of Lords Reform Bill, were published on 17 May 2011. These included a 300-member hybrid house, of whom 80% would be elected. A further 20% would be appointed, and reserve space would be included for some Church of England archbishops and bishops. Under
17500-473: The shires and boroughs. The power of Parliament grew slowly, fluctuating as the strength of the monarchy grew or declined. For example, during much of the reign of Edward II (1307–1327), the nobility was supreme, the Crown weak, and the shire and borough representatives entirely powerless. During the reign of King Edward II's successor, Edward III , Parliament clearly separated into two distinct chambers :
17640-529: The supremacy of the monarch, symbolised by the "Crown Imperial". The domination of the Sovereign continued to grow during the reigns of the Tudor monarchs in the 16th century. The Crown was at the height of its power during the reign of Henry VIII (1509–1547). The House of Lords remained more powerful than the House of Commons, but the Lower House continued to grow in influence, reaching a zenith in relation to
17780-425: The term 'broad church' has been used to describe those of middle-of-the-road ceremonial preferences who lean theologically towards liberal protestantism. The liberal broad church tradition has emphasized the importance of the use of reason in theological exploration. It has stressed the need to develop Christian belief and practice in order to respond creatively to wider advances in human knowledge and understanding and
17920-626: The trouble to attend. Over the course of the century the powers of the upper house were further reduced stepwise, culminating in the 20th century with the Parliament Act 1911 ; the Commons gradually became the stronger House of Parliament. The status of the House of Lords returned to the forefront of debate after the election of a Liberal Government in 1906. In 1909 the Chancellor of the Exchequer , David Lloyd George , introduced into
18060-412: The upper house of Parliament, the House of Lords has many similar functions to the House of Commons. It scrutinises legislation , holds the government to account, and considers and reports upon public policy . Peers may also seek to introduce legislation or propose amendments to bills . While it is unable to prevent bills passing into law , except in certain limited circumstances, it may delay
18200-618: The whole church include: The canon law of the Church of England identifies the Christian scriptures as the source of its doctrine. In addition, doctrine is also derived from the teachings of the Church Fathers and ecumenical councils (as well as the ecumenical creeds ) in so far as these agree with scripture. This doctrine is expressed in the Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion , the Book of Common Prayer , and
18340-566: Was considered an expert on the House of Lords. In December 1979 the Conservative Monday Club published his extensive paper entitled Lords Reform – Why tamper with the House of Lords? and in July 1980 The Monarchist carried another article by Sudeley entitled "Why Reform or Abolish the House of Lords?". In 1990 he wrote a further booklet for the Monday Club entitled "The Preservation of the House of Lords". In 2019,
18480-442: Was cross-party consensus for the Chamber to be re-titled the "Senate of the United Kingdom"; however, to ensure the debate remained on the role of the Upper House rather than its title, the white paper was neutral on the title issue. On 30 November 2009, a Code of Conduct for Members of the House of Lords was agreed by them. Certain amendments were agreed by them on 30 March 2010 and on 12 June 2014. The scandal over expenses in
18620-415: Was defeated in the House of Commons by a coalition of traditionalist Conservatives (such as Enoch Powell ), and Labour members who continued to advocate the outright abolition of the Upper House (such as Michael Foot ). When Foot became leader of the Labour Party in 1980, abolition of the House of Lords became a part of the party's agenda; under his successor, Neil Kinnock , however, a reformed Upper House
18760-532: Was in religious orders. In the reign of Edward VI (1547–1553), the Church of England underwent an extensive theological reformation. Justification by faith was made a central teaching. Government-sanctioned iconoclasm led to the destruction of images and relics. Stained glass, shrines, statues, and roods were defaced or destroyed. Church walls were whitewashed and covered with biblical texts condemning idolatry. The most significant reform in Edward's reign
18900-555: Was proposed instead. In the meantime, the creation of new hereditary peerages (except for members of the Royal Family) has been arrested, with the exception of three that were created during the administration of Conservative PM Margaret Thatcher in the 1980s. Whilst some hereditary peers were at best apathetic, the Labour Party's clear commitments were not lost on Merlin Hanbury-Tracy, 7th Baron Sudeley , who for decades
19040-506: Was reduced to a largely powerless body, with Cromwell and his supporters in the Commons dominating the Government. On 19 March 1649, the House of Lords was abolished by an Act of Parliament, which declared that "The Commons of England [find] by too long experience that the House of Lords is useless and dangerous to the people of England." The House of Lords did not assemble again until the Convention Parliament met in 1660 and
19180-505: Was set aside from the Clergy Discipline Measure 2003 . The clergy union argued that the penalty was unfair to victims of hypothetical miscarriages of criminal justice, because the ecclesiastical penalty is considered irreversible. Although clerics can still be banned for life from ministry, they remain ordained as priests. Bishop Sarah Mullally has insisted that declining numbers at services should not necessarily be
19320-584: Was the established church (constitutionally established by the state with the head of state as its supreme governor). The exact nature of the relationship between church and state would be a source of continued friction into the next century. Struggle for control of the church persisted throughout the reigns of James I and his son Charles I , culminating in the outbreak of the First English Civil War in 1642. The two opposing factions consisted of Puritans , who sought to "purify"
19460-468: Was the adoption of an English liturgy to replace the old Latin rites. Written by Archbishop Thomas Cranmer , the 1549 Book of Common Prayer implicitly taught justification by faith, and rejected the Catholic doctrines of transubstantiation and the sacrifice of the Mass. This was followed by a greatly revised 1552 Book of Common Prayer that was even more Protestant in tone, going so far as to deny
19600-496: Was vague. The words of administration neither affirmed nor denied the real presence. Perhaps, a spiritual presence was implied, since Article 28 of the Thirty-nine Articles taught that the body of Christ was eaten "only after an heavenly and spiritual manner". Nevertheless, there was enough ambiguity to allow later theologians to articulate various versions of Anglican eucharistic theology . The Church of England
#403596