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65-458: In these stories, the future Buddha may appear as a king, an outcaste, a deva , an animal—but, in whatever form, he exhibits some virtue that the tale thereby inculcates. Often, Jātaka tales include an extensive cast of characters who interact and get into various kinds of trouble – whereupon the Buddha character intervenes to resolve all the problems and bring about a happy ending . The Jātaka genre

130-569: A common threefold plot schema which contains: In the jātaka found in the Suttapitaka , which are almost always in prose, the Buddha is almost always depicted as a person of high rank in a past life (and not an animal). Some of these also include past lives of some of the Buddha's disciples. One famous example is the Pali Mahāparinirvāṇasūtra , which includes the story of Mahāsudarśana. Unlike Sutra collections, Vinaya sources like

195-400: A flying chariot. While deva may be translated as god , the devas of Buddhism differ from the gods and angels of many other religious traditions: The realm of deva can be seen as a state of consciousness that developed a purer and more spiritual understanding of the world in contrast to hunger ghosts that symbolise the human instinct. While it might be tempting to aspire a rebirth within

260-444: A large number of "heavens" or deva-worlds that rise, layer on layer, above the earth. These can be divided into five main groups: Each of these groups of deva-worlds contains different grades of devas, but all of those within a single group are able to interact and communicate with each other. On the other hand, the lower groups have no direct knowledge of even the existence of the higher types of deva at all. For this reason, some of

325-432: A living tradition to this day. The Theravāda Jātakas comprise 547 poems, arranged roughly by an increasing number of verses. According to Professor von Hinüber, only the last 50 were intended to be intelligible by themselves, without commentary. The commentary gives stories in prose that it claims provide the context for the verses, and it is these stories that are of interest to folklorists . Alternative versions of some of

390-663: A major difference here is that, while Mahavira gets a prediction of future enlightenment, he does not make a vow to become a jina in the future, unlike the bodhisattva Gautama. There is also no equivalent idea of a bodhisattva path in Jainism, in-spite of the existence of some narratives about Mahavira's past lives. A similar collection of Indian animal fables is the Hindu Pañcatantra , which has been dated to around 200 BCE. Some Buddhist jātakas were also adopted and retold by Islamic (and later Christian) authors, such as

455-527: A man and his whole body to a starving tigress who was about to eat her own cubs, and where 'kings, ministers, and peoples of all the kingdoms around vie with one another in making offerings'. A century later, Songyun writes of the same four sites and also mentions a whole area associated with the Vessantara-jātaka . Numerous Indian Buddhist archeological sites contain illustrations of Jātakas, and thus they are important artistic sources for Jātakas. Some of

520-501: A painless birth conceived without intercourse; no need for sleep, food, medicine or bathing although engaging in such "in conformity with the world"; omniscience; and, the ability to "suppress karma ." In spite of this school affiliation however, the Theravadin Bhikkhu Telwatte Rahula concludes in his study of the text that its depiction of the Buddha is not that much different than the depiction of

585-458: Is a highly sophisticated poem which makes use of various Sanskrit literary devices. The Jātakamālā was quite influential and was imitated by later authors who wrote their own jātakamālās , mainly Haribhaṭṭa and Gopadatta. These works are all written in a classical Sanskrit genre known as campū, which is a blend of prose and verse in various meters. The jātakamālās all also use the six perfections (pāramitā) as their main framework. The influence of

650-498: Is a name for painful emotions. Devas are invisible to the human eye. The presence of a deva can be detected by those humans who have opened the "Divine eye" ( divyacakṣus ), (Pāli: dibbacakkhu), (Chinese: 天眼), an extrasensory power by which one can see beings from other planes. Their voices can also be heard by those who have cultivated divyaśrotra, a power similar to that of the ear. Most devas are also capable of constructing illusory forms by which they can manifest themselves to

715-514: Is based on the idea that the Buddha was able to recollect all his past lives and thus could use these memories to tell a story and illustrate his teachings. For the Buddhist traditions, the jātakas illustrate the many lives, acts and spiritual practices which are required on the long path to Buddhahood . They also illustrate the great qualities or perfections of the Buddha (such as generosity ) and teach Buddhist moral lessons, particularly within

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780-404: Is not always the central character of all these stories and sometimes only plays a minor role. Other recurring characters include important disciples of the Buddha , Devadatta (generally as a villain ) and members of Gautama's family, like his wife Yasodharā and son Rāhula . Another important element of the stories are the various Buddhist virtues, called perfections, that were cultivated by

