Canon law (from Ancient Greek : κανών , kanon , a 'straight measuring rod, ruler ') is a set of ordinances and regulations made by ecclesiastical authority (church leadership) for the government of a Christian organization or church and its members.
116-567: The Irish College in Paris ( Irish : Coláiste na nGael , French: Collège des Irlandais , Latin : Collegium Clericorum Hibernoram ) was for three centuries a major Roman Catholic educational establishment for Irish students. It was founded in the late 16th century, and closed down by the French government in the early 20th century. From 1945 to 1997, the Polish seminary in Paris was housed in
232-530: A canon was originally a rule adopted by a church council ; these canons formed the foundation of canon law. Greek kanon / Ancient Greek : κανών , Arabic qaanoon / قانون , Hebrew kaneh / קָנֶה , 'straight'; a rule, code, standard, or measure; the root meaning in all these languages is 'reed'; see also the Romance-language ancestors of the English word cane . In
348-677: A cité des Irlandais as well as some graves of Irish priests and students in Cachan Cemetery. In the nineteenth century, the college gave to the Catholic Church a wide array of good priests and bishops, including Fitz Patrick, Abbot of Melleray ; Maginn, Coadjutor Bishop of Derry; Keane, of Cloyne; Michael O'Hea and Fitz Gerald of Ross; Gillooly of Elphin, and Croke of Cashel. Kelly, the Bishop of Ross, and McSherry, vicar Apostolic at Port Elizabeth, South Africa, were also alumni of
464-547: A unique dialect of Irish developed before falling out of use in the early 20th century. With a writing system , Ogham , dating back to at least the 4th century AD, which was gradually replaced by Latin script since the 5th century AD, Irish has one of the oldest vernacular literatures in Western Europe . On the island, the language has three major dialects: Connacht , Munster and Ulster Irish . All three have distinctions in their speech and orthography . There
580-717: A bargaining chip during government formation in Northern Ireland, prompting protests from organisations and groups such as An Dream Dearg . Irish became an official language of the EU on 1 January 2007, meaning that MEPs with Irish fluency can now speak the language in the European Parliament and at committees, although in the case of the latter they have to give prior notice to a simultaneous interpreter in order to ensure that what they say can be interpreted into other languages. While an official language of
696-575: A better future for Ireland and all her citizens." The Strategy was produced on 21 December 2010 and will stay in action until 2030; it aims to target language vitality and revitalization of the Irish language. The 30-page document published by the Government of Ireland details the objectives it plans to work towards in an attempt to preserve and promote both the Irish language and the Gaeltacht. It
812-478: A cultural and social force. Irish speakers often insisted on using the language in law courts (even when they knew English), and Irish was also common in commercial transactions. The language was heavily implicated in the "devotional revolution" which marked the standardisation of Catholic religious practice and was also widely used in a political context. Down to the time of the Great Famine and even afterwards,
928-553: A degree course in the NUI federal system to pass the subject of Irish in the Leaving Certificate or GCE / GCSE examinations. Exemptions are made from this requirement for students who were born or completed primary education outside of Ireland, and students diagnosed with dyslexia . NUI Galway is required to appoint people who are competent in the Irish language, as long as they are also competent in all other aspects of
1044-460: A fully recognised EU language for the first time in the state's history. Before Irish became an official language it was afforded the status of treaty language and only the highest-level documents of the EU were made available in Irish. The Irish language was carried abroad in the modern period by a vast diaspora , chiefly to Great Britain and North America, but also to Australia , New Zealand and Argentina . The first large movements began in
1160-537: A motion was made in the House of Lords for copies of the awards in the case of the Irish college in 1825 and 1832. This step was followed up by a motion in the House of Commons for the appointment of a select committee to inquire into the claims of the college to compensation for losses sustained during the French Revolution. The motion was introduced on 30 April 1875, by Isaac Butt , MP for Limerick, and, after
1276-530: A paper suggested that within a generation, non-Gaeltacht habitual users of Irish might typically be members of an urban, middle class, and highly educated minority. Parliamentary legislation is supposed to be available in both Irish and English but is frequently only available in English. This is notwithstanding that Article 25.4 of the Constitution of Ireland requires that an "official translation" of any law in one official language be provided immediately in
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#17327834894011392-575: A pass in Leaving Certificate Irish or English, and receive lessons in Irish during their two years of training. Official documents of the Irish government must be published in both Irish and English or Irish alone (in accordance with the Official Languages Act 2003, enforced by An Coimisinéir Teanga , the Irish language ombudsman). The National University of Ireland requires all students wishing to embark on
1508-405: A prolonged discussion, it was defeated by 116 to 54 votes. After 1805, the administration of the college was subject to a "Bureau de Surveillance" which gave much trouble until it was dissolved by Charles X of France , in 1824. After that date, the superior, appointed on presentation of the four archbishops of Ireland, became the official administrator of the foundations, subject to the minister of
1624-625: A religious context. An Irish translation of the Old Testament by Leinsterman Muircheartach Ó Cíonga , commissioned by Bishop Bedell , was published after 1685 along with a translation of the New Testament. Otherwise, Anglicisation was seen as synonymous with 'civilising' the native Irish. Currently, modern day Irish speakers in the church are pushing for language revival. It has been estimated that there were around 800,000 monoglot Irish speakers in 1800, which dropped to 320,000 by
