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138-481: Northeastern Thailand or Isan ( Isan / Thai : อีสาน , pronounced [ʔīː.sǎːn] ; Lao : ອີສານ , romanized :  Īsān ; also written as Isaan, Isarn, Issarn, Issan, Esan, or Esarn; from Pāli 𑀇𑀲𑀸𑀦 isāna or Sanskrit ईशान्य īśānya "northeast") consists of 20 provinces in northeastern Thailand . Isan is Thailand's largest region , on the Khorat Plateau , bordered by

276-411: A diglossic situation with the region's inhabitants largely being bilingual and viewing themselves as Thai citizens. Isan is reserved as the language of the home, agrarian economy and provincial life. The Tai Noi script was also banned, thus making Isan a spoken language, although an ad hoc system of using Thai script and spelling of cognate words is used in informal communication. Isan is also one of

414-618: A variety of the Lao language, Isan belongs to the Southwestern branch of Tai languages in the Kra-Dai language family . It is most closely related to (other than Lao) "tribal" Tai languages such as Phu Thai and Tai Yo . Isan is officially classified as a dialect of the Thai language by the Thai government. Although (Central) Thai is a closely related Southwestern Tai language, it falls within

552-653: A '(venerable) person' and is also ultimately the source of the Isan words lao ( ลาว , ລາວ , [láːw] , 'he/she/it'), and hao ( เฮา , ເຮົາ , [háw] , 'we/us'). Tai and Thai both derive from another Austroasiatic loan into Kra-Dai, * k.riː , which signifies a '(free) person'. The various Kra–Dai peoples have traditionally used variants of either * k.riː or * k.ra:w as ethnic and linguistic self-appellations, sometimes even interchangeably. Isan people tend to refer to themselves and their language as Lao only when in settings with other Isan people, where

690-500: A Thai dialect. The unofficial use of Lao to refer to them was discouraged, and the term 'Isan', originally just a name of the southern part of the 'Lao Monthon' , was extended to the entire region, its primary ethnic group and language. The name change and replacement of the Lao language by Thai at the administrative level and reforms to implement Thai had very little effect as the region's large Lao population and isolation prevented quick implementation. Monks still taught young boys to read

828-451: A century the center of Srivijaya was shifted from Sumatra to Java. The overlord-tributary relationship was not necessarily exclusive. A state in border areas might pay tribute to two or three stronger powers. The tributary ruler could then play the stronger powers against one another to minimize interference by either one, while for the major powers the tributaries served as a buffer zone to prevent direct conflict between them. For example,

966-415: A closely related albeit separate language is lacking, with the official and public position being that the language is a dialect of Thai. As a result of the great difference from Thai, based on tone, nasal vowels of a different quality and a special set of Lao vocabulary unfamiliar to Thai speakers, it is considered an 'inferior form of Thai' as opposed to its own separate language. The traditional avoidance of

1104-450: A dialect of the Thai language. In more relaxed contexts, Thai people generally refer to the language as Phasa Thai Isan ( ภาษาไทยอีสาน , 'Isan Thai language') or simply Phasa Isan ( ภาษาอีสาน , [pʰāː săː ʔīː săːn] , 'Isan language'). The term Isan derives from an older form ( อีศาน ), which in turn is a derivative of Sanskrit Īśāna ( ईशान ), which signifies the 'northeast' or 'northeastern direction' as well as

1242-452: A different subbranch. Central Thai and Isan are mutually intelligible only with difficulty; even though they share over 80% cognate vocabulary, they have very different tonal patterns and vowel qualities, and many commonly-used words in Isan differ from Thai, thus hampering comprehension. The Lao language has had a long presence in Isan, arriving with migrants who followed the river valleys into Southeast Asia from southern China some time in

1380-446: A family, they often leave their children in the care of relatives, friends, or neighbors. Average wages in Isan were the lowest in the country in 2002 at 3,928 baht per month (the national average was 6,445 baht). A Khon Kaen University study (2014) found that marriages with foreigners by Thai northeastern women boosted the gross domestic product of the northeast by 8.67 billion baht (2014: €211 million or US$ 270 million). According to

1518-1099: A formation about 10 kilometers (6 mi) long. Siam tulip fields are in Sai Thong National Park and Pa Hin Ngam National Park , both in Chaiyaphum Province. Phu Phan National Park in Sakon Nakhon Province includes the eight meter (26 ft) long Tang Pee Parn natural stone bridge. Among Thailand's best-known national parks are Khao Yai National Park in Nakhon Ratchasima Province and Phu Kradueng National Park in Loei Province. Isan has high biodiversity and many endemic species. Both wildlife and plant species are exploited illegally. Valuable hardwood tree species, in particular Siamese Rosewood , are being extracted for sale, especially in

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1656-456: A game of billiards /bɪl jədz/ in Isan is ( Northeastern Thai : บิลเลียด /bīn.lȋat/ from English via Thai; whereas on the left bank, people play biya ( Lao : ບີຢາ /bìː.jàː/ ) from French billard /bi jaʁ/ . Despite this slow shift, the spoken language maintained its Lao features since most of the population was still engaged in agriculture, where Thai was not needed, thus many Isan people never mastered Thai fully even if they used it as

1794-495: A handful of people of very advanced age and caretakers of monasteries whose libraries were not destroyed during the Thaification implementation in the 1930s are able to read either script. Evidence for the use of the written language is hard to find, but well-worn murals of very old temples often have small bits of writing in the old script. In Laos, the orthography is a direct descendant of Tai Noi and continues its role as

1932-582: A heavy linguistic minority presence, native Isan speakers of Lao descent comprised anywhere from 60 to 74 per cent of the population, although minority language speakers are also bi- or trilingual in Isan, Thai or both. Isan is home to many speakers of Austroasiatic languages , with one and one-half million speakers of the Northern Khmer dialect and one-half million speakers of the Kuy language , both of which are found in Isan's southernmost provinces. Khmer

2070-449: A large installation on the outskirts of Nong Khai . Most provinces have a government-run Rajabhat University , formerly known as Rajabhat Institutes, which originated as teacher training colleges. Isan's culture is predominantly Lao , and has much in common with that of neighboring Laos . This affinity is shown in the region's cuisine, dress, temple architecture , festivals, and arts. Isan food has elements most in common with Laos and

2208-597: A lesser extent, rubber. Silk production is an important cottage industry and contributes significantly to the economy. Nong Khai Province , which stretches along the Mekong River, is noted for the production of pineapples , tobacco (which is dried, cured and shredded by the families before collection by cigarette manufacturers), and tomatoes , which are grown on an industrial scale, particularly in Si Chiang Mai District . Despite its dominance of

2346-435: A mini-tractor composed of a small diesel engine mounted on two wheels with long wooden or metal handlebars for steering. It is usually attached to a trailer or a plow. Buffalo are now mainly used for grazing on the stubble in the rice paddy, which they in turn fertilize with their manure. The main animals raised for food are cattle, pigs, chickens, ducks, and fish. Most of Thailand's rural poor live in Isan. The region's poverty

2484-588: A modified form of the Tai Noi script, the modern Lao alphabet . According to the EGIDS scale, Isan is at Stage VIA, or 'vigorous', meaning the language is used for 'face-to-face communication by all generations and the situation is sustainable'. Although various studies indicate that Isan is spoken by almost everyone in Northeastern Thailand, the language is under threat from Thai, as Thai replaces

2622-411: A negative perception and diglossia, so speakers have to limit their use of the language to comfortable, informal settings. Parents often view the language as a detriment to the betterment of their children, who must master Standard Thai to advance in school or career paths outside of agriculture. The use of the Thai script, spelling cognate words in Isan as they are in Thai, also gives a false perception of

2760-610: A northern third drained by the Loei and Songkhram rivers and a southern third drained by the Mun River and its predominate tributary, the Si . The Mekong River 'separates' Isan speakers from Lao speakers in Laos as it is the geopolitical boundary between Thailand and Laos, with a few exceptions. Isan speakers spill over into some portions of Uttaradit and Phitsanulok provinces as well as

2898-568: A result of these massive movements, Isan speakers comprise almost one-third of the population of Thailand and represent more than 80% of the population of Lao speakers overall. Isan is natively spoken by roughly 13-16 million people of the Isan region (2005), although the total population of speakers, including Isan people in other regions of Thailand and those that speak it as a second language, likely exceeds 22 million. The Lao language in Thailand

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3036-529: A special place in that the others often in turn paid tribute to China , although in practice the obligations imposed on the lesser kingdoms were minimal. The most notable tributary states were post-Angkor Cambodia , Lan Xang (succeeded by the Kingdom of Vientiane and Luang Prabang ) and Lanna . Cambodia in the 18th century was described by the Vietnamese emperor Gia Long as "an independent country that

3174-522: A territory into the modern Thai state through over 100 years of administrative and bureaucratic reforms, educational policy, and government media. Despite this, since the election of Thaksin Shinawatra as prime minister in the 2001 Thai general election , the Lao Isan identity has reemerged, and the Lao Isan are now the main ethnolinguistic group involved in the pro-Thaksin "Red Shirt movement" of

3312-471: A token of acknowledgment of its existence. Ethnologue describes the Isan language as ' de facto language of provincial identity' which 'is the language of identity for citizens of the province, but this is not mandated by law. Neither is it developed enough or known enough to function as the language of government business.' Although Thailand does recognise the regional Tai languages, including Isan, as important aspects of regional culture and communication,

3450-515: A written language and understood it fine. The language shift to Thai and the increased influence of the Thai language really came to the fore in the 1960s due to several factors. Roads were finally built into the region, making Isan no longer unreachable for much of the year, and the arrival of television with its popular news broadcasts and soap operas penetrated into people's homes at this time. As lands new lands to clear for cultivation were no longer available, urbanization began to occur, as well as

3588-611: Is de facto standard . The number of Isan speakers has been estimated at between 15–23 million, with the majority living in Isan. Written with the Thai alphabet (instead of the historically used Tai Noi script ), Isan belongs to the Chiang Saeng and Lao–Phutai language groups, which along with Thai are members of the Tai languages of the Kra–Dai language family . Central Thai ( Khorat Thai )

3726-597: Is mut-mee , which is tie-dyed to produce geometric patterns on the thread. The Buddhist temple (or wat ) is the major feature of most villages. These temples are used for not only religious ceremonies but also festivals, particularly mor lam , and as assembly halls. They are mostly built in Lao-style, but with less ornamentation than the more elaborate central Thai temples or the Lao-style temples in central Laos. Lao-style Buddha images are also prevalent. The people of Isan celebrate many traditional festivals, such as

3864-402: Is 25,203 km (9,731 sq mi) or 15 percent of Isan's area. Since the beginning of the 20th century, northeastern Thailand has been generally known as Isan , while in official contexts the term phak tawan-ok-chiang-nuea ( ภาคตะวันออกเฉียงเหนือ ; "northeastern region") may be used. The majority population of the Isan region is ethnically Lao, but distinguish themselves not only from

4002-684: Is also spoken by almost everyone and is the language used in education but natively spoken by one-fourth the population of in Nakhon Ratchasima Province only. The Khorat dialect , spoken by around 10,000 people, occupies a linguistic position somewhere between Lao and standard Thai, and is an archaic Central Thai dialect with heavy Khmer and some Lao influence. Most of the "tribal" Tai languages, so called because of their origins in mountainous areas of Laos or their adherence to animism, are closely related to Isan, and all but Tai Yam are generally mutually intelligible. Even in areas with

4140-502: Is also used for any rural, unsophisticated accent, even of Central Thai. In Laos, the Lao people also refer to the language as Phasa Lao ( ພາສາລາວ , [pʰáː săː láːw] ), but when necessary to distinguish it from the dialects spoken in Laos, the terms Phasa Tai Lao ( ພາສາໄທລາວ , [pʰáː săː tʰáj láːw] , 'Lao language of Thailand') and Phasa Lao Isan ( ພາສາລາວອີສານ , [pʰáː săː láːw ʔiː săːn] , 'Isan Lao language') can also be used. In most other languages of

4278-412: Is commonly eaten by hand using sticky rice pressed into a ball with the fingers of the right hand. Soups are a frequent element of any meal, and contain vegetables, herbs, noodles, chunks of fish, balls of ground pork, or a mixture of these. They are eaten using a spoon and chopsticks at the same time. The traditional dress of Isan is the sarong . Women's sarongs most often have an embroidered border at

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4416-518: Is far less reliable and suffers considerable downtime due to overloading, heavy cloud cover, and rain. Despite, in theory, being "always on", it often lacks adequate stability for streaming and clarity of VOIP. Many Isan people seek higher-paying work outside the region, particularly in Bangkok . Some of these people have settled permanently in the city, while some migrate to and fro. Others have emigrated in search of better wages. Rather than relocate as

4554-451: Is generally more comfortable for Isan speakers to use Thai in these areas as a result of the diglossia, with many Isan speakers unaware or unfamiliar with native terms and belles-lettres that are still used in contemporary Lao. Thai is also sometimes used to avoid Isan features that are stigmatized in Thai, such as retention of vocabulary that is pejorative or archaic as well as Lao pronunciations of cognate words that sound 'folksy'. Despite

4692-415: Is known in Thai by the following two names, officially and academically: Phasa Thai Tawan Ok Chiang Nuea ( ภาษาไทยตะวันออกเฉียงเหนือ , [pʰāː săː tʰāj tàʔ wān ʔɔ̀ːk tɕʰǐaŋ nɯ̌a] , 'Northeastern Thai language'), and Phasa Thai Thin Isan ( ภาษาไทยถิ่นอีสาน , [pʰāː săː tʰāj tʰìn ʔīː săːn] , 'Thai language of the Isan region'). These names emphasise the official position of Isan speech as

4830-411: Is needed as to their origins or why their accents differ. The use of Lao or Lao Isan identity, although eschewed by younger generations, is making a comeback, but use of these terms outside of private settings or with other Lao people has strong political associations, especially with the far-left political movements advocating greater autonomy for the region. As a result, younger people have adopted

4968-733: Is now being superseded by cellular technology. The region also has the nation's lowest literacy rate. By the beginning of 2008, most amphoe had been provided with ADSL by the TOT , leaving the majority of the rural population dependent on dial-up connections for those few who have landline telephones. This results in slow service that does not adequately meet modern needs. Most rural people rely on smartphones for data services. Internet shops with high-speed connections have for many years provided service to those who cannot afford or do not have access to high-speed Internet. They are heavily patronized by primary and secondary school children who come not only to use

5106-412: Is reflected in its infrastructure: eight of the ten provinces in Thailand with the fewest physicians per capita are in Isan. Sisaket Province has the fewest, with one physician per 14,661 persons in 2001, with the national average being 3,289. It also has eight of the ten provinces with the fewest hospital beds per head. Chaiyaphum Province has the fewest, with one per 1,131 in 2001 (the national average

5244-534: Is slave of two" (Chandler p. 119). The system was eventually ended by the arrival of the Europeans in the mid-19th century. Culturally, they introduced Western geographical practices, which assumed that every area was subject to one sovereign. Practically, the colonisation of French Indochina , Dutch East Indies , British Malaya and Burma brought pressure from the colonisers for fixed boundaries to their possessions. The tributary states were then divided between

5382-542: Is somewhat distinct from central Thai cuisine . The most obvious difference is the consumption of sticky rice that accompanies almost every meal rather than non-sticky long-grain rice. French and Vietnamese influences found in Lao cuisine are absent in Isan. Popular Lao dishes that are also staples in Isan include tam mak hung , or in central Thai, som tam ( green papaya salad ), larb (meat salad), and kai yang (grilled chicken). These dishes have spread to other parts of Thailand, but normally in versions that temper

5520-546: Is supplemented in the larger cities by the private sector (mostly Catholic and international schools). Following the national pattern of education in Thailand , there are primary (elementary) schools in all larger villages and ( tambon ) capitals, with secondary (high) schools to grade 12 (approximately age 18) in the district ( amphoe ) towns. Many other secondary schools provide education only to grade 9, while some combined schools provide education from grade 1 through grade 9. Rural schools are generally less well equipped than

5658-681: Is the Chi, which flows through central Isan before turning south to meet the Mun in Sisaket Province . The smaller Loei and Songkhram rivers are also tributaries of the Mekong, the former flowing north through Loei Province and the latter east through Udon Thani , Sakon Nakhon , Nakhon Phanom , and Nong Khai Provinces. The average temperature range is from 30.2 °C (86.4 °F) to 19.6 °C (67.3 °F). The highest temperature recorded

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5796-418: Is the general term used by the various ethnic minorities that speak it as a first, second or third language. Thai speakers may also use Phasa Ban Nok ( ภาษาบ้านนอก , [pʰaː săː bân nɔ̑ːk] ), which can translate as 'rural', 'upcountry' or 'provincial language'. Although it is often used by Thai speakers to refer to the Isan language, since the region is synonymous in Thai minds to rural agriculture, it

5934-664: Is the post-Majapahit Islamic kingdoms in Java. Historian Martin Stuart-Fox uses the term "mandala" extensively to describe the history of the Lao kingdom of Lan Xang as a structure of loosely held together mueang that disintegrated after Lan Xang's conquest by Thailand starting in the 18th century. Thai historian Sunait Chutintaranond made an important contribution to study of the mandala in Southeast Asian history by demonstrating that "three assumptions responsible for

6072-544: Is widely spoken in Buriram , Surin , and Sisaket , along the Cambodian border. Several small ethnic groups speak various other Austroasiatic languages, but most are fairly small and restricted to a few villages, or, like Vietnamese , spoken by small groups in cities. Other languages spoken in Isan, mainly by tribal minorities, are: Education is well-provided for by the government in terms of numbers of establishments and

6210-953: The Bun Bungfai Rocket Festival . This fertility rite , originating in pre-Buddhist times, is celebrated in a number of locations both in Isan and in Laos. Other Isan festivals are the Candle Festival , which marks the start of vassa in July in Ubon and other locations; the Silk Festival in Khon Kaen, which promotes local handicrafts; the Elephant Round-up in Surin; and the bangfai phayanak or Naga fireballs of Nong Khai. Isan language As

6348-446: The Kuy people ("Soui"), who live in the south of Isan, speak Austroasiatic languages and follow customs more similar to those of Cambodia than to those of the Thai and Lao, who are Tai peoples . The main language is Isan , the name by which the Lao language is called in Thailand for political reasons, though most people in the Isan region still call it Lao among themselves and in non-official settings, but dialect from Khon Kaen

6486-633: The Lao language ( ภาษาลาว , ພາສາລາວ , [pʰáː săː láːw] ). This is sometimes modified with the word tai ( ไท , ໄທ , [tʰáj] , lit.   ' inhabitant ' or ' person ' ) or the related form Thai ( ไทย , ໄທ , [tʰáj] ), which refers to Thailand or the Thai people, thus yielding Phasa Tai Lao ( ภาษาไทลาว , ພາສາໄທລາວ , 'language of the Lao people') and Phasa Thai Lao ( ภาษาไทยลาว , ພາສາໄທລາວ , 'Lao language of Thailand'). Lao derives from an ancient Austroasiatic loan into Kra-Dai, * k.ra:w , which signified

6624-682: The Mekong River (along the Laos–Thailand border ) to the north and east, by Cambodia to the southeast and the Sankamphaeng Range south of Nakhon Ratchasima . To the west it is separated from northern and central Thailand by the Phetchabun Mountains . Isan covers 167,718 km (64,756 sq mi), making it about half the size of Germany and roughly the size of England and Wales . The total forest area

6762-465: The Northern and Central branches of Tai languages, and even more distantly to the other Kra-Dai languages. Within Thailand, Isan is officially classified as a 'Northeastern' dialect of the Thai language and is referred to as such in most official and academic works concerning the language produced in Thailand. The use of 'Northeastern Thai' to refer to the language is re-enforced internationally with

6900-726: The Phu Phan Mountains . The soil is mostly sandy, with substantial salt deposits. The Mekong forms most of the border between Thailand and Laos to the north and east of Isan, while the south of the region borders Cambodia . The Mekong's main Thai tributary is the Mun River, which rises in the Khao Yai National Park near Nakhon Ratchasima Province and runs east, joining the Mekong in Ubon Ratchathani Province . Isan's other main river

7038-468: The United Front for Democracy Against Dictatorship . Several Thai prime ministers have come from the region. Isan has a number of important Bronze Age sites, with prehistoric art in the form of cliff paintings, artifacts and early evidence of rice cultivation . Iron and bronze tools such as those found at Ban Chiang may predate similar tools from Mesopotamia . The region later came under

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7176-481: The feudal system of Europe, states were linked in suzerain – tributary relationships. The term draws a comparison with the mandala of the Hindu and Buddhist worldview ; the comparison emphasises the radiation of power from each power center, as well as the non-physical basis of the system. Other metaphors such as S. J. Tambiah 's original idea of a " galactic polity" describe political patterns similar to

7314-583: The " mandala system ". Accordingly, in 1718 the first Lao mueang in the Chi River valley—and indeed anywhere in the interior of the Khorat Plateau—was founded at Suwannaphum District (in present-day Roi Et Province ) by an official in the service of King Nokasad of the Kingdom of Champasak . The region was increasingly settled by both Lao and Thai emigrants. Thailand held sway from the 17th century, and carried out forced population transfers from

7452-479: The 13th century, Isan was dominated by the Lao kingdom of Lan Xang , which had been established by Fa Ngum . Due to a scarcity of information from the periods known as the Post-Angkor Period , the plateau seems to have been largely depopulated. There were few if any lines of demarcation, because until the 19th-century introduction of modern mapping, the region fell under what 20th-century scholars called

7590-460: The 1990s, although the perceived political oppression continues and Thaification policies remain, attitudes towards regional languages relaxed. Academics at Isan universities began exploring the local language, history, culture and other folklore, publishing works that helped bring serious attention to preserving the Lao features of the language and landscape, albeit under an Isan banner. Students can participate in clubs that promote local music, sung in

7728-401: The 8th to 10th centuries. The region of what is now Isan was nominally under the Lao kingdom of Lan Xang from 1354 to 1707. After the fall of Lan Xang, the Lao splinter kingdoms became tributary states of Siam. During the late 18th and much of the 19th century, Siamese soldiers carried out forced migrations of Lao people from the western bank of the Mekong River to the eastern bank, now Isan. As

7866-504: The Chinese furniture market. These trees are so valuable that poachers, coming across the border from Cambodia, are heavily armed, and both rangers and poachers have been killed over them. In national parks such as Ta Phraya , rangers have been trained since 2015 in military-style counter-poaching measures by the elite ranger squad Hasadin. Isan is home to one-third of Thailand's population of 67 million, but contributes only ten per cent to

8004-459: The English name of Siam to 'Thailand' and whose ultra-nationalistic policies would mark Thailand during his rule from 1938 to 1944 and 1948–1957. These policies implemented an official diglossia. Isan was removed from public and official discourse to make way for Thai and the written language was banned, relegating Isan to an unwritten language of the home. Public schools, which finally were built in

8142-463: The Internet but also to play online games, use VOIP , or just to use the computer and printers. Resident Western expatriates and foreign tourists are also frequent customers. For those outside the district towns who require a serious use of the Internet in their homes, the mobile phone or an iPstar broadband satellite connection is the only alternative, although more expensive than a DSL connection. It

8280-400: The Isan language and other minority languages are still inferior to the social and cultural prestige of Standard Thai and its government sanctioned promotion in official, educational and national usage. However, the Thaification laws that banned the old Lao alphabet and forced the Lao to refer to themselves and their language as 'Thai Isan' never banned the language in the home nor the fields and

8418-442: The Isan people from knowledge of their written language, shared literary history and ability to communicate via writing with the left bank Lao. In tandem with its removal from education and official contexts, the Thai language made a greater appearance in people's lives with the extension of the railroad to Ubon and Khon Kaen and with it the telegraph, radio and a larger number of Thai civil servants, teachers and government officials in

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8556-420: The Isan people steadfastly clung to their spoken language. The situation is in stark contrast to Laos where the Lao language is actively promoted as a language of national unity. Laotian Lao people are very conscious of their distinct, non-Thai language and although influenced by Thai-language media and culture, strive to maintain 'good Lao'. Although spelling has changed, the Lao speakers in Laos continue to use

8694-517: The Lao of Laos but also from the Central Thai by calling themselves khon Isan or Thai Isan in general. But some refer to themselves as simply Lao , and academics have recently been referring to them as Lao Isan or as Thai Lao , with the main issue with self-identification as Lao being stigma associated with the Lao identity in Thai society. The Lao Isan people are aware of their Lao ethnic origin, but Isan has been incorporated as

8832-484: The Lao people to rebel under the influence of millennialist cult leaders or phu mi bun ( ผู้มีบุญ , ຜູ້ມີບຸນ , /pʰȕː míː bun/ ) during the Holy Man's Rebellion (1901—1902), the last united Lao resistance to Siamese rule, but the rebellion was brutally suppressed by Siamese troops and the reforms were fully implemented in the region shortly afterward. Further reforms were implemented to assimilate and integrate

8970-497: The Lao varieties as spoken in Northeastern Thailand, Isan remains essentially the same as the Lao language of Laos, albeit nonetheless differentiated in orthography and some minor lexical elements. Both right and left bank varieties are most closely related to the other Lao-Phuthai (Lao-Phoutai) languages such as Phuthai (Phoutai) and Tai Yo (Tai Gno), all which are mutually intelligible to each other. The Lao-Phuthai languages are closely related and somewhat mutually intelligible with

9108-493: The Tai Noi script written on palm-leaf manuscripts since there were no schools, passages from old literature were often read during festivals and traveling troupes of mo lam and shadow puppet performers relied on written manuscripts for the lyrics to poetry and old stories set to song and accompanied by the khaen alone or alongside other local instruments. Mountains, lack of roads, large areas without access to water during

9246-466: The Thai language is employed, aside from direct quotation, such as the following: explanations, interjections, Thai culture, emphasis, re-iterations and jokes. Although some Isan people may not speak the language well, Thai is a convenient language of clarification, especially between Isan speakers of different dialects that may be unfamiliar with local terms of the other speaker. As Isan does not exist in formal, technical, political or academic domains, it

9384-443: The Thai language. For example, in an analysis of the eighty-eight volumes of the comic หนูหิ่น อินเดอะซิตี้ ( lit.   ' Little Hin ' in the city), the Thai language was used 62.91 percent of the time to properly quote someone—such as someone that speaks Thai, 21.19 percent of the time to provide further explanation and 8.61 percent of the time to re-iterate a previous statement for clarification. There are seven areas where

9522-402: The central government introduced the Thai alphabet and language in regional schools, the people of Isan wrote in the Tai Noi script , which is very similar to the one that Thai adopted. Many people speak Isan, a variety of Lao, as their first language. A significant minority in the south also speak Northern Khmer . The Kuy people, an Austroasiatic people concentrated around the core of what

9660-438: The colonies and Siam, which exercised much more centralised power but over a smaller area than thitherto. The advent of Islam in the archipelago saw the application of this system which is still continued in the formation of the government, such as the formation of the 18th century Negeri Sembilan coalition which focused on Seri Menanti as a center flanked by four inner luak serambi and four outer districts. Another example

9798-589: The descriptors in the ISO 639-3 and Glottolog language codes. Outside of official and academic Thai contexts, Isan is usually classified as a particular sub-grouping of the Lao language such as by native speakers, Laotian Lao and many linguists, it is also classified as a separate language in light of its unique history and Thai-language influence, such as its classification in Glottolog and Ethnologue . Isan people have traditionally referred to their speech as

9936-406: The dialectal subordination of Isan and the errors of Isan pronunciation which deviate from Thai. As a result, a generational gap has arisen with old speakers using normative Lao and younger speakers using a very 'Thaified' version of Isan, increased code-switching or outright exclusive use of Thai. Many linguists and scholars of the Isan language believe that Thai relexification cannot be halted unless

10074-425: The distinct culture and language and the need to disassociate the people and region from Laos , the term Isan came into being for the region of Isan as well as its ethnic Lao people and their Lao speech, although it originally only referred to districts which now comprise the southern portion of Northeastern Thailand. Use of Lao by native Thai speakers was originally for all Tai peoples that were not Siamese, and

10212-503: The district office. Extension of landline telephones to remote areas not previously served has been largely superseded by the use of mobile phones, primarily of GSM format, which now covers the entire region with the exception of a few sparsely populated mountainous areas and large national parks. Many people, even the poorest and frequently also children, have cellular telephones, although they have no fixed-line telephone. In this sense, Isan has led advanced nations where landline service

10350-487: The dry season and flooding in the wet season continued to shield the Isan people and their language from direct Thai-language influence. Suppression of the Isan language came with the ' Thai cultural mandates ' and other reforms that aimed to elevate Central Thai culture and language, reverence to the monarchy and the symbols of state and complete integration into Thailand, known as ' Thaification '. Most of these reforms were implemented by Plaek Phibunsongkhram , who changed

10488-405: The economy, agriculture in the region is problematic. The climate is prone to drought, while the flat terrain of the plateau often floods in the rainy season. The tendency to flood renders a large proportion of the land unsuitable for cultivation . In addition, the soil is highly acidic , saline , and infertile from overuse. Since the 1970s, agriculture has been declining in importance as trade and

10626-514: The extreme heat and sourness favored in Isan for the more moderate central Thai palate. Conversely, central Thai food has become popular in Isan. The people of Isan, a mixture of Lao, Vietnamese, Khmer, Mon, Cham, and other Tai groups, famously eat a wide variety of creatures, such as lizards, frogs, and fried insects, such as grasshoppers, crickets, silkworms, and dung beetles. Originally forced by poverty to be creative in finding foods, Isan people now savor these creatures as delicacies or snacks. Food

10764-505: The fact that code-switching is a natural phenomenon, younger generations are blurring the distinction between languages, using more Thai-like features and as they forget to switch back to Isan, language shift takes hold. Mandala (political model) Maṇḍala is a Sanskrit word meaning 'circle'. The mandala is a model for describing the patterns of diffuse political power distributed among Mueang or Kedatuan (principalities) in medieval Southeast Asian history , when local power

10902-432: The hem, while men's are in a checkered pattern. Men also wear a pakama , a versatile length of cloth which can be used as a belt, a money and document belt, headwear for protection from the sun, a hammock, or a swimsuit. Isan is a center for the production of Thai silk . The trade received a major boost in the postwar years, when Jim Thompson popularized Thai silk among Westerners. One of the best-known types of Isan silk

11040-664: The influence of the Dvaravati culture, followed by the Khmer Empire . The latter built dozens of prasats (sanctuaries) throughout Isan. The most significant are at Phimai Historical Park and Phanom Rung Historical Park . Preah Vihear Temple was also considered to be in Isan, until the International Court of Justice in 1962 ruled that it belonged to Cambodia. After the Khmer Empire began to decline in

11178-501: The language can be used freely, typically away from other Thai-speaking people. Isan speakers typically find the term Lao offensive when used by outsiders, due to its usage as a discriminatory slur, often insinuating their rural upbringings, superstitious beliefs, links with the Lao people of Laos (i.e., not Thai) and traditional, agrarian lifestyles. In dealings with Lao people from Laos, Isan people may sometimes use Phasa Lao Isan or 'Isan Lao language' or simply Isan when clarification

11316-512: The language in the formal sphere re-enforces the superiority of Thai, which the Isan people have internalized to the point many do not have high opinions of their first language. Combined with vocabulary retentions, many of which sound oddly archaic or have become pejorative in Standard Thai, perpetuate the myth and negative perception of Isan as an uncouth language of rural poverty and hard agricultural life. Due to associations with Laos ,

11454-414: The language was also viewed as a potential fifth column for Lao irredentism and the spread of communism into Thailand. It was in the recent past quite common for Isan people to be corrected or ridiculed when they spoke because of their incomplete mastery of Standard Thai. In polling of language favorability amongst the general population of Thailand, the Isan language ranks last after Standard Thai and

11592-454: The late afternoon or at night, until it ends abruptly at the onset of the cool season. The cool season runs from October to February and the hot season from February to May with the peak of high temperatures in April. Isan has around 26 national parks . Province Khon Kaen has four national parks, of which Phu Pha Man National Park is notable for its large daily exodus of bats at dusk, making

11730-512: The local Lao language, or local dances native to the area. Knowledge about the history of the region and its long neglect and abuse by Siamese authorities and resurrection of pride in local culture are coming to the fore, increasing expressions of 'Isan-ness' in the region. However, Thaification policies and the language shift to Thai continue unabated. Recognition of the Isan language as an important regional language of Thailand did not provide any funding for its preservation or maintenance other than

11868-437: The major market towns, in part because they are often also administrative centers, and in some major cities, universities have attracted students from other regions. Since the late 1930s, Isan has been a bilingual area, with most people using Isan at home and in the village, but due to diglossia, switching to Thai for school, work and formal situations. Like all bilingual societies, Isan speakers often code-switch in and out of

12006-515: The mandala. The historian Victor Lieberman prefers the "solar polity" metaphor, referencing the gravitational pull the sun exerts over the planets. Historically, the main suzerain or overlord states were the Khmer Empire of Cambodia ; Srivijaya of South Sumatra ; the successive kingdoms of Mataram , Kediri , Singhasari and Majapahit of Java ; the Ayutthaya Kingdom of Thailand ; Champa and early Đại Việt . China occupies

12144-506: The massive seasonal migration of Isan people to Bangkok during the dry season, taking advantage of the economic boom occurring in Thailand with increased western investment due to its more stable, non-communist government and openness. Having improved their Thai during employment in Bangkok, the Isan people returned to their villages, introducing the Bangkok slang words back home and peppering their speech with more and more Thai words. Around

12282-452: The modern conception of Thai nationality and de-emphasized the use of ethnic markers, for ethnic Laos and Khmers, as it was deemed uncivilized and to prevent ethnic discrimination among the Thai people. This policy extended to the use of the name "Isan" itself: the name is derived from the Pali word [IAST] Error: {{Lang}}: invalid parameter: |3= ( help ) , meaning "northeast", in turn from

12420-408: The modern private hospitals and clinics in the large cities for non-urgent specialist consultations and care. The region lags in new technology: there was only one Internet connection per 75 households in 2002 (national average: one per 22 households) [update needed], but by 2006 every district town (amphoe) had at least one publicly accessible Internet connection, either in a local computer shop or in

12558-433: The more populous left (east) bank of the Mekong to the right bank in the 18th and 19th centuries. This became more severe following the Lao rebellion (1826–1828) , during which Anouvong , the last of the kings of Vientiane , rebelled against Siamese suzerainty, and lost a war that lasted two years. Khorat was then repopulated by forced migration of Mekong Valley Lao, with a heavy influx of voluntary Chinese migrants. In

12696-486: The name of Iśāna ( Sanskrit : ईशान ), a manifestation of Shiva as deity of the northeast. The name therefore reinforces the area's identity as northeastern Thailand, rather than as a part of the Lao kingdom, which had recently been created by the French colonial discourse, as "race was then an important ideological tool for French colonialists in the attempt to seize the 'Laotian' and 'Cambodian' portions of Siam." Before

12834-605: The name of an aspect of Lord Shiva as guardian of that direction. It was also the name of the Khmer capital of Chenla whose rule extended over the southern part of the region. After the integration of the Monthon Lao into Siam in 1893, the Siamese also abolished the use of the terms of Lao in place names as well as self-references in the census to encourage assimilation of the Lao people within its new borders. However, due to

12972-434: The national GDP . In terms of regional value-added per capita, Isan is Thailand's poorest region. Bangkok is the richest, followed by central Thailand , southern Thailand , then northern Thailand . This ordering has been unchanged for decades. Thailand's highly centralized fiscal system reinforces the status quo. An example of this Bangkok-centric policy is the allocation of budgets: Bangkok accounts for about 17 percent of

13110-535: The neologism Isan to describe themselves and their language, as it conveniently avoids ambiguity with the Laotian Lao as well as association with movements, historical and current, that tend to be leftist and at odds with the central government in Bangkok. The language is also called affectionately Phasa Ban Hao ( ภาษาบ้านเฮา , ພາສາບ້ານເຮົາ , [pʰáː săː bȃːn háw] ), which can be translated as either 'our home language' or 'our village language'. Isan

13248-479: The northernmost fringes of Phetsabun to the northwest of the Isan region, with speakers in these areas generally speaking dialects akin to Luang Phrabang. In the southwest, Isan speakers are also found in portions of Sa Kaeo and Phrasinburi provinces. In addition, large numbers of Isan people have left the region for other major cities of Thailand for employment, with large pockets of speakers found in Bangkok and its surrounding areas as well as major cities across

13386-408: The official written language of the Lao language of the left bank as well as the script used to transcribe minority languages. The Lao written language has unified the dialects to some extent as well, as though the differences between dialects are sharper in Laos than Isan, one common writing system unites them. Acknowledgment of the unique history of the Isan language and the fact it is derived from

13524-588: The other Southwestern branch Tai languages such as the Chiang Saen languages, which includes Standard Thai, and the Northwestern languages, comprising the speech of the Dai / Shan peoples. Lao and Thai, despite separate development, were pushed closer together due to proximity and adoption of the same Khmer, Sanskrit and Pali loan words. Lao is distantly related to the various Zhuang languages that comprise

13662-455: The people of a particular area. The tributary owner in turn had power either over tributary states further down the scale, or directly over "his" people, wherever they lived. No ruler had authority over unpopulated areas. The personal relationship between overlord and subordinate rulers also defined the dynamic of relationship within a mandala. The relations between Dharmasetu of Srivijaya and Samaratungga of Sailendra , for instance, defined

13800-411: The people of the "Lao Monthon " into Siam. References to the 'Lao' and many cities and towns were renamed, such as the former districts Monthon Lao Gao and Monthon Lao Phuan which were renamed as 'Monthon Ubon' and 'Monthon Udon', respectively, shortly after their creation in 1912. Self-designation as Lao in the census was banned after 1907, with the Lao forced to declare themselves as Thai and speakers of

13938-466: The poorest, least developed regions of Thailand, with many Isan people having little education, often employed as laborers, domestics, cooks, taxi drivers, and in other menial jobs. Combined with historic open prejudice toward Isan people, this has fueled a negative perception of the language. Despite its vigorous usage, since the mid-20th century, the language has been undergoing a slow relexification by Thai or language shift to Thai altogether, threatening

14076-403: The population and 25.8 percent of GDP, but benefits from about 72.2 percent of total expenditures. Isan accounts for about 34 percent of the population and 11.5 percent of GDP, but receives only 5.8 percent of expenditures. Agriculture is the largest sector of the economy, generating around 22 percent of the gross regional product (compared to 8.5 percent for Thailand as a whole). Sticky rice,

14214-413: The power of local Lao princes of the mueang in tax collection and administration was moved and replaced by crown-appointed governors from Bangkok which removed the official use of Lao written in Tai Noi in local administration. To achieve this, King Wachirawut had the help of his brother, Prince Damrongrachanuphap who recommended the system. The end of local autonomy and the presence of foreign troops led

14352-415: The prehistoric networks of small settlements and reveals itself in historical records was a patchwork of often overlapping mandalas. It is employed to denote traditional Southeast Asian political formations, such as federation of kingdoms or vassalized polity under a center of domination . It was adopted by 20th century European historians from ancient Indian political discourse as a means of avoiding

14490-423: The primary Thai dialect of the other regions. As a result of the need for Standard Thai proficiency in order to have better educational and employment prospects and avoid discrimination, anecdotal evidence suggests that more and more Isan children are being raised in the Thai language and are discouraged from using the local language at home. The Thai language has already begun to displace the predominance of Isan in

14628-462: The region is primarily gently undulating land, most of it varying in elevation from 90–180 m (300–600 feet), tilting from the Phetchabun Mountains in the west down to the Mekong River . The plateau consists of two plains : the southern Khorat plain is drained by the Mun and Chi rivers, while the northern Sakon Nakhon plain is drained by the Loei and Songkhram rivers. The two plains are separated by

14766-427: The region that did not learn the local language. Words for new technologies and the political realities of belonging to the Thai state arrived from Thai, including words of English and Chinese (primarily Teochew) origin, as well as neologisms created from Sanskrit roots. Laos, still under French rule, turned to French, Vietnamese, repurposing of old Lao vocabulary as well as Sanskrit-derived coinages that were generally

14904-448: The region, focussed heavily on indoctrinating Isan people to revere the Thai monarchy, loyalty to the state and its symbols and mastery of the Thai language, with Isan treated as an inferior dialect. Pride in the language was erased as students were punished or humiliated for using the language in the classroom or writing in Tai Noi, planting the seed for future language shift as the region became bilingual. The old written language and

15042-493: The region, several specialised training colleges in the private sector, and large colleges of agriculture and nursing in Udon Thani Province. Universities are found in the major cities of Khon Kaen (one of the country's largest), Nakhon Ratchasima, Ubon Ratchathani, and the smaller provincial capital of Maha Sarakham . Some Bangkok-based universities have small campuses in Isan, and Khon Kaen University maintains

15180-526: The region. Outside of Thailand, it is likely that Isan speakers can also be found in the United States , South Korea , Australia , Taiwan and Germany which house the largest populations of Overseas Thai . After the French established their protectorate over the left bank Lao-speaking territories that became Laos during the conclusion of the Franco-Siamese crisis of 1893 , the right bank

15318-408: The rich literature written in it were banned and was not discussed in schools. Numerous temples had their libraries seized and destroyed, replacing the old Lao religious texts, local histories, literature and poetry collections with Thai-script, Thai-centric manuscripts. The public schools also dismissed the old monks from their role as educators unless they complied with the new curriculum. This severed

15456-422: The same, although not always, as those that developed in Thai. For example, the word or aeroplane (UK)/airplane (US) in Isan was huea bin ( Northeastern Thai : ເຮືອບິນ /hɯ́a bin/ ) 'flying boat', but was generally replaced by Thai-influenced khrueang bin ( Northeastern Thai : เครื่องบิน /kʰɯ̄aŋ bīn/ ) 'flying machine', whereas Lao retained hua bin ( Lao : ເຮືອບິນ /hɯ́a bìn/ ) RTGS huea bin . Similarly,

15594-577: The schools in the large towns and cities and the standard of instruction, particularly for the English language, is much lower. Many children of poorer families leave school after grade 6 (age 12) to work on the farms. A number move to areas of dense or tourist populations to work in the service industry. Many primary schools operate their own websites and almost all schoolchildren in Isan, at least from junior high school age, are now (2008) largely computer literate in basic programs. In 2001, there were 43 government vocational and polytechnic colleges throughout

15732-479: The script is returned, but this has little public or government support. The written language is currently at Stage IX, which on the EGIDS scale is a 'language [that] serves as a reminder of heritage identity for an ethnic community, but no one has more than symbolic proficiency'. This applies to both the Tai Noi script used for secular literature and the Tua Tham script previously used for Buddhist texts. Only

15870-458: The service sector have been increasing. Very few farmers still use water buffalos rather than tractors . Nowadays, water buffalos are mainly kept by almost all rural families as status symbols. The main piece of agricultural equipment in use today is the "rot tai na" ( Thai : รถไถนา , lit. "vehicle plow field"), colloquially called "kwai lek" ( Thai : ควายเหล็ก , or "iron/steel buffalo"), or more generally by its manufacturer's name of "Kobota",

16008-406: The staple food of the region, is the main agricultural crop (accounting for about 60 percent of cultivated land). It thrives in poorly drained paddy fields, and where fields can be flooded from nearby streams, rivers, and ponds. Often two harvests are possible each year. Farmers are increasingly diversifying into cash crops such as sugarcane and cassava , which are cultivated on a vast scale, and to

16146-564: The study, after a northeastern woman married a foreigner, she will send 9,600 baht a month on average to her family to help with its expenses. The activity also created 747,094 jobs, the study found. The 2010 census found that 90 percent of the slightly more than 27,000 foreigners living in the northeastern region were married to women from there. According to the governor of Nakhon Phanom Province , "The entire Northeast [Isan] gained only 2.9 percent of [the] country's tourism income of 2.7 trillion baht [in 2017]." Isan's total population as of 2010

16284-486: The succession of this dynastic family. Dharmasetu was the Srivijayan Maharaja overlord, while the house of Sailendra in Java is suggested to be related and was subscribed to Srivijayan mandala domination. After Samaratungga married Princess Tara, the daughter of Dharmasetu, Samaratungga became his successor and the house of Sailendra was promoted to become the dynastic lineage of later Srivijayan kings, and for

16422-491: The term " state " in the conventional sense. Not only did Southeast Asian polities , except Vietnam, not conform to Chinese and European views of a territorially defined state with fixed borders and a bureaucratic apparatus , but they diverged considerably in the opposite direction: the polity was defined by its centre rather than its boundaries, and it could be composed of numerous other tributary polities without undergoing administrative integration. In some ways similar to

16560-436: The tributary, but in general interference with the tributary's domestic affairs was minimal: he would retain his own army and powers of taxation, for example. In the case of the more tenuous relationships, the "overlord" might regard it as one of tribute, while the "tributary" might consider the exchange of gifts to be purely commercial or as an expression of goodwill (Thongchai p. 87). The emphasis on personal relationships

16698-409: The tributary. However, the tributary also had to provide men and supplies when called on, most often in time of war. The main benefit to the tributary was protection from invasion by other powers, although as South East Asia historian Thongchai Winichakul notes, this was often "mafia-like protection" from the threats of the overlord himself. In some cases, the overlord also controlled the succession in

16836-421: The unique vocabulary specific to Lao speakers, and language shift, as more and more children are being raised to speak only Standard Thai. The lack of prestige of the language and the need for Thai to advance in government, education and professional realms or seek employment outside of Northeastern Thailand, such as Bangkok, necessitate the use and mastery of proper Thai over proper Lao. The language suffers from

16974-577: The vast depopulation of the left bank of the Mekong to the right bank and its geographical isolation from the rest of what is now Thailand. The peaks of the Phetsabun and Dong Phanya Nyen mountains to the west and the Sankamphaeng to the southwest separate the region from the rest of Thailand and the Damlek ridges forming the border with Cambodia . The Phu Phan Mountains divide the plateau into

17112-622: The view that Ayudhya was a strong centralized state" did not hold and that "in Ayudhya the hegemony of provincial governors was never successfully eliminated." The obligations on each side of the relationship varied according to the strength of the relationship and the circumstances. In general, the tributary was obliged to pay bunga mas , a regular tribute of various valuable goods and slaves, and miniature trees of gold and silver ( bunga mas dan perak ). The overlord ruler reciprocated with presents often of greater value than those supplied by

17250-836: The vitality of the language. However, with attitudes toward regional cultures becoming more relaxed in the late 20th century onwards, increased research into the language by Thai academics at Isan universities and an ethno-political stance often at odds with Bangkok, some efforts to help stem the slow disappearance of the language are beginning to take root, fostered by a growing awareness and appreciation of local culture, literature and history. Hlai languages Kam-Sui languages Kra languages Be language Northern Tai languages Central Tai languages Khamti language Shan language others Northern Thai language Tai Lue language Thai language Southern Thai language Tai Yo language Phu Thai language Lao language (PDR Lao, Isan language ) As an umbrella term for

17388-551: The wake of the Franco-Siamese crisis of 1893 , the resulting treaty with France and the Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909 made the plateau a border region between Thailand and the Laos of French Indochina . Roi Et was established early in the 20th century to further Siamese control, and to further assimilation of the population into the kingdom. In the mid-20th century, the state-supported assimilation policy called Thaification promoted Isan's ethnic integration into

17526-420: The world, 'Isan' or translations of 'Northeastern Thai language' are used. The homeland of the Isan language is mainly the twenty provinces of Northeastern Thailand , also known as Phak Isan ( ภาคอีสาน ), 'Isan region' or just Isan . The region is covered by the flat topography of the Khorat Plateau . The Lao language was able to thrive in the region due to its historical settlement pattern, which included

17664-443: Was 21,305,000. Forty percent of the population is concentrated in the provinces of Khorat, Ubon Ratchathani, Udon Thani, and Khon Kaen, known as "big four of Isan". These provinces surround the four major cities of the same names. As of 2010, their populations were: Khorat 142,169; Udon Thani 137,979; Khon Kaen 113,828; and Ubon Ratchathani 83,148. As of 2010, 50 percent of the region's population lived in municipal areas. Kalasin

17802-635: Was 43.9 °C (111.0 °F) in Udon Thani, the lowest −1.4 °C (29.5 °F) at Sakhon Nakhon Agro Station. Rainfall is unpredictable, but is concentrated in the rainy season from May to October. Average annual precipitation varies from 2,000 mm (79 in) in some areas to 1,270 mm (50 in) in the southwestern provinces of Nakhon Ratchasima , Buriram , Maha Sarakham , Khon Kaen , and Chaiyaphum . The rainy season begins with occasional short but heavy showers, eventually raining heavily for longer periods almost every day, usually in

17940-438: Was 453). Nevertheless, as in the rest of Thailand, all districts ( amphoe ) have a hospital, and all sub-districts ( tambon ) have clinics providing primary health care. The introduction of the " 30 baht " health card has dramatically changed the numbers of those attending hospitals for treatment, as it has meant that full health care is available to all who register for only 30 baht per visit. The few who can afford it travel to

18078-501: Was absorbed into Siam which was then ruled by King Wachirawut . To prevent further territorial concessions, the Siamese implemented a series of reforms that introduced Western concepts of statehood, administrative reforms and various measures to integrate the region which was until this point ruled as semi-autonomous out-lying territories nominally under the authority of the Lao kings. With the creation of provinces grouped into districts known as monthon ( มณฑล , ມົນທົນ , /món tʰón/ ),

18216-422: Was more important than the central leadership. The concept of the mandala balances modern tendencies to look for unified political power, e.g. the power of large kingdoms and nation states of later history – an inadvertent byproduct of 15th century advances in map-making technologies . In the words of O. W. Wolters who further explored the idea in 1982: The map of earlier Southeast Asia which evolved from

18354-460: Was once called "Chenla" and known as the Khmer Boran ("ancient Khmer"), are a link to the region's pre-Tai history. Isan is roughly coterminous with the Khorat Plateau , which tilts gently from its northwestern corner, where it is about 213 m (700 feet) above sea level, to the southeast, where the elevation is only about 62 metres (200 feet). Except for a few hills in the northeastern corner,

18492-409: Was once for Northern Thai people as well, but the term gradually came to be thought of only referring to the ethnic Lao people of Isan and contemporary Laos. When used by Thai people, it is often offensive, given the history of prejudice against Isan people for their distinct culture and language, as well as perceived links with the communist Lao in Laos. Nevertheless, within Northeastern Thailand, Lao

18630-409: Was one of the defining characteristics of the mandala system. The tributary ruler was subordinate to the overlord ruler, rather than to the overlord state in the abstract. This had many important implications. A strong ruler could attract new tributaries, and would have strong relationships over his existing tributaries. A weaker ruler would find it harder to attract and maintain these relationships. This

18768-456: Was preserved due to the Isan region's large population, mountains that separated the region from the rest of the country, a conservative culture and ethnic appreciation of local traditions. The language was officially banned from being referred to as the Lao language in official Thai documents at the turn of the 20th century. Assimilatory laws of the 1930s that promoted Thai nationalism , Central Thai culture and mandatory use of Standard Thai led to

18906-435: Was put forward as one cause of the sudden rise of Sukhothai under Ramkhamhaeng , for example, and for its almost equally steep decline after his death (Wyatt, 45 and 48). The tributary ruler could repudiate the relationship and seek either a different overlord or complete independence. The system was non-territorial. The overlord was owed allegiance by the tributary ruler, or at most by the tributary's main town, but not by all

19044-476: Was the most urbanized province (with almost 100 percent in municipal areas), and Roi Et the least (2.8 percent). Thus, the population is still largely rural, but concentrated around the urban centers. There is a substantial Khmer minority, concentrated in the southern provinces of Buriram , Surin , and Sisaket , and some Vietnamese refugees in Mukdahan and Nakhon Phanom . The Khmer -speaking minority and

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