845-819: Is the Jātakatthavaṇṇanā of the Theravada school. In Theravada Buddhism , the Jātakas are a textual division of the Pāli Canon , included in the Khuddaka Nikaya of the Sutta Pitaka . The term Jātaka may also refer to a traditional commentaries ( Atthakatha ) on this book. The tales are dated between 300 BCE and 400 CE. The Mahāsāṃghika Caitika sects from the Āndhra region also had Jātakas as part of their canon and they are known to have rejected some of

910-551: Is the realm that Māra has greatest influence over. The higher devas of the Kāmadhātu live in four heavens that float in the air, leaving them free from contact with the strife of the lower world. They are: The lower devas of the Kāmadhātu live on different parts of the mountain at the center of the world, Sumeru . They are even more passionate than the higher devas, and do not simply enjoy themselves but also engage in strife and fighting. They are: " Furthermore, you should recollect

975-464: Is translated as 天 (literally "heaven") or 天人 (literally "heavenly person") (see the Chinese, Japanese, Korean and Vietnamese versions of this article for more). The feminine equivalent of deva , devi , is sometimes translated as 天女 (literally "heavenly female"), in names such as 吉祥天女 or 辯才天女 , although 天 alone can be used instead. Deva refers to a class of beings or a path of the six paths of

1040-752: The Vimanavatthu and the Buddhavaṃsa . The more recent layer of the Mahāvastu is the Daśabhūmika , a text which contains teachings on a scheme of bodhisattva bhūmis (stages). According to Vincent Tournier, this text was grafted into the Mahāvastu (which itself does not contain any teaching on bodhisattva stages) during the last period of textual formation (ca. 4-6th centuries CE). The Daśabhūmika seems to have originally been considered an appendix or supplement (parivāra, parisara) which later made its way into

1105-673: The Avadānakalpalatā. There are numerous sources for classic or canonical Jātaka tales, including: Within the Pali tradition, there are also many non-canonical Jātakas of later composition (some dated even to the 19th century) but these are treated as a separate category of literature from the "official" Jātaka stories that have been more or less formally canonized from at least the 5th century — as attested to in ample epigraphic and archaeological evidence, such as extant illustrations in bas relief from ancient temple walls. Apocryphal Jātakas of

1170-411: The Mahāvastu itself. A similar case occurred with the second Avalokitasūtra which shows similarities with Mahayana scriptures . The Mahāvastu is considered a primary source for the notion of a transcendent ( lokottara ) Buddha, common to all Mahāsāṃghika schools. According to the Mahāvastu , over the course of many lives, the once-human-born Buddha developed supramundane abilities including:

1235-736: The Pali Text Society (Bristol). There are also numerous English translations of selections and individual stories from various sources. Some of the main translations of jātakas available in English include: Stories which are similar to the jātakas are also found in Jainism , which has stories focused on Mahavira's path to enlightenment in previous lives. The Jain stories include Mahavira's numerous forms of rebirth, such as animals as well as encounters with past liberated beings ( jinas ) which predict Mahavira's future enlightenment. However,

1300-706: The Tibetan and Chinese Buddhist canons . They were some of the first texts to be translated into Chinese. Kāng Sēnghuì (who worked in Nanking c. 247) was one of the first Chinese translators of Jātakas. Perhaps his most influential translation is the Scripture of the Collection of the Six Perfections. The various Indian Buddhist schools had different collections of jātakas. The largest known collection

1365-464: The Vinaya . In spite of this main intended audience, their simple format also made them easily adaptable for other uses. Thus, they were repackaged as artistic entertainment and teaching devices for laypersons, as parittas (protective chants) and as chronicle (vamsa) literature . Straube also notes that the rock caves of Ajanta and Bagh were inhabited by monks and it was them who ordered and directed

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1430-556: The Vinayavastu contain more varied jātakas, including ones in which the Buddha is depicted as an animal. Many jātaka contain elements of both verse and prose. According to Martin Straube "the division into canonical verses and postcanonical prose points to the old Indian narrative form of ākhyāna, which has a fixed wording of the stanzas only, whereas the actual story is to be shaped anew during each oral performance." The plots of

1495-456: The avadāna , which is a story of any karmically significant deed (whether by a bodhisattva or otherwise) and its result. According to Naomi Appleton, some tales (such as those found in the second and fourth decade of the Avadānaśataka ) can be classified as both a jātaka and an avadāna. Jātaka tales may be quