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132-621: In the late 1930s and mid 1940s, Transjordan and the Zionist Organization commissioned mutually exclusive, competing water resource development studies. The Transjordanian study, performed by Michael G. Ionides, concluded that the naturally available water resources were not sufficient to sustain a Jewish homeland and the destination of Jewish immigrants. The Zionist's study, by the American engineer Walter Clay Lowdermilk concluded similarly, but noted that by diverting water from

264-686: A British contingent) were deployed in Beirut after the Israeli siege of the city , to supervise the evacuation of the PLO. The civil war re-emerged in September 1982 after the assassination of Lebanese President Bachir Gemayel , an Israeli ally, and subsequent fighting. During this time a number of sectarian massacres occurred, such as in Sabra and Shatila , and in several refugee camps . The multinational force

396-670: A defeat to the French at the Battle of Maysalun , the kingdom was dissolved. Around the same time, at the San Remo Conference , tasked with deciding the fate of former Ottoman territories, it was determined that Syria and Lebanon would fall under French rule; Shortly afterward, the formal division of territories took place in the Treaty of Sèvres , signed a few months later. On 1 September 1920, Greater Lebanon , or Grand Liban ,

528-679: A formula for the de-confessionalization of the Lebanese political system. The civil war ended at the end of 1990 after 16 years; it had caused massive loss of human life and property and devastated the country's economy. It is estimated that 150,000 people were killed and another 200,000 wounded. Nearly a million civilians were displaced by the war, and some never returned. Parts of Lebanon were left in ruins. The Taif Agreement has still not been implemented in full and Lebanon's political system continues to be divided along sectarian lines. Conflict between Israel and Lebanese militants continued, leading to

660-484: A ground invasion of southern Lebanon , resulting in the 2006 Lebanon War . The conflict was officially ended by the UNSC Resolution 1701 on 14 August 2006, which ordered a ceasefire, the withdrawal of Israeli forces from Lebanon, and the disarmament of Hezbollah. Some 1,191 Lebanese and 160 Israelis were killed in the conflict. Beirut's southern suburb was heavily damaged by Israeli airstrikes. In 2007,

792-507: A large degree of autonomy despite the succession of rulers over Lebanon and Syria. The relative isolation of the Lebanese mountains meant the mountains served as a refuge in the times of religious and political crises in the Levant . As such, the mountains displayed religious diversity and the existence of several well-established sects and religions, notably, Maronites , Druze , Shiite Muslims , Ismailis , Alawites and Jacobites . After

924-563: A national unity government was established, granting a veto to the opposition. The agreement was a victory for opposition forces, as the government caved in to all their main demands. In early January 2011, the national unity government collapsed due to growing tensions stemming from the Special Tribunal for Lebanon , which was expected to indict Hezbollah members for the Hariri assassination. The parliament elected Najib Mikati ,

1056-526: A position to fulfil his international obligations in respect of the territory by means of an Agreement to be concluded with His Highness" During the eleventh session of the League of Nations ' Permanent Mandates Commission in 1927, Sir John E. Shuckburgh summarised the status of Transjordan: It is not part of Palestine but it is part of the area administered by the British Government under

1188-584: A proposal based on the Ionides, MacDonald and Bunger plans, meaning exclusive in-basin use, and rejecting storage in the Sea of Galilee. As well, they demanded recognition of Lebanon as a riparian state, while excluding the Litani from the plan. Their proposed quota allocations were: Israel 200 million m³, Jordan 861 million m³, Syria 132 million m³ and Lebanon 35 million m³ per year. Negotiations ensued, and gradually

1320-563: A reduced area under closer Ottoman supervision until the late 17th century. On the death of the last Maan emir , various members of the Shihab clan ruled Mount Lebanon until 1830. While the history of Druze-Christian relations in Lebanon has generally been marked by harmony and peaceful coexistence, there were occasional periods of tension, notably during the 1860 Mount Lebanon civil war , during which around 10,000 Christians were killed by

1452-462: A regional center for finance and trade. In May 1948, Lebanon supported neighboring Arab countries in a war against Israel . While some irregular forces crossed the border and carried out minor skirmishes against Israel, it was without the support of the Lebanese government, and Lebanese troops did not officially invade. Lebanon agreed to support the forces with covering artillery fire, armored cars, volunteers and logistical support. On 5–6 June 1948,

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1584-443: A relative of Uthman, serving as the governor. Mu'awiya sent forces to the coastal region of Lebanon, prompting conversions to Islam among the coastal population. However, the mountainous areas retained their Christian or other cultural practices. Despite Islam and Arabic becoming officially dominant, the population's conversion from Christianity and Syriac language was gradual. The Maronite community, in particular, managed to maintain

1716-571: A remit over the area west of the Jordan. After the French ended the Kingdom of Syria at the battle of Maysalun , Transjordan became, for a short time, a no man's land or, as Samuel put it, "..left politically derelict". In August 1920, Sir Herbert Samuel's request to extend the frontier of British territory beyond the River Jordan and to bring Transjordan under his administrative control

1848-612: A series of assassinations that resulted in the death of many prominent Lebanese figures. The assassination triggered the Cedar Revolution , a series of demonstrations which demanded the withdrawal of Syrian troops from Lebanon and the establishment of an international commission to investigate the assassination. Under pressure from the West, Syria began withdrawing, and by 26 April 2005 all Syrian soldiers had returned to Syria. UNSC Resolution 1595 called for an investigation into

1980-518: A series of violent events and clashes including the Qana massacre . In May 2000, Israeli forces fully withdrew from Lebanon. Since then, 25 May is regarded by the Lebanese as the Liberation Day . The internal political situation in Lebanon significantly changed in the early 2000s. After the Israeli withdrawal from southern Lebanon and the death of former president Hafez al-Assad in 2000,

2112-699: A severe famine. During the war, approximately 100,000 people in Beirut and Mount Lebanon died due to starvation. Amidst the height of the First World War , the Sykes–Picot Agreement of 1916, a secret pact between Britain and France, delineated Lebanon and its surrounding areas as regions open to potential French influence or control. After the Allies emerged victorious in the war, the Ottoman Empire ultimately collapsed, losing control over

2244-557: A single problem. Further, His Majesty's Government have been entrusted with the Mandate for "Palestine". If they wish to assert their claim to Trans-Jordan and to avoid raising with other Powers the legal status of that area, they can only do so by proceeding upon the assumption that Trans-Jordan forms part of the area covered by the Palestine Mandate. In default of this assumption Trans-Jordan would be left, under article 132 of

2376-520: A special ambassador on 16 October 1953, and tasked him with mediating a comprehensive plan for the regional development of the Jordan River system. As a starting point, Johnston used a plan commissioned by UNRWA and performed by the American consulting firm Chas. T. Main , known as the "Main Plan". The Main Plan, published just days before Johnston's appointment, utilized the same principles employed by

2508-527: A temporary embargo on the export of U.S. aircraft to Israel. In August 1981, defense minister Ariel Sharon began to draw up plans to attack PLO military infrastructure in West Beirut, where PLO headquarters and command bunkers were located. In 1982, PLO attacks from Lebanon on Israel led to an Israeli invasion , aiming to support Lebanese forces in driving out the PLO. A multinational force of American, French and Italian contingents (joined in 1983 by

2640-589: A whole was determined. The U.S. State Department also received a legal argument from Rabbis Wise and Silver objecting to the independence of Transjordan. At the 1947 Pentagon Conference, the U.S. advised Great Britain it was withholding recognition of Transjordan pending a decision on the Palestine question by the United Nations. Transjordan applied for membership of the United Nations on 26 June 1946. The Polish representative said that he did not object to

2772-697: Is the country's capital and largest city. Human habitation in Lebanon dates to 5000 BC. From 3200 to 539 BC, it was part of Phoenicia , a maritime empire that stretched the Mediterranean Basin . In 64 BC, the region became part of the Roman Empire , and later the Byzantine Empire . After the 7th century, it came under the rule of different caliphates , including the Rashidun , Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphate . The 11th century saw

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2904-467: The 2020 Beirut explosion , precipitated the collapse of Lebanon's currency and fomented political instability, widespread resource shortages, and high unemployment and poverty . The World Bank has defined Lebanon's economic crisis as one of the world's worst since the 19th century. Despite the country's small size, Lebanese culture is renowned both in the Arab world and globally, powered primarily by

3036-617: The Bible , King Hiram of Tyre collaborated closely with Solomon , supplying cedar logs for Solomon's Temple and sending skilled workers. The Phoenicians are credited with the invention of the oldest verified alphabet , which subsequently inspired the Greek alphabet and the Latin one thereafter. In the 9th century BC, Phoenician colonies , including Carthage in present-day Tunisia and Cádiz in present-day Spain , flourished throughout

3168-527: The Ikhwan tribesmen from Najd in modern Saudi Arabia into southern parts of his territory. The emir was powerless to repel those raids by himself, and had to appeal for help to the British who maintained a military base with a small air force at Marka, close to Amman . The British military force was the primary obstacle against the Ikhwan between 1922 and 1924, and was also utilized to help Abdullah with

3300-701: The King Abdullah Canal ). Both projects were partially funded by the United States, after Israel and Jordan provided assurances they would abide by their allocations. In 1965, President Nasser assured the American undersecretary of state , Philip Talbot, that the Arabs would not exceed the water quotas prescribed by the Johnston plan. At this point, the other Arab states resolved to reduce the operation of Israel's National Water Carrier by diverting

3432-682: The Kingdom of Jerusalem and the County of Tripoli as Roman Catholic Christian states along the coast. These crusader states made a lasting impact on the region, though their control was limited, and the region returned to full Muslim control after two centuries following the conquest by the Mamluks. Among the most lasting effects of the Crusades in this region was the contact between the Franks (i.e.,

3564-916: The Lebanese diaspora . Lebanon is a founding member of the United Nations and of the Arab League , and is a member of the Non-Aligned Movement , the Organization of Islamic Cooperation , the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie , and the Group of 77 . The name of Mount Lebanon originates from the Phoenician root lbn ( 𐤋𐤁𐤍 ) meaning "white", apparently from its snow-capped peaks. Occurrences of

3696-728: The Litani River in Lebanon. The proposed quotas were: Israel 394 million m³, Jordan 774 million m³, and Syria 45 million m³. Both sides countered with proposals of their own. Israel demanded the inclusion of the Litani river in the pool of available sources, the use of the Sea of Galilee as the main storage facility, out-of-basin use of the Jordan waters, and the Mediterranean-Dead Sea canal. As well, Israel demanded more than doubling of its allocation, from 394 million m³ annually to 810 million m³. The Arabs countered with

3828-472: The Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon , administered by France , which established Greater Lebanon . By 1943, Lebanon had gained independence from Free France and established a distinct form of confessionalist government , with the state's major religious groups being apportioned specific political powers . The new Lebanese state was relatively stable after independence, but this was ultimately shattered by

3960-524: The Nahr al-Bared refugee camp became the center of the 2007 Lebanon conflict between the Lebanese Army and Fatah al-Islam . At least 169 soldiers, 287 insurgents and 47 civilians were killed in the battle. Funds for the reconstruction of the area have been slow to materialize. Between 2006 and 2008, a series of protests led by groups opposed to the pro-Western Prime Minister Fouad Siniora demanded

4092-643: The Republic of Lebanon , is a country in the Levant region of West Asia , bordered by Syria to the north and east, Israel to the south, and the Mediterranean Sea to the west; Cyprus lies a short distance from the country's coastline. It is at the crossroads of the Mediterranean Basin and the Arabian Peninsula . Lebanon has a population of more than five million and an area of 10,452 square kilometres (4,036 sq mi). Beirut

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4224-481: The Roman Empire during the early spread of the faith. During the late 4th and early 5th century, a hermit named Maron established a monastic tradition focused on the importance of monotheism and asceticism near the Mediterranean mountain range known as Mount Lebanon . The monks who followed Maron spread his teachings among Lebanese in the region. These Christians became known as Maronites and moved into

4356-725: The Tanzimat reform. After 1861 there existed an autonomous Mount Lebanon with a Christian mutasarrıf , which had been created as a homeland for the Maronites under European diplomatic pressure following the 1860 massacres. The Maronite Catholics and the Druze founded modern Lebanon in the early eighteenth century, through the ruling and social system known as the " Maronite-Druze dualism " in Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate. The Baalbek and Beqaa Valley and Jabal Amel

4488-859: The Treaty of Sèvres , to the disposal of the principal Allied Powers. Some means must be found of giving effect in Trans-Jordan to the terms of the Mandate consistently with "recognition and support of the independence of the Arabs". The Cairo Conference of March 1921 was convened by Winston Churchill , then Britain's Colonial Secretary. With the mandates of Palestine and Iraq awarded to Britain, Churchill wished to consult with Middle East experts. At his request, Gertrude Bell , Sir Percy Cox, T. E. Lawrence, Sir Kinahan Cornwallis , Sir Arnold T. Wilson, Iraqi minister of war Jaʿfar alAskari , Iraqi minister of finance Sasun Effendi (Sasson Heskayl) , and others gathered in Cairo, Egypt. An additional outstanding question

4620-618: The United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL), charged with attempting to establish peace. Israeli forces withdrew later in 1978, but retained control of the southern region by managing a 19-kilometre-wide (12 mi) security zone along the border. These positions were held by the South Lebanon Army (SLA), a Christian militia under the leadership of Major Saad Haddad backed by Israel. The Israeli Prime Minister, Likud 's Menachem Begin , compared

4752-501: The Vichy High commissioner for Syria and Lebanon, played a major role in the independence of the nation. The Vichy authorities in 1941 allowed Germany to move aircraft and supplies through Syria to Iraq where they were used against British forces. The United Kingdom, fearing that Nazi Germany would gain full control of Lebanon and Syria by pressure on the weak Vichy government, sent its army into Syria and Lebanon . After

4884-541: The Yarmouk river near Maqarin, and utilize its waters to irrigate Jordanian territory, before they could flow to the Sea of Galilee. Military clashes ensued, and US President Dwight Eisenhower dispatched ambassador Johnston to the region to work out a plan that would regulate water usage. Source: Banat Yacov Project. 7 February 1956: I. Next foreseeable crisis date in Arab-Israeli situation comes on 1 March,

5016-543: The siege of Tyre in 332 BCE . In 64 BC, the Roman general Pompey had the region of Syria annexed into the Roman Republic . The area was then split into two Imperial Provinces under the Roman Empire , Coele-Syria and Phoenice , the latter which the land of present-day Lebanon was a part of. The region that is now Lebanon, as with the rest of Syria and much of Anatolia , became a major center of Christianity in

5148-1463: The "deadline" date which Israelis gave Amb. Johnston last autumn for gaining Arab acceptance of Jordan river valley scheme. After 1 March, Israelis told Johnston, they would feel free to go ahead with unilateral Israeli plan for using Jordan Waters. II. Bone of contention is so-called Banat Yacov project, which takes its name from bridge crossing Jordan River some 8 mi. north of Lake Tiberias (Sea of Galilee). III. Question came to UN Security Council shortly after Israelis began work on project over two years ago. (Sep '53). IV. However, Israelis have made their "postponement" of Banat Yacov completion contingent on implementation of Johnston plan. V. On 31 Jan, Syrian prime minister Ghazzi delivered aide memoirs to US embassy which implied that Syria would use force to prevent Israelis from resuming work on that part of Banat Yacov canal which lies in "demilitarized zone." VI. However, Israelis have given intimations recently that "deadline" does not necessarily mean they will resume Banat Yacov work on or immediately after 1 March. UN Sec. Gen Hammarskjold after visit to Palestine in January told American officials he felt Banat Yacov issue Syria would fight on. he felt Israel wrong if forced this issue and he and Gen. Burns agreed they would take strong stand against unilateral action by Israel at Banat Yacov. Eisenhower appointed Eric Johnston as

5280-606: The Arab League, with the exception of Jordan, now actively opposed the Johnston plan, arguing that any plan to strengthen the Israeli economy only increased the potential threat from Israel. Regardless, both Jordan and Israel undertook to operate within their allocations, and two major successful projects were completed – the Israeli National Water Carrier and Jordan's East Ghor Main Canal (now known as

5412-409: The British and French diplomats, Mark Sykes and François Georges-Picot , initialled an agreed memorandum. The agreement was ratified by their respective governments on 9 and 16 May 1916. The agreement allocated to Britain control of what is today southern Israel and Palestine , Jordan and southern Iraq , and an additional small area that included the ports of Haifa and Acre to allow access to

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5544-624: The British government agreed to recognize Arab independence after the war in exchange for the Sharif of Mecca launching the Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire . The area of Arab independence was defined to be "in the limits and boundaries proposed by the Sherif of Mecca ", with the exception of "portions of Syria " lying to the west of "the districts of Damascus , Homs , Hama and Aleppo "; conflicting interpretations of this description

5676-533: The British representative east of the Jordan until the arrival on 21 November 1920 of Abdullah , the brother of recently deposed king Faisal, marched into Ma'an at the head of an army of 300 men from the Hejazi tribe of 'Utaybah . Without facing opposition Abdullah and his army had effectively occupied most of Transjordan by March 1921. In early 1921, prior to the convening of the Cairo Conference,

5808-438: The British. The geographical area that was later to become Transjordan was allocated to Britain. Under the Ottoman Empire , most of Transjordan was part of the Syria Vilayet , primarily the sanjaks of Hauran and Ma'an . The inhabitants of northern Transjordan had traditionally associated with Syria, and those of southern Transjordan with the Arabian Peninsula . There was no Ottoman district known as Transjordan, there were

5940-477: The Children director estimated that 200,000–300,000 children were need of assistance and were living almost entirely on bread, which was subsidized by the government. Those who could relied on foreign assistance. Hezbollah was receiving about $ 3–5 million a month from Iran . In September 1988, the Parliament failed to elect a successor to President Gemayel as a result of differences between the Christians, Muslims, and Syrians. The Arab League Summit of May 1989 led to

6072-402: The Druze. Shortly afterwards, the Emirate of Mount Lebanon , which lasted about 400 years, was replaced by the Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate , as a result of a European-Ottoman treaty called the Règlement Organique . The Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate (1861–1918, Arabic : متصرفية جبل لبنان ; Turkish : Cebel-i Lübnan Mutasarrıflığı ) was one of the Ottoman Empire 's subdivisions following

6204-426: The Emirate. This failed to respond to Transjordanian demands for a fully sovereign and independent state, a failure that led to widespread disaffection with the treaty among Transjordanians, prompting them to seek a national conference (25 July 1928), the first of its kind, to examine the articles of the treaty and adopt a plan of political action. According to the U.S. State Department Digest of International Law ,

6336-599: The French mandate for both was legally terminated on that date and full independence attained. The last French troops withdrew in December 1946. Lebanon's unwritten National Pact of 1943 required that its president be Maronite Christian, its speaker of the parliament to be a Shia Muslim , its prime minister be Sunni Muslim , and the Deputy Speaker of Parliament and the Deputy Prime Minister be Greek Orthodox . Lebanon's history since independence has been marked by alternating periods of political stability and turmoil interspersed with prosperity built on Beirut 's position as

6468-427: The French mandate may be said to have been terminated without any formal action on the part of the League of Nations or its successor the United Nations . The mandate was ended by the declaration of the mandatory power, and of the new states themselves, of their independence, followed by a process of piecemeal unconditional recognition by other powers, culminating in formal admission to the United Nations. Article 78 of

6600-421: The French) and the Maronites. Unlike most other Christian communities in the Eastern Mediterranean , who swore allegiance to Constantinople or other local patriarchs, the Maronites proclaimed allegiance to the Pope in Rome. As such the Franks saw them as Roman Catholic brethren. These initial contacts led to centuries of support for the Maronites from France and Italy, even after the fall of the Crusader states in

6732-444: The Haifa – Tel-Aviv road, shooting at passing vehicles in what became known as the Coastal Road massacre . They killed 37 and wounded 76 Israelis before being killed in a firefight with Israeli forces. Israel invaded Lebanon four days later in Operation Litani . The Israeli Army occupied most of the area south of the Litani River . The UN Security Council passed Resolution 425 calling for immediate Israeli withdrawal and creating

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6864-447: The Islamic conquest, Mediterranean trade declined for three centuries due to conflicts with the Byzantines. The ports of Tyre, Sidon, Beirut, and Tripoli struggled to recover, sustaining small populations under Umayyad and Abbasid rule. Christians and Jews were often obligated to pay the jizya , or poll tax levied on non-Muslims. During the 980s, the Fatimid Caliphate took control of the Levant, including Mount Lebanon, resulting in

6996-409: The Jordan River basin to the Negev for support of agricultural and residential development there, a Jewish state with 4 million new immigrants would be sustainable. In 1953, Israel began construction of a water carrier to take water from the Sea of Galilee to the populated center and agricultural south of the country, while Jordan concluded an agreement with Syria, known as the Bunger plan, to dam

7128-417: The Jordan, Biger wrote: "At the beginning of 1918, soon after the southern part of Palestine was conquered, the Foreign Office determined that Faisal’s authority over the area that he controls on the Eastern side of the Jordan river should be recognized. We can confirm this recognition of ours even if our forces do not currently control major parts of Transjordan.’" In March 1920, the Hashemite Kingdom of Syria

7260-408: The July 1920 Battle of Maysalun , during which period the British in neighbouring Mandatory Palestine chose to avoid "any definite connection between it and Palestine". Abdullah entered the region in November 1920 , moving to Amman on 2 March 1921; later in the month a conference was held with the British during which it was agreed that Abdullah bin Hussein would administer the territory under

7392-413: The Kingdom of Hejaz was to take de facto control after Faisal's administration was defeated by the French. Following the 1924–25 Saudi conquest of Hejaz , Hussein's army fled to the Ma'an region, which was then formally announced as annexed by Abdullah's Transjordan. Ibn Saud privately agreed to respect this position in an exchange of letters at the time of the 1927 Treaty of Jeddah . The Negev region

7524-416: The Kingdom of Jordan in 1946. After the Ottoman defeat in World War I, the Transjordan region was administered within OETA East ; after the British withdrawal in 1919, this region gained de facto recognition as part of the Hashemite-ruled Arab Kingdom of Syria , administering an area broadly comprising the areas of the modern countries of Syria and Jordan . Transjordan became a no man's land following

7656-689: The Lebanese army – led by the then Minister of National Defense , Emir Majid Arslan – captured Al-Malkiyya . This was Lebanon's only success in the war. 100,000 Palestinians fled to Lebanon because of the war. Israel did not permit their return after the cease-fire. As of 2017, between 174,000 and 450,000 Palestinian refugees live in Lebanon with about half in refugee camps (although these are often decades old and resemble neighborhoods). Often Palestinians are legally barred from owning property or performing certain occupations. According to Human Rights Watch , Palestinian refugees in Lebanon live in "appalling social and economic conditions." In 1958, during

7788-409: The Lebanon . That meant termination would generally be recognized upon the admission of Transjordan into the United Nations as a fully independent country. Members of the U.S. Congress introduced resolutions demanding that the U.S. Representative to the United Nations be instructed to seek postponement of any international determination of the status of Transjordan until the future status of Palestine as

7920-424: The Mandate Act. Indeed, this situation could be changed only with the agreement of the Council of the League of Nations, with the consent of the Government of the United States, a signatory of the Franco-American Convention of 4 April 1924". The U.S. adopted the policy that formal termination of the mandate with respect to Transjordan would follow the earlier precedent established by the French Mandate for Syria and

8052-410: The Maronites and other Lebanese factions. In 1975, following increasing sectarian tensions, largely boosted by Palestinian militant relocation into South Lebanon, a full-scale civil war broke out in Lebanon. The Lebanese Civil War pitted a coalition of Christian groups against the joint forces of the PLO , left-wing Druze and Muslim militias. In June 1976, Lebanese President Élias Sarkis asked for

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8184-413: The Mediterranean. The Palestine region , with smaller boundaries than the later Mandatory Palestine , was to fall under an "international administration". The agreement was initially used directly as the basis for the 1918 Anglo–French Modus Vivendi which agreed on a framework for the Occupied Enemy Territory Administration in the Levant. Shortly after the war, the French ceded Palestine and Mosul to

8316-417: The Mediterranean. Subsequently, foreign powers, starting with the Neo-Assyrian Empire , imposed tribute and attacked non-compliant cities. The Neo-Babylonian Empire took control in the 6th century BC. In 539 BC, The cities of Phoenicia were then incorporated into the Achaemenid Empire by Cyrus the Great . The Phoenician city-states were later incorporated into the empire of Alexander the Great following

8448-408: The Middle East Department of the Colonial Office set out the situation as follows: Distinction to be drawn between Palestine and Trans-Jordan under the Mandate. His Majesty's Government are responsible under the terms of the Mandate for establishing in Palestine a national home for the Jewish people. They are also pledged by the assurances given to the Sherif of Mecca in 1915 to recognise and support

8580-524: The Muslim Caliphs and the people became more fully absorbed by the Arab culture. Following the fall of Roman Anatolia to the Muslim Turks, the Byzantines put out a call to the Pope in Rome for assistance in the 11th century. The result was a series of wars known as the Crusades launched by the Franks from Western Europe to reclaim the former Byzantine Christian territories in the Eastern Mediterranean, especially Syria and Palestine (the Levant ). The First Crusade succeeded in temporarily establishing

8712-468: The Palestine mandate and stated that in that territory, Britain could 'postpone or withhold' those articles of the Mandate concerning a Jewish national home. It was approved by Curzon on 31 March 1921, and the revised final draft of the mandate (including Transjordan) was forwarded to the League of Nations on 22 July 1922. In August 1922, the British government presented a memorandum to the League of Nations stating that Transjordan would be excluded from all

8844-407: The Shia cause in the Lebanese civil war, ending Western presence in Lebanon, and establishing a Shiite Khomeinist Islamic state . In the late 1980s, as Amine Gemayel ’s second term as president drew to an end, the Lebanese pound collapsed. At the end of 1987 US$ 1 was worth £L500. This meant the legal minimum wage was worth just $ 17 a month. Most goods in shops were priced in dollars. A Save

8976-438: The Syrian Army to intervene on the side of the Christians and help restore peace. In October 1976 the Arab League agreed to establish a predominantly Syrian Arab Deterrent Force , which was charged with restoring calm. PLO attacks from Lebanon into Israel in 1977 and 1978 escalated tensions between the countries. On 11 March 1978, 11 Fatah fighters landed on a beach in northern Israel and hijacked two buses full of passengers on

9108-399: The Syrian military presence faced criticism and resistance from the Lebanese population. On 14 February 2005, former Prime Minister Rafic Hariri was assassinated in a car bomb explosion. Leaders of the March 14 Alliance accused Syria of the attack, while Syria and the March 8 Alliance claimed that Israel was behind the assassination. The Hariri assassination marked the beginning of

9240-406: The Tennessee Valley Authority to optimize the usage of an entire river basin as a single unit. The plan was based on principles similar to those embodied in the Marshall Plan – reducing the potential for conflict by promoting cooperation and economic stability. The main features of the plan were: The initial plan gave preference to in-basin use of the Jordan waters, and ruled out integration of

9372-527: The Treaty of London the ratifications were exchanged in Amman and Transjordan gained full independence. In 1949 the country's official name was changed to the "Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan". When King Abdullah applied for membership in the newly formed United Nations , his request was vetoed by the Soviet Union , citing that the nation was not "fully independent" of British control. This resulted in another treaty in March 1948 with Britain in which all restrictions on sovereignty were removed. Despite this, Jordan

9504-649: The UN Charter ended the status of tutelage for any member state: "The trusteeship system shall not apply to territories which have become Members of the United Nations, relationship among which shall be based on respect for the principle of sovereign equality." So when the UN officially came into existence on 24 October 1945, after ratification of the United Nations Charter by the five permanent members , as both Syria and Lebanon were founding member states,

9636-466: The United Nations that the British Government intended to take steps in the near future to establish Transjordan as a fully independent and sovereign state. The Treaty of London was signed by the British Government and the Emir of Transjordan on 22 March 1946 as a mechanism to recognise the full independence of Transjordan upon ratification by both countries parliaments. Transjordan's impending independence

9768-537: The West Bank in Palestine, and "uniting" both banks of the Jordan river, it was constitutionally renamed the "Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan", commonly referred to as Jordan . From July 1915 to March 1916, a series of ten letters were exchanged between Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca , and Lieutenant Colonel Sir Henry McMahon , British High Commissioner to Egypt . In the letters – particularly that of 24 October 1915 –

9900-665: The approval of the revised Mandate on 16 September 1922 with publication made conditional on completion of a probationary period) in Amman on 25 May 1923: "Subject to the approval of the League of Nations, His Britannic Majesty will recognise the existence of an independent Government in Trans-jordan under the rule of His Highness the Amir Abdullah, provided that such Government is constitutional and places His Britannic Majesty in

10032-665: The area. Soon after the war, Patriarch Elias Peter Hoayek , representing the Maronite Christians, successfully campaigned for an expanded territory at the 1919 Paris Peace Conference , also including areas with significant Muslim and Druze populations in addition to the Christian-dominated Mount Lebanon. In 1920, King Faisal I proclaimed the Arab Kingdom of Syria 's independence and asserted control over Lebanon. However, following

10164-581: The assassination. The United Nations International Independent Investigation Commission published preliminary findings on 20 October 2005 in the Mehlis report , which cited indications that the assassination was organized by Syrian and Lebanese intelligence services. On 12 July 2006, Hezbollah launched a series of rocket attacks and raids into Israeli territory, where they killed three Israeli soldiers and captured two others. Israel responded with airstrikes and artillery fire on targets in Lebanon, and

10296-540: The auspices of the British Mandate for Palestine with a fully autonomous governing system. The Hashemite dynasty ruled the protectorate, as well as the neighbouring Mandatory Iraq and, until 1925, the Kingdom of Hejaz to the south. On 25 May 1946, the emirate became the "Hashemite Kingdom of Transjordan", achieving full independence on 17 June 1946 when in accordance with the Treaty of London ratifications were exchanged in Amman. In 1949, after annexing

10428-412: The authority of the Palestine Mandate. The special arrangements there really go back to the old controversy about our war time pledges to the Arabs which I have no wish to revive. The point is that on our own interpretation of those pledges the country East of the Jordan – though not the country West of the Jordan – falls within the area in respect of which we promised during the war to recognise and support

10560-479: The creation of a national unity government, over which the mostly Shia opposition groups would have veto power. When Émile Lahoud 's presidential term ended in October 2007, the opposition refused to vote for a successor unless a power-sharing deal was reached, leaving Lebanon without a president. On 9 May 2008, Hezbollah and Amal forces, sparked by a government declaration that Hezbollah's communications network

10692-526: The differences were eliminated. Israel dropped the request to integrate the Litani, and the Arabs dropped their objection to out-of-basin use of waters. Ultimately the unified plan proposed the following allocations, by source: The Plan was accepted by the technical committees from both Israel and the Arab League . A discussion in the Knesset in July 1955 ended without a vote. The Arab Experts Committee approved

10824-585: The districts Ajlun , al-Balqa , al-Karak and Ma'an . In the second half of the nineteenth century, The Tanzimat laid the foundation for state formation in the area. The Hejaz railway was completed in 1908 and greatly facilitated the Hajj pilgrimage along the Syrian route from Damascus as well as extending the Ottoman military and administrative reach southwards. During World War I , Transjordan saw much of

10956-720: The establishment of Crusader states , which fell to the Ayyubids and the Mamluks , and eventually the Ottomans . Under Ottoman ruler Abdulmejid I , the first Lebanese proto-state, the Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate , was established in the 19th century as a home for Maronite Christians , in the Tanzimat period. After the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire following World War I , Lebanon came under

11088-487: The existence of an independent government in Transjordan and defined and limited its powers. The ratifications were exchanged on 31 October 1929." Transjordan remained under British control until the first-Transjordanian treaty was concluded in 1928. Transjordan became nominally independent, although the British still maintained a military presence and control of foreign affairs and retained some financial control over

11220-498: The fighting ended in Lebanon, General Charles de Gaulle visited the area. Under political pressure from both inside and outside Lebanon, de Gaulle recognized the independence of Lebanon. On 26 November 1941, General Georges Catroux announced that Lebanon would become independent under the authority of the Free French government. Elections were held in 1943 and on 8 November 1943 the new Lebanese government unilaterally abolished

11352-531: The fighting of the Arab Revolt against Ottoman rule. Assisted by the British army officer T. E. Lawrence , the Sharif of Mecca Hussein bin Ali led the successful revolt which contributed to the Ottoman defeat and breaking up of its empire . Ottoman forces were forced to withdraw from Aqaba in 1917 after the Battle of Aqaba . In 1918 the British Foreign Office noted the Arab position East of

11484-538: The formation of a Saudi–Moroccan–Algerian committee to solve the crisis. On 16 September 1989 the committee issued a peace plan which was accepted by all. A ceasefire was established, the ports and airports were re-opened and refugees began to return. In the same month, the Lebanese Parliament agreed to the Taif Agreement , which included an outline timetable for Syrian withdrawal from Lebanon and

11616-411: The goals of Revisionist Zionism , which sought a state on both banks of the Jordan. The movement claimed that it effectively severed Transjordan from Palestine, and so reduced the area on which a future Jewish state in the region could be established. The southern border between Transjordan and Arabia was considered strategic for Transjordan in order to avoid being landlocked , with intended access to

11748-745: The grounds that the cease-fire was only relevant to Lebanon. In April 1980 the killing of two UNIFIL soldiers and the injuring of a third by the South Lebanon Army, near At Tiri , in the buffer zone led to the At Tiri incident . On 17 July 1981, Israeli aircraft bombed multi-story apartment buildings in Beirut that contained offices of PLO associated groups. The Lebanese delegate to the United Nations Security Council claimed that 300 civilians had been killed and 800 wounded. The bombing led to worldwide condemnation, and

11880-614: The headwaters of the Jordan, leading to a series of military clashes which would help precipitate the 1967 Six-Day War . Emirate of Transjordan The Emirate of Transjordan ( Arabic : إمارة شرق الأردن , romanized :  Imārat Sharq al-Urdun , lit.   'the emirate east of the Jordan '), officially known as the Amirate of Trans-Jordan , was a British protectorate established on 11 April 1921, which remained as such until achieving formal independence as

12012-458: The independence of Transjordan, but requested that the application be postponed for a year on the grounds that legal procedures required by the Covenant of the League of Nations had not been carried out. The British representative responded that the League of Nations had already approved the termination of the mandate in Transjordan. When the issue was voted on, Transjordan's application achieved

12144-552: The independence of the Arabs in those portions of the (Turkish) vilayet of Damascus in which they are free to act without detriment to French interests. The western boundary of the Turkish vilayet of Damascus before the war was the River Jordan. Palestine and Trans-Jordan do not, therefore, stand upon quite the same footing. At the same time, the two areas are economically interdependent, and their development must be considered as

12276-573: The independence of the Arabs. Transjordan is in a wholly different position from Palestine and it was considered necessary that special arrangements should be made there Transfer of most administrative functions occurred in 1928, including the creation of the post of High Commissioner for Transjordan. The status of the mandate was not altered by the agreement between the United Kingdom and the Emirate concluded on 20 February 1928. It recognised

12408-492: The last months of President Camille Chamoun 's term, an insurrection broke out, instigated by Lebanese Muslims who wanted to make Lebanon a member of the United Arab Republic . Chamoun requested assistance, and 5,000 United States Marines were briefly dispatched to Beirut on 15 July. After the crisis, a new government was formed, led by the popular former general Fouad Chehab . Until the early 1970s, Lebanon

12540-556: The legal basis for the Mandatory Government in Palestine, explicitly excluded Transjordan from its application apart from giving the High Commissioner some discretionary power there. In April/May 1923 Transjordan was granted a degree of independence with Abdullah as ruler and St John Philby as chief representative. The Hashemite emir Abdullah , elder son of Britain's wartime Arab ally Hussein bin Ali,

12672-480: The mandate. The French reacted by imprisoning the new government. Lebanese nationalists declared a provisional government, and the British diplomatically intervened on their behalf. In the face of intense British pressure and protests by Lebanese nationalists, the French reluctantly released the government officials on 22 November 1943, and accepted the independence of Lebanon. Following the end of World War II in Europe

12804-665: The mountain range) that was introduced with the Ottoman reforms of 1861 as the Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate ( Arabic : متصرفية جبل لبنان ; Turkish : Cebel-i Lübnan Mutasarrıflığı ), continued in the name of Greater Lebanon ( Arabic : دولة لبنان الكبير Dawlat Lubnān al-Kabīr ; French : État du Grand Liban ) in 1920, and eventually in the name of the sovereign Republic of Lebanon ( Arabic : الجمهورية اللبنانية al-Jumhūrīyah al-Lubnānīyah ) upon its independence in 1943. The Natufian culture

12936-731: The mountains to avoid religious persecution by Roman authorities. During the frequent Roman–Persian Wars that lasted for many centuries, the Sasanian Empire occupied what is now Lebanon from 619 till 629. During the 7th century, Muslims conquered Syria from the Byzantines, incorporating the region, including modern-day Lebanon, under the Islamic Caliphate . In the era of Uthman 's caliphate (644–656), Islam gained significant influence in Damascus, led by Mu'awiya ,

13068-578: The name have been found in different Middle Bronze Age texts from the library of Ebla , and three of the twelve tablets of the Epic of Gilgamesh . The name is recorded in Egypt as rmnn ( Ancient Egyptian : 𓂋𓏠𓈖𓈖𓈉 ; it had no letter corresponding to l ). The name occurs nearly 70 times in the Hebrew Bible as לְבָנוֹן Ləḇānon . Lebanon as the name of an administrative unit (as opposed to

13200-689: The outbreak of the Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990). Lebanon was also subjugated by two military occupations: Syria from 1976 to 2005 and Israel from 1985 to 2000 . Lebanon has been the scene of several conflicts with Israel , of which the ongoing war marks the fourth Israeli invasion of it since 1978. Lebanon is a developing country , ranked 112th on the Human Development Index . It has been classified as an upper-middle-income state . The Lebanese liquidity crisis , coupled with nationwide corruption and disasters such as

13332-782: The paramount emir of the Druze in the Shouf region. Eventually, he was appointed Sanjak-bey , overseeing various Ottoman sub-provinces and tax collection. Expanding his influence extensively, he even constructed a fort in Palmyra . However, this expansion raised concerns for Ottoman Sultan Murad IV, leading to a punitive expedition in 1633. Fakhr al-Din II was captured, imprisoned for two years, and subsequently executed in April 1635, along with one of his sons. Surviving members of his family continued to govern

13464-600: The plan in September 1955 and referred it for final approval to the Arab League Council. On 11 October 1955, the Council voted not to ratify the plan, due to the League's opposition to formal recognition of Israel. However, the Arab League committed itself to adhere to the technical details without providing official approval. After the Suez Crisis in 1956, however, Arab attitudes hardened considerably, and

13596-657: The plight of the Christian minority in southern Lebanon (then about 5% of the population in SLA territory) to that of European Jews during World War II. The PLO routinely attacked Israel during the period of the cease-fire, with over 270 documented attacks. People in Galilee regularly had to leave their homes during these shellings. Documents captured in PLO headquarters after the invasion showed they had come from Lebanon. PLO leader Yasser Arafat refused to condemn these attacks on

13728-663: The point at which the Iraq-Nejd boundary became the Transjordan-Nejd boundary. This followed a proposal from Lawrence in January 1922 that Transjordan be extended to include Wadi Sirhan as far south as al-Jauf , in order to protect Britain's route to India and contain Ibn Saud. France transferred the District of Ramtha from Syria in 1921. With respect to the demographics, in 1924 the British stated: "No census of

13860-522: The political blueprint for British administration in both Iraq and Transjordan, and in offering these two regions to the sons of Hussein bin Ali, Churchill stated that the spirit, if not the letter, of Britain's wartime promises to the Arabs might be fulfilled. After further discussions between Churchill and Abdullah in Jerusalem, it was mutually agreed that Transjordan was accepted into the Palestine mandatory area as an Arab country apart from Palestine with

13992-481: The population has been taken, but the figure is thought to be in the neighbourhood of 200,000, of whom some 10,000 are Circassians and Chechen; there are about 15,000 Christians and the remainder, in the main, are Moslem Arabs." No census was taken throughout the British mandate period, but the population was estimated to have grown to 300,000 – 350,000 by the early 1940s. The most serious threats to Abdullah's position in Transjordan were repeated Wahhabi incursions by

14124-497: The provisions dealing with Jewish settlement, and this memorandum was communicated to the League on 12 August and approved by it on 16 September. Abdullah established his government on 11 April 1921. Britain administered the part west of the Jordan as Palestine, and the part east of the Jordan as Transjordan. Technically they remained one mandate, but most official documents referred to them as if they were two separate mandates. The Palestine Order in Council, 1922 , which established

14256-621: The proviso that it would be, initially for six months, under the nominal rule of the emir Abdullah and that it would not form part of the Jewish national home to be established west of the River Jordan. Abdullah was then appointed Emir of the Transjordania region in April 1921. On 21 March 1921, the Foreign and Colonial office legal advisers decided to introduce Article 25 into the Mandate for Palestine , which brought Transjordan under

14388-399: The region. In 1516, Lebanon became part of the Ottoman Empire , with governance administered indirectly through local emirs . Lebanon's area was organized into provinces: Northern and Southern Mount Lebanon, Tripoli, Baalbek and Beqaa Valley, and Jabal Amil . In 1590, Druze tribal leader Fakhr al-Din II succeeded Korkmaz in southern Mount Lebanon and quickly asserted his authority as

14520-458: The rejuvenation of Mediterranean trade along the Lebanese coast through renewed connections with Byzantium and Italy. This resurgence saw Tripoli and Tyre flourishing well into the 11th century, focusing on exports such as textiles, sugar, and glassware. During the 11th century, the Druze religion emerged from a branch of Shia Islam . The new religion gained followers in the southern portion of Mount Lebanon. The southern portion of Mount Lebanon

14652-805: The required total number of votes, but was vetoed by the Soviet Union which did not approve membership of any countries with which it did not have diplomatic relations. This problem and similar problems caused by vetoes of the memberships of Ireland, Portugal, Austria, Finland and Italy took several years and many votes to solve. Jordan was finally admitted to membership on 14 December 1955. Lebanon 33°50′N 35°50′E  /  33.833°N 35.833°E  / 33.833; 35.833 Lebanon ( / ˈ l ɛ b ə n ɒ n , - n ə n / LEB -ə-non, -⁠nən ; Arabic : لُبْنَان , romanized :  Lubnān , local pronunciation: [lɪbˈneːn] ), officially

14784-745: The sea via the Port of Aqaba . The southern region of Ma'an - Aqaba , a large area with a small population of just 10,000, was administered by OETA East (later the Arab Kingdom of Syria, and then Mandatory Transjordan) and claimed by the Kingdom of Hejaz . In OETA East, Faisal had appointed a kaymakam (or sub-governor) at Ma'an, whereas the kaymakam at Aqaba, who "disregarded both Husein in Mecca and Feisal in Damascus with impunity" had been instructed by Hussein to extend his authority to Ma'an. This technical dispute did not rise to any form of open struggle, and

14916-462: The shore of the Mediterranean Sea over 7,000 years ago. Lebanon was part of northern Canaan , and consequently became the homeland of Canaanite descendants, the Phoenicians , a seafaring people based in the coastal strip of the northern Levant who spread across the Mediterranean in the first millennium BC. The most prominent Phoenician cities were Byblos , Sidon and Tyre . According to

15048-565: The status of the mandate was not altered by the agreement between the United Kingdom and the Emirate concluded on 20 February 1928 which recognized the existence of an independent government in Transjordan and defined and limited its powers. The ratifications were exchanged on 31 October 1929." On 17 January 1946, Ernest Bevin , the British Foreign Secretary , announced in a speech at the General Assembly of

15180-459: The suppression of local rebellions at Kura , and later by Sultan Adwan , in 1921 and 1923 respectively. Transfer of authority to an Arab government took place gradually in Transjordan, starting with Abdullah's appointment as Emir of Transjordan on 1 April 1921, and the formation of his first government on 11 April 1921. The independent administration was recognised in a statement made public (the statement had been agreed in October 1922 following

15312-593: Was added to Palestine on 10 July 1922, having been conceded by British representative John Philby "in Trans-Jordan's name". Abdullah made a request for the Negev to be added to Transjordan in late 1922, and again in 1925, but this was rejected. The location of the Eastern border between Transjordan and Iraq was considered strategic with respect to the proposed construction of what became the Kirkuk–Haifa oil pipeline . It

15444-547: Was declared by Faisal bin Hussein in Damascus which encompassed most of what later became Transjordan. At this point, the sparsely inhabited southern part of Transjordan was claimed by both Faisal's Syria and his father's Kingdom of Hejaz . Following the provision of mandate to France and Britain at the San Remo conference in April, the British appointed Sir Herbert Samuel High Commissioner in Palestine from 1 July 1920 with

15576-686: Was dubbed "the Switzerland of the Middle East" for its unique status as both a snow-capped holiday destination and secure banking hub for Gulf Arabs . Beirut was also nicknamed "the Paris of the Middle East." With the 1970 defeat of the PLO in Jordan, many Palestinian militants relocated to Lebanon, increasing their armed campaign against Israel. The relocation of Palestinian bases also led to increasing sectarian tensions between Palestinians versus

15708-580: Was first set out on 2 December 1922, in a treaty to which Transjordan was not party to – the Uqair Protocol between Iraq and Nejd. It described the western end of the Iraq-Nejd boundary as "the Jebel Anazan situated in the neighbourhood of the intersection of latitude 32 degrees north longitude 39 degrees east where the Iraq-Najd boundary terminated", thereby implicitly confirming this as

15840-541: Was illegal, seized western Beirut , the most important Sunni center in Lebanon, leading to an intrastate military conflict . The Lebanese government denounced the violence as a coup attempt. At least 62 people died in the resulting clashes between pro-government and opposition militias. On 21 May 2008, the signing of the Doha Agreement ended the fighting. As part of the accord, which ended 18 months of political paralysis, Michel Suleiman became president and

15972-405: Was later ratified in July 1922. The Lebanese Republic was officially proclaimed on 1 September 1926, with the adoption of a constitution inspired by the French constitution on 23 May of the same year. While a Lebanese government was established, the country continued to be under French control. Lebanon gained a measure of independence while France was occupied by Germany. General Henri Dentz ,

16104-545: Was not a full member of the United Nations until 14 December 1955. The Anglo-American treaty, also known as the Palestine Mandate Convention, permitted the US to delay any unilateral British action to terminate the mandate. The earlier proclamation of the independence of Syria and Lebanon had said "the independence and sovereignty of Syria and Lebanon will not affect the juridical situation as it results from

16236-459: Was officially established under French control as a League of Nations Mandate , following the terms outlined in the proposed Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon . Greater Lebanon united the regions of Mount Lebanon, North Lebanon, South Lebanon, and the Bekaa, with Beirut as its designated capital. These specified boundaries later evolved into the present-day configuration of Lebanon. This arrangement

16368-559: Was placed on the throne of Transjordan. The applicable parts of the Mandate for Palestine were stated in a decision of 16 September 1922, which provided for the separate administration of Transjordan. The government of the territory was, subject to the mandate, formed by Abdullah, brother of King Faisal I of Iraq, who had been at Amman since February 1921. Britain recognized Transjordan as an independent government on 15 May 1923, and gradually relinquished control, limiting its oversight to financial, military and foreign policy matters. This affected

16500-517: Was recognized on 18 April 1946 by the League of Nations during the last meeting of that organization. On 25 May 1946 the Transjordan became the " Hashemite Kingdom of Transjordan " when the ruling 'Amir' was re-designated as 'King' by the parliament of Transjordan on the day it ratified the Treaty of London. 25 May is still celebrated as independence day in Jordan although officially the mandate for Transjordan ended on 17 June 1946 when in accordance with

16632-659: Was rejected. The British Foreign Secretary, Lord Curzon , proposed instead that British influence in Transjordan should be advanced by sending a few political officers, without military escort, to encourage self-government and give advice to local leaders in the territory. Following Curzon's instruction Samuel set up a meeting with Transjordanian leaders where he presented British plans for the territory. The local leaders were reassured that Transjordan would not come under Palestinian administration and that there would be no disarmament or conscription. Samuel's terms were accepted, he returned to Jerusalem, leaving Captain Alec Kirkbride as

16764-448: Was ruled by Druze feudal families till the early 14th century. The Maronite population increased gradually in Northern Mount Lebanon and the Druze have remained in Southern Mount Lebanon until the modern era. Keserwan , Jabal Amel and the Beqaa Valley was ruled by Shia feudal families under the Mamluks and the Ottoman Empire. Major cities on the coast, Sidon , Tyre , Acre , Tripoli , Beirut , and others, were directly administered by

16896-486: Was ruled intermittently by various Shia feudal families, especially the Al Ali Alsagheer in Jabal Amel that remained in power until 1865 when Ottomans took direct ruling of the region. Youssef Bey Karam , a Lebanese nationalist played an influential role in Lebanon's independence during this era. Lebanon experienced profound devastation in the First World War when the Ottoman army assumed direct control, disrupting supplies and confiscating animals, ultimately leading to

17028-443: Was the first to become sedentary at around 12000 BC. Evidence of early settlement in Lebanon was found in Byblos , considered among the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. The evidence dates back to earlier than 5000 BC. Archaeologists discovered remnants of prehistoric huts with crushed limestone floors, primitive weapons, and burial jars left by the Neolithic and Chalcolithic fishing communities who lived on

17160-532: Was the policy to be adopted in Transjordan to prevent anti-French military actions from being launched within the allied British zone of influence. The Hashemites were Associated Powers during the war, and a peaceful solution was urgently needed. The two most significant decisions of the conference were to offer the throne of Iraq to emir Faisal ibn Hussein (who became Faisal I of Iraq ) and an emirate of Transjordan (now Jordan) to his brother Abdullah ibn Hussein (who became Abdullah I of Jordan ). The conference provided

17292-437: Was to cause great controversy in subsequent years. Around the same time, another secret treaty was negotiated between the United Kingdom and France, with assent from the Russian Empire and Italy, to define their mutually agreed spheres of influence and control in an eventual partition of the Ottoman Empire . The primary negotiations leading to the agreement occurred between 23 November 1915 and 3 January 1916, on which date

17424-591: Was withdrawn in the spring of 1984, following a devastating bombing attack during the previous year. During the early 1980s, Hezbollah , a Shiite Islamist militant group and political party, came into existence through the efforts of Shiite clerics who were financially supported and trained by Iran . Arising in the aftermath of the 1982 war and drawing inspiration from the Islamic Revolution in Iran , Hezbollah actively engaged in combat against Israel as well as suicide attacks , car bombings and assassinations. Their objectives encompassed eliminating Israel, fighting for

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