1740-547: A result of linguistic imperialism . Today, Irish is still commonly spoken as a first language in Ireland's Gaeltacht regions, in which 2% of Ireland's population lived in 2022. The total number of people (aged 3 and over) in Ireland who declared they could speak Irish in April 2022 was 1,873,997, representing 40% of respondents, but of these, 472,887 said they never spoke it and a further 551,993 said they only spoke it within
1856-406: A second college. The building was commenced in 1769 in rue du Cheval Vert, now rue des Irlandais, and the junior section of the students was transferred to the new college in 1776. The students were divided into two categories, one, the more numerous, consisting of priests already ordained in Ireland, and the other of juniors aspiring to orders. Both sections attended the university classes, either at
1972-545: A wider meaning, including the Gaelic of Scotland and the Isle of Man , as well as of Ireland. When required by the context, these are distinguished as Gaeilge na hAlban , Gaeilge Mhanann and Gaeilge na hÉireann respectively. In English (including Hiberno-English ), the language is usually referred to as Irish , as well as Gaelic and Irish Gaelic . The term Irish Gaelic may be seen when English speakers discuss
2088-603: Is a Celtic language of the Indo-European language family . It is a member of the Goidelic language group of the Insular Celtic sub branch of the family and is indigenous to the island of Ireland . It was the majority of the population's first language until the 19th century, when English gradually became dominant, particularly in the last decades of the century, in what is sometimes characterised as
2204-452: Is also An Caighdeán Oifigiúil , a standardised written form devised by a parliamentary commission in the 1950s. The traditional Irish alphabet , a variant of the Latin alphabet with 18 letters , has been succeeded by the standard Latin alphabet (albeit with 7–8 letters used primarily in loanwords ). Irish has constitutional status as the national and first official language of
2320-538: Is contained in the genesis of various institutes of civil law, such as the law in continental Europe and Latin American countries. Indirectly, canon law has significant influence in contemporary society. Catholic Canonical jurisprudential theory generally follows the principles of Aristotelian - Thomistic legal philosophy . While the term "law" is never explicitly defined in the Catholic Code of Canon Law,
2436-511: Is divided into four separate phases with the intention of improving 9 main areas of action including: The general goal for this strategy was to increase the number of daily speakers from 83,000 to 250,000 by the end of its run. By 2022, the number of such speakers had fallen to 71,968. Before the partition of Ireland in 1921, Irish was recognised as a school subject and as "Celtic" in some third level institutions. Between 1921 and 1972, Northern Ireland had devolved government. During those years
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#17327834894012552-587: Is only in Gaeltacht areas that Irish continues to be spoken as a community vernacular to some extent. According to data compiled by the Department of Tourism, Culture, Arts, Gaeltacht , Sport and Media , only 1/4 of households in Gaeltacht areas are fluent in Irish. The author of a detailed analysis of the survey, Donncha Ó hÉallaithe of the Galway-Mayo Institute of Technology , described
2668-412: Is still spoken daily to some extent as a first language . These regions are known individually and collectively as the Gaeltacht (plural Gaeltachtaí ). While the fluent Irish speakers of these areas, whose numbers have been estimated at 20–30,000, are a minority of the total number of fluent Irish speakers, they represent a higher concentration of Irish speakers than other parts of the country and it
2784-666: The Fíor-Ghaeltacht (true Gaeltacht ), a term originally officially applied to areas where over 50% of the population spoke Irish. There are Gaeltacht regions in the following counties: Gweedore ( Gaoth Dobhair ), County Donegal, is the largest Gaeltacht parish in Ireland. Irish language summer colleges in the Gaeltacht are attended by tens of thousands of teenagers annually. Students live with Gaeltacht families, attend classes, participate in sports, go to céilithe and are obliged to speak Irish. All aspects of Irish culture and tradition are encouraged. The Act
2900-595: The Catechism of the Catholic Church cites Aquinas in defining law as "an ordinance of reason for the common good, promulgated by the one who is in charge of the community" and reformulates it as "a rule of conduct enacted by competent authority for the sake of the common good". The law of the Eastern Catholic Churches in full communion with the Roman papacy was in much the same state as that of
3016-525: The Archbishop of Paris , who, as superior major, nominated one of them to the office of the principal. In 1788, the system of government by provisors was abolished, and one rector was appointed. In 1792 following the French Revolution, the two Irish colleges in Paris, namely the Collège des Lombards, and the then junior college, the Collège des Irlandais on the rue du Cheval Vert, were closed, as were all
3132-509: The Church of England , the ecclesiastical courts that formerly decided many matters such as disputes relating to marriage, divorce, wills, and defamation, still have jurisdiction of certain church-related matters (e.g. discipline of clergy, alteration of church property, and issues related to churchyards). Their separate status dates back to the 12th century when the Normans split them off from
3248-554: The Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches promulgated in 1990 by Pope John Paul II . Roman Catholic canon law is a fully developed legal system, with all the necessary elements: courts, lawyers, judges, a fully articulated legal code, principles of legal interpretation, and coercive penalties, though it lacks civilly-binding force in most secular jurisdictions. One example where conflict between secular and canon law occurred
3364-655: The Collège de Navarre . This situation attracted the attention of Vincent de Paul and others, who sought to provide them with a more suitable residence. In 1672, the bishops of Ireland, deputed John O'Molony , Roman Catholic Bishop of Killaloe, to treat with Colbert as to the establishment of a new college. This was eventually obtained, through the influence of two Irish priests resident in Paris: Patrick Maginn, formerly first chaplain to Queen Catherine, wife of Charles II of England ; and Malachy Kelly, one of
3480-669: The Collège de Plessis , or at that of Navarre, or at the Sorbonne . The course of study extended over six years, of which two were given to philosophy, three to theology, and one to special preparation for pastoral work. The more talented students remained two years longer to qualify for degrees in theology, or in canon law . In virtue of the papal bull of Pope Urban VIII , Piis Christi fidelium , dated 10 July 1626, and granted in favour of all Irish colleges already established or to be established in France, Spain, Flanders, or elsewhere,
3596-977: The Eastern , fifty in the Western Church) concerning the government and discipline of the Early Christian Church, incorporated with the Apostolic Constitutions which are part of the Ante-Nicene Fathers . Jus novum ( c. 1140 -1563) Jus novissimum ( c. 1563 -1918) Jus codicis (1918-present) Other Sacraments Sacramentals Sacred places Sacred times Supra-diocesan/eparchal structures Particular churches Juridic persons Philosophy, theology, and fundamental theory of Catholic canon law Clerics Office Juridic and physical persons Associations of
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3712-631: The Republic of Ireland , and is also an official language of Northern Ireland and among the official languages of the European Union . The public body Foras na Gaeilge is responsible for the promotion of the language throughout the island. Irish has no regulatory body but An Caighdeán Oifigiúil , the standard written form, is guided by a parliamentary service and new vocabulary by a voluntary committee with university input. In An Caighdeán Oifigiúil ("The Official [Written] Standard ")
3828-484: The adversarial form of proceeding found in the common law system of English and U.S. law, which features such things as juries and single judges. The institutions and practices of Catholic canon law paralleled the legal development of much of Europe, and consequently, both modern civil law and common law bear the influences of canon law. As Edson Luiz Sampel, a Brazilian expert in Catholic canon law, says, canon law
3944-578: The "Florilegium Insulæ Sanctorum" (Paris, 1624); Andrew Donlevy , author of an "Anglo-Irish Catechism" (Paris, 1742); Miley, author of "A History of the Papal States" (Dublin, 1852); Thomas McNamara, author of "Programmes of Sermons" (Dublin, 1880), "Encheiridion Clericorum" (1882), and several other similar works. James MacGeoghegan , Sylvester O'Hallaran , Martin Haverty , and probably Geoffrey Keating , all eminent Irish historians, were students of
4060-634: The 17th century, largely as a result of the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland , which saw many Irish sent to the West Indies . Irish emigration to the United States was well established by the 18th century, and was reinforced in the 1840s by thousands fleeing from the Famine . This flight also affected Britain. Up until that time most emigrants spoke Irish as their first language, though English
4176-789: The 1998 Good Friday Agreement , the language gradually received a degree of formal recognition in Northern Ireland from the United Kingdom, and then, in 2003, by the British government's ratification in respect of the language of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages . In the 2006 St Andrews Agreement the British government promised to enact legislation to promote the language and in 2022 it approved legislation to recognise Irish as an official language alongside English. The bill received royal assent on 6 December 2022. The Irish language has often been used as
4292-403: The 6th century, used the Latin alphabet and is attested primarily in marginalia to Latin manuscripts. During this time, the Irish language absorbed some Latin words, some via Old Welsh , including ecclesiastical terms : examples are easpag (bishop) from episcopus , and Domhnach (Sunday, from dominica ). By the 10th century, Old Irish had evolved into Middle Irish , which
4408-571: The Act all detailing different aspects of the use of Irish in official documentation and communication. Included in these sections are subjects such as Irish language use in official courts, official publications, and placenames. The Act was recently amended in December 2019 in order to strengthen the already preexisting legislation. All changes made took into account data collected from online surveys and written submissions. The Official Languages Scheme
4524-532: The Anglican Communion; (2) Their existence can be factually established; (3) Each province or church contributes through its own legal system to the principles of canon law common within the Communion; (4) these principles have strong persuasive authority and are fundamental to the self-understanding of each of the member churches; (5) These principles have a living force, and contain within themselves
4640-471: The European Union , only co-decision regulations were available until 2022, due to a five-year derogation, requested by the Irish Government when negotiating the language's new official status. The Irish government had committed itself to train the necessary number of translators and interpreters and to bear the related costs. This derogation ultimately came to an end on 1 January 2022, making Irish
4756-598: The German nation —one of the four sections of the faculty of arts in the ancient university. Michael Moore , an Irish priest, held the office of the principal of the Collège de Navarre, and was twice elected rector of the university. Many Irishmen held chairs in the university. John Sleyne was a professor at the Sorbonne. Power was a professor of the college at Lisieux; and O'Lonergan at the college of Reims. John Plunkett, Patrick J. Plunkett, and Flood, superiors or provisors of
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4872-620: The Hagiorite , has compiled canons and commentaries upon them in a work known as the Pēdálion ( ‹See Tfd› Greek : Πηδάλιον , 'Rudder'), so named because it is meant to "steer" the church in her discipline. The dogmatic determinations of the Councils are to be applied rigorously since they are considered to be essential for the church's unity and the faithful preservation of the Gospel. In
4988-521: The Irish College in Paris was John Lee, an Irish priest who came to Paris, in 1578, with six companions, and entered the Collège de Montaigu . Having completed his studies he became attached to the Church of St. Severin , and made the acquaintance of a French nobleman, John de l'Escalopier, President of the Parlement of Paris , who placed at the disposal of the Irish students in Paris a house in
5104-626: The Irish College, their foundations were separated in 1824 again by Louis XVIII . In 1810, Richard Ferris was appointed by the French to administer/superior of the United British (of which the Irish Colleges were part) Colleges. In 1814 the Irish Bishops, and, following the establishment of Maynooth College , supported by the British government, twenty years earlier, sent Paul Long to the college to exercise its control over
5220-605: The Irish college was recognised as a seminary by the University of Paris in 1624. Messingham organized the course of studies with a view of sending forth capable missionaries to work in their native country. The college founded by Lee was not spacious enough to receive the numerous Irish students who came to Paris. Some of them continued to find a home in the Collège Montaigu, others in the Collège de Boncourt , while some, who were in affluent circumstances, resided in
5336-434: The Irish college, were in succession royal professors of theology at the Collège de Navarre. From its closure following the revolution, the Irish College was leased by Patrick MacDermott who ran a lay school there up until 1800; both Napoleon's youngest brother Jérôme and his step-son studied there. After the French Revolution, the Irish college in Paris was re-established by a decree of the first consul , and placed under
5452-549: The Irish language policy followed by Irish governments as a "complete and absolute disaster". The Irish Times , referring to his analysis published in the Irish language newspaper Foinse , quoted him as follows: "It is an absolute indictment of successive Irish Governments that at the foundation of the Irish State there were 250,000 fluent Irish speakers living in Irish-speaking or semi Irish-speaking areas, but
5568-674: The Latin Church before 1917; much more diversity in legislation existed in the various Eastern Catholic Churches. Each had its own special law, in which custom still played an important part. One major difference in Eastern Europe however, specifically in the Eastern Orthodox Christian churches, was in regards to divorce. Divorce started to slowly be allowed in specific instances such as adultery being committed, abuse, abandonment, impotence, and barrenness being
5684-620: The Republic of Ireland ), new appointees to the Civil Service of the Republic of Ireland , including postal workers , tax collectors , agricultural inspectors, Garda Síochána (police), etc., were required to have some proficiency in Irish. By law, a Garda who was addressed in Irish had to respond in Irish as well. In 1974, in part through the actions of protest organisations like the Language Freedom Movement ,
5800-611: The activities of Catholics toward the mission of the church. It was the first modern Western legal system and is the oldest continuously functioning legal system in the West. In the Latin Church , positive ecclesiastical laws, based directly or indirectly upon immutable divine law or natural law , derive formal authority in the case of universal laws from the supreme legislator (i.e., the Supreme Pontiff ), who possesses
5916-746: The beginning of the following academic year. For a number of years there has been vigorous debate in political, academic and other circles about the failure of most students in English-medium schools to achieve competence in Irish, even after fourteen years of teaching as one of the three main subjects. The concomitant decline in the number of traditional native speakers has also been a cause of great concern. In 2007, filmmaker Manchán Magan found few Irish speakers in Dublin , and faced incredulity when trying to get by speaking only Irish in Dublin. He
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#17327834894016032-485: The building. It is now an Irish cultural centre, the Centre Culturel Irlandais . The religious persecution under Elizabeth and James I led to the suppression of the monastic schools in Ireland in which the clergy for the most part received their education. It became necessary, therefore, to seek education abroad, and many colleges for the training of the secular clergy were founded on the continent, at Rome, in Spain and Portugal, in Belgium, and in France. The founder of
6148-429: The buildings were extended by John Farely, and all the Irish ecclesiastical students in Paris found a home in the Collège des Lombards. The Irish College in Paris was open to all the counties and provinces in Ireland. In 1738, the college chapel was rebuilt under the direction of the architect Pierre Boscry. The number of students went on increasing until, in 1764, it reached 160. It was therefore found necessary to build
6264-404: The chapel by the choir for the Irish community in Paris. The harmonium was restored funded by the Ireland Funds France. The Irish Chaplain assists in the local Saint Etienne du Mont parish and the chaplaincy also works closely with the other church in Paris which holds English language services, St. Josephs Church run by the Passionists (currently served by two Irish born priests). The only part of
6380-411: The chaplains of Louis XIV . These two ecclesiastics obtained from Louis XIV authorisation to enter possession of the Collège des Lombards, a college of the University of Paris founded for Italian students in 1333. They rebuilt the college, then in ruins, at their own expense, and became its first superiors. The acquisition of the college was confirmed by letters patent dated 1677 and 1681. Some years later
6496-434: The college in the hands of the Irish Vincentian Fathers , with McNamara being succeeded in 1889 by Patrick Boyle. In 1834, McSweeney purchased a country house at Acuril/Arcueil about an hour's walk from the college, which was used by the students at weekends and public holidays. The property was sold following the Second World War and redeveloped all that remains of the college is in names of palaces, villa des Irlandais and
6612-452: The college, as Cardinal O'Fiach said in 1989, (he hoped the Irish college) will one day house an Irish Cultural Centre, with library, language training, student exchanges – in short, a meeting place where Ireland will meet France and through France the wider Europe . In 1991 the Fondation Irlandaise which officially controlled the college, was reconstituted, from six French and one Irish member, to seven members from each country, nominees to
6728-474: The college, many dignitaries such as Cardinal O'Fiach, Sean McBride, the Irish in France and those connected with the college in attendance, as well as academics from Irish universities and international institutions who attended the seminar. In the three hundred years of its existence, the college has not been without a share in the ecclesiastical literature of Ireland. Among the rectors of the college have been Thomas Messingham , prothonotary Apostolic, author of
6844-416: The college, which has 45 rooms to rent. The CCI hosts various concerts, performances, seminars, and exhibitions, and Irish Language classes are conducted in association with Maynooth University . The Irish Chaplaincy in Paris is based in the centre and uses the college's Chapelle Saint-Patrick for services, such as weekly mass (followed by coffee and a chat), weddings, baptisms and the annual carol service in
6960-405: The college. Cardinal Logue held the chair of dogmatic theology from 1866 to 1874. From 1873, the administration of the property of the college was with a board created by a decree of the Conseil d'Etat . On that board, the Archbishop of Paris was represented by a delegate, and he was also the official medium of communication between the Irish episcopate and the French Government. During
7076-409: The college. Dean Kinane, a student and then a professor in the college, is widely known for his "Dove of the Tabernacle" and numerous other devotional works. More recently, John MacGuinness, vice-rector, has published a full course of dogmatic theology. Amongst the rectors of the college were John Farley and John Baptist Walsh , in the eighteenth century, and Patrick MacSweeney and Thomas MacNamara , in
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#17327834894017192-458: The control of a board appointed by the French Government, creating the Fondation Irlandaise in 1805. To it was united the remnants of the property of the other Irish colleges in France which had escaped destruction. The college in Paris lost two-thirds of its endowments owing to the depreciation of French state funds, which had been reduced to one-third consolidated. The Scots College (Paris) and English college interests were also consolidated into
7308-444: The duration of the war. After the war, it was not reopened as an Irish College, instead, in 1947 the college was made available for use by a Polish religious community. Throughout the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s, Liam Swords and Devlin worked to regain the Irish control and presence in the college. In 1989 an Irish presence was re-established, a number of renovations were made, and scholarships funded Irish students studying in Paris to stay in
7424-405: The education of students at the Lombard college. Among the founders were nine Irish bishops, thirty-two Irish priests, four medical doctors, some laymen engaged in civil or military pursuits, and a few pious women. The college was governed in the eighteenth century by four Irish priests called provisors, one from each province of Ireland. They were elected by the votes of the students and confirmed by
7540-664: The education system. Linguistic analyses of Irish speakers are therefore based primarily on the number of daily users in Ireland outside the education system, which in 2022 was 20,261 in the Gaeltacht and 51,707 outside it, totalling 71,968. In response to the 2021 census of Northern Ireland , 43,557 individuals stated they spoke Irish on a daily basis, 26,286 spoke it on a weekly basis, 47,153 spoke it less often than weekly, and 9,758 said they could speak Irish, but never spoke it. From 2006 to 2008, over 22,000 Irish Americans reported speaking Irish as their first language at home, with several times that number claiming "some knowledge" of
7656-414: The end of the famine, and under 17,000 by 1911. Irish is recognised by the Constitution of Ireland as the national and first official language of Republic of Ireland (English being the other official language). Despite this, almost all government business and legislative debate is conducted in English. In 1938, the founder of Conradh na Gaeilge (Gaelic League), Douglas Hyde , was inaugurated as
7772-538: The evolution of modern European civil law traditions. The history of Latin canon law can be divided into four periods: the jus antiquum , the jus novum , the jus novissimum and the Code of Canon Law . In relation to the Code, history can be divided into the jus vetus (all law before the Code) and the jus novum (the law of the Code, or jus codicis ). The canon law of the Eastern Catholic Churches , which had developed some different disciplines and practices, underwent its own process of codification, resulting in
7888-464: The existing burses for the benefit of Irish students. However, due to the exertions of its superior, Patrick Boyle, and the British ambassador in Paris the college remained open until the outbreak of World War I caused its closure. During the war Boyle opened the college for use by the sisters and orphans from Verdun Orphanage. The college resumed in 1919, but closed again on the outbreak of World War II, with students evacuated, leaving Travers resident for
8004-477: The faithful Pars dynamica (trial procedure) Canonization Election of the Roman Pontiff Academic degrees Journals and Professional Societies Faculties of canon law Canonists Institute of consecrated life Society of apostolic life In the Catholic Church , canon law is the system of laws and legal principles made and enforced by the church's hierarchical authorities to regulate its external organization and government and to order and direct
8120-430: The first President of Ireland . The record of his delivering his inaugural Declaration of Office in Roscommon Irish is one of only a few recordings of that dialect. In the 2016 census, 10.5% of respondents stated that they spoke Irish, either daily or weekly, while over 70,000 people (4.2%) speak it as a habitual daily means of communication. From the foundation of the Irish Free State in 1922 (see History of
8236-420: The following January, the French government notified the British government of its intention to reorganise the Irish Catholic foundations in France so as to bring them into harmony with the recent legislation regarding the Church. It was further stated that the purpose of the Government was to close the Irish college, to sell its immovable property, and to invest the proceeds of the sale, to be applied together with
8352-546: The foundation were from the Archbishop of Paris , Maynooth and The Irish Ambassador to France. The Polish community re-located to Notre-Dame de Sion in Issy-les-Moulineaux, in 1997. In 1978, the Irish College celebrated its fourth centenary, events were held such as a reception hosted by the Irish Ambassador, mass at St. Etienne du Mont (at which Frank Patterson sang), seminar and social events in
8468-642: The fourth century, the First Council of Nicaea (325) calls canons the disciplinary measures of the church: the term canon, κανὠν, means in Greek, a rule. There is a very early distinction between the rules enacted by the church and the legislative measures taken by the state called leges , Latin for laws. The Apostolic Canons or Ecclesiastical Canons of the Same Holy Apostles is a collection of ancient ecclesiastical decrees (eighty-five in
8584-553: The institution, and he was appointed superior. This caused friction with Richard Ferris, who still held sway with many in Paris, and during Napoleon's 100 days in power in 1815, Ferris briefly resumed the post as Rector/Superior. After the Bourbon Restoration , the French Government placed at the disposal of the British government three million and a half sterling, to indemnify British subjects in France for
8700-474: The interior, and at a later period to the minister of public instruction. The students no longer frequented the university. The professors were Irish priests appointed by the French Government on the presentation of the Irish episcopate. In 1858, with the sanction of the Sacred Congregation of Propaganda , and with the consent of the French Government, the bishops of Ireland placed the management of
8816-639: The internal ecclesiastical law, or operational policy, governing the Catholic Church (both the Latin Church and the Eastern Catholic Churches ), the Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox churches, and the individual national churches within the Anglican Communion . The way that such church law is legislated , interpreted and at times adjudicated varies widely among these four bodies of churches. In all three traditions,
8932-469: The junior students were promoted to orders ad titulum missionis in Hiberniâ , even extra tempora , and without dimissorial letters, on the representation of the rector of the college – a privilege withdrawn, as regards dimissorial letters, by Pope Gregory XVI . The students in priestly orders were able to support themselves to a large extent by their Mass stipends . Many burses, too, were founded for
9048-716: The language family, is derived from the Old Irish term. Endonyms of the language in the various modern Irish dialects include: Gaeilge [ˈɡeːlʲɟə] in Galway, Gaeilg / Gaeilic / Gaeilig [ˈɡeːlʲəc] in Mayo and Ulster , Gaelainn / Gaoluinn [ˈɡeːl̪ˠən̠ʲ] in West/Cork, Kerry Munster , as well as Gaedhealaing in mid and East Kerry/Cork and Waterford Munster to reflect local pronunciation. Gaeilge also has
9164-410: The language was in use by all classes, Irish being an urban as well as a rural language. This linguistic dynamism was reflected in the efforts of certain public intellectuals to counter the decline of the language. At the end of the 19th century, they launched the Gaelic revival in an attempt to encourage the learning and use of Irish, although few adult learners mastered the language. The vehicle of
9280-476: The language. For most of recorded Irish history , Irish was the dominant language of the Irish people , who took it with them to other regions , such as Scotland and the Isle of Man , where Middle Irish gave rise to Scottish Gaelic and Manx . It was also, for a period, spoken widely across Canada , with an estimated 200,000–250,000 daily Canadian speakers of Irish in 1890. On the island of Newfoundland ,
9396-497: The losses they had sustained in the Revolution. In 1816, a claim for indemnity was presented on behalf of the Irish college. That claim was rejected by the privy council in 1825 on the grounds that the college was a French establishment. In 1832 the claim was renewed by M'Sweeny, director of the college, with the same result. Another attempt to obtain compensation was made by the rector Thomas McNamara in 1870. On 9 May of that year,
9512-658: The main five rites (groups) of churches which are in full union with the Holy See and the Latin Church: All of these church groups are in full communion with the Supreme Pontiff and are subject to the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches . The Catholic Church has what is claimed to be the oldest continuously functioning internal legal system in Western Europe , much later than Roman law but predating
9628-461: The mid-18th century, English was becoming a language of the Catholic middle class, the Catholic Church and public intellectuals, especially in the east of the country. Increasingly, as the value of English became apparent, parents sanctioned the prohibition of Irish in schools. Increasing interest in emigrating to the United States and Canada was also a driver, as fluency in English allowed
9744-649: The mixed secular/religious county and local courts used by the Saxons. In contrast to the other courts of England, the law used in ecclesiastical matters is at least partially a civil law system, not common law , although heavily governed by parliamentary statutes. Since the Reformation , ecclesiastical courts in England have been royal courts. The teaching of canon law at the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge
9860-804: The name of the language is Gaeilge , from the South Connacht form, spelled Gaedhilge prior the spelling reform of 1948, which was originally the genitive of Gaedhealg , the form used in Classical Gaelic . The modern spelling results from the deletion of the silent ⟨dh⟩ in Gaedhilge . Older spellings include Gaoidhealg [ˈɡeːʝəlˠəɡ] in Classical Gaelic and Goídelc [ˈɡoiðʲelɡ] in Old Irish . Goidelic , used to refer to
9976-469: The new immigrants to get jobs in areas other than farming. An estimated one quarter to one third of US immigrants during the Great Famine were Irish speakers. Irish was not marginal to Ireland's modernisation in the 19th century, as is often assumed. In the first half of the century there were still around three million people for whom Irish was the primary language, and their numbers alone made them
10092-540: The nineteenth and twentieth centuries, burses were available to students from Maynooth College and Clonliffe College , Dublin, to spend time in the Irish College, Paris studying at the Institut Catholique de Paris . This connection continues with recent chaplains to the college, pursuing studies in the Institut. In December 1906, the law of separation of Church and State in France came into operation. In
10208-503: The nineteenth. Charles Ouin La Croix, from Rouen, administered the college from 1859 until 1873. Charles O'Neill was college president in the 18th century. Following the reappointment of Travers, the rector was not resident in the college, and only visited periodically to look after the Irish interest in the college which was being used for seminary training Polish priests, Seminaire Polonais de Paris (1947–97). An Irish Catholic presence
10324-655: The number now is between 20,000 and 30,000." In the 1920s, when the Irish Free State was founded, Irish was still a vernacular in some western coastal areas. In the 1930s, areas where more than 25% of the population spoke Irish were classified as Gaeltacht . Today, the strongest Gaeltacht areas, numerically and socially, are those of South Connemara , the west of the Dingle Peninsula , and northwest Donegal, where many residents still use Irish as their primary language. These areas are often referred to as
10440-621: The older College des Lombards remaining, is the chapel, which since 1927 used by the Saint-Éphrem-le-Syriac Church, the Irish Chaplain holds an annual service there for those Irish who are buried older college site. Also at the recently restored Irish College plot in Cachan Cemetery, Arcueil-Cachan, Paris. Irish language Irish ( Standard Irish : Gaeilge ), also known as Irish Gaelic or simply Gaelic ( / ˈ ɡ eɪ l ɪ k / GAY -lik ),
10556-537: The other Irish colleges in France. The original library collection of the Irish College was entirely lost during the Revolution. The closing of the colleges on the Continent deprived the bishops of Ireland of the means of educating their clergy. They, therefore, petitioned the British Government for authorisation to establish an ecclesiastical college at home. The petition was granted, and Maynooth College
10672-503: The other official language, if not already passed in both official languages. In November 2016, RTÉ reported that over 2.3 million people worldwide were learning Irish through the Duolingo app. Irish president Michael D. Higgins officially honoured several volunteer translators for developing the Irish edition, and said the push for Irish language rights remains an "unfinished project". There are rural areas of Ireland where Irish
10788-557: The political party holding power in the Stormont Parliament , the Ulster Unionist Party (UUP), was hostile to the language. The context of this hostility was the use of the language by nationalists. In broadcasting, there was an exclusion on the reporting of minority cultural issues, and Irish was excluded from radio and television for almost the first fifty years of the previous devolved government. After
10904-513: The primary justifications for divorce. Eventually, the church began to allow remarriage to occur (for both spouses) post-divorce. In 1929 Pius XI informed the Eastern Churches of his intention to work out a Code for the whole of the Eastern Church. The publication of these Codes for the Eastern Churches regarding the law of persons was made between 1949 through 1958 but finalized nearly 30 years later. The first Code of Canon Law (1917)
11020-492: The relationship between the three Goidelic languages (Irish, Scottish Gaelic and Manx). Gaelic is a collective term for the Goidelic languages, and when the context is clear it may be used without qualification to refer to each language individually. When the context is specific but unclear, the term may be qualified, as Irish Gaelic, Scottish Gaelic or Manx Gaelic. Historically the name "Erse" ( / ɜːr s / URS )
11136-432: The requirement for entrance to the public service was changed to proficiency in just one official language. Nevertheless, Irish remains a required subject of study in all schools in the Republic of Ireland that receive public money (see Education in the Republic of Ireland ). Teachers in primary schools must also pass a compulsory examination called Scrúdú Cáilíochta sa Ghaeilge . As of 2005, Garda Síochána recruits need
11252-647: The revival was the Gaelic League ( Conradh na Gaeilge ), and particular emphasis was placed on the folk tradition, which in Irish is particularly rich. Efforts were also made to develop journalism and a modern literature. Although it has been noted that the Catholic Church played a role in the decline of the Irish language before the Gaelic Revival, the Protestant Church of Ireland also made only minor efforts to encourage use of Irish in
11368-414: The rue de Sèvres, which served them as a college. Lee became the first rector in about 1605. Lee was followed by Thomas Dease , who was rector until 1621 when he was appointed Bishop of Meath . By letters patent dated 1623, Louis XIII conferred upon the Irish priests and scholars in Paris the right to receive and possess property. It was during the tenure of Dease's successor, Thomas Messingham , that
11484-576: The study of canon law. Much of Catholic canon law's legislative style was adapted from the Roman Code of Justinian . As a result, Roman ecclesiastical courts tend to follow the Roman Law style of continental Europe with some variation, featuring collegiate panels of judges and an investigative form of proceeding, called " inquisitorial ", from the Latin "inquirere", to enquire. This is in contrast to
11600-408: The totality of legislative, executive, and judicial power in his person, while particular laws derive formal authority from a legislator inferior to the supreme legislator. The actual subject material of the canons is not just doctrinal or moral in nature, but all-encompassing of the human condition, and therefore extending beyond what is taken as revealed truth . The Catholic Church also includes
11716-726: The vacancy to which they are appointed. This requirement is laid down by the University College Galway Act, 1929 (Section 3). In 2016, the university faced controversy when it announced the planned appointment of a president who did not speak Irish. Misneach staged protests against this decision. The following year the university announced that Ciarán Ó hÓgartaigh , a fluent Irish speaker, would be its 13th president. He assumed office in January 2018; in June 2024, he announced he would be stepping down as president at
11832-594: The work of such writers as Geoffrey Keating , is said to date from the 17th century, and was the medium of popular literature from that time on. From the 18th century on, the language lost ground in the east of the country. The reasons behind this shift were complex but came down to a number of factors: The change was characterised by diglossia (two languages being used by the same community in different social and economic situations) and transitional bilingualism (monoglot Irish-speaking grandparents with bilingual children and monoglot English-speaking grandchildren). By
11948-502: Was abolished by the Criminal Law Act 1827 . The academic degrees in Catholic canon law are the J.C.B. ( Juris Canonici Baccalaureatus , Bachelor of Canon Law, normally taken as a graduate degree), J.C.L. ( Juris Canonici Licentiatus , Licentiate of Canon Law ) and the J.C.D. ( Juris Canonici Doctor , Doctor of Canon Law ). Because of its specialized nature, advanced degrees in civil law or theology are normal prerequisites for
12064-524: Was abrogated by Henry VIII ; thereafter practitioners in the ecclesiastical courts were trained in civil law , receiving a Doctor of Civil Law (D.C.L.) degree from Oxford , or a Doctor of Laws ( LL.D. ) degree from Cambridge . Such lawyers (called "doctors" and "civilians") were centered at " Doctors Commons ", a few streets south of St Paul's Cathedral in London, where they monopolized probate , matrimonial, and admiralty cases until their jurisdiction
12180-531: Was also sometimes used in Scots and then in English to refer to Irish; as well as Scottish Gaelic. Written Irish is first attested in Ogham inscriptions from the 4th century AD, a stage of the language known as Primitive Irish . These writings have been found throughout Ireland and the west coast of Great Britain. Primitive Irish underwent a change into Old Irish through the 5th century. Old Irish, dating from
12296-668: Was enacted 1 July 2019 and is an 18-page document that adheres to the guidelines of the Official Languages Act 2003 . The purpose of the Scheme is to provide services through the mediums of Irish and/or English. According to the Department of the Taoiseach, it is meant to "develop a sustainable economy and a successful society, to pursue Ireland's interests abroad, to implement the Government's Programme and to build
12412-502: Was establishing itself as the primary language. Irish speakers had first arrived in Australia in the late 18th century as convicts and soldiers, and many Irish-speaking settlers followed, particularly in the 1860s. New Zealand also received some of this influx. Argentina was the only non-English-speaking country to receive large numbers of Irish emigrants, and there were few Irish speakers among them. Canon law Canon law includes
12528-557: Was exclusively for the Latin Church , with application to the Eastern Churches only "in cases which pertain to their very nature". After the Second Vatican Council (1962 - 1965), the Vatican produced the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches which became the first code of Eastern Catholic Canon Law. The Eastern Orthodox Church , principally through the work of 18th-century Athonite monastic scholar Nicodemus
12644-481: Was founded in 1795. In support of their petition, the bishops submitted a statement of the number of Irish ecclesiastics receiving education on the Continent when the French Revolution began. During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, forty students of the Irish College in Paris were raised to the episcopal bench. Over the period 1660 to 1730, more than sixty Irishmen held the office of procurator of
12760-452: Was in the English legal system, as well as systems, such as the U.S., that derived from it . Here criminals could apply for the benefit of clergy . Being in holy orders, or fraudulently claiming to be, meant that criminals could opt to be tried by ecclesiastical rather than secular courts. The ecclesiastical courts were generally more lenient. Under the Tudors , the scope of clerical benefit
12876-474: Was passed 14 July 2003 with the main purpose of improving the number and quality of public services delivered in Irish by the government and other public bodies. Compliance with the Act is monitored by the An Coimisinéir Teanga (Irish Language Commissioner) which was established in 2004 and any complaints or concerns pertaining to the Act are brought to them. There are 35 sections included in
12992-592: Was re-established in the 1970s when the historian and archivist Liam Swords became chaplain to the Irish Community in Paris. The Polish community having re-located in 1997, the college, including the chapel and library underwent a complete restoration funded by the Irish government, and in 2002 it opened as the Centre Culturel Irlandais . The center appoints an artist in residence, and a number of scholars and students from Ireland stay at
13108-547: Was removed to the common law courts in the mid-19th century. Other churches in the Anglican Communion around the world (e.g., the Episcopal Church in the United States and the Anglican Church of Canada ) still function under their own private systems of canon law. In 2002 a Legal Advisors Consultation meeting at Canterbury concluded: (1) There are principles of canon law common to the churches within
13224-693: Was spoken throughout Ireland, Isle of Man and parts of Scotland . It is the language of a large corpus of literature, including the Ulster Cycle . From the 12th century, Middle Irish began to evolve into modern Irish in Ireland, into Scottish Gaelic in Scotland, and into the Manx language in the Isle of Man . Early Modern Irish , dating from the 13th century, was the basis of the literary language of both Ireland and Gaelic-speaking Scotland. Modern Irish, sometimes called Late Modern Irish, as attested in
13340-471: Was steadily reduced by Henry VII , Henry VIII , and Elizabeth I . The papacy disputed secular authority over priests' criminal offenses. The benefit of clergy was systematically removed from English legal systems over the next 200 years, although it still occurred in South Carolina in 1855. In English Law, the use of this mechanism, which by that point was a legal fiction used for first offenders,
13456-442: Was unable to accomplish some everyday tasks, as portrayed in his documentary No Béarla . There is, however, a growing body of Irish speakers in urban areas, particularly in Dublin. Many have been educated in schools in which Irish is the language of instruction. Such schools are known as Gaelscoileanna at primary level. These Irish-medium schools report some better outcomes for students than English-medium schools. In 2009,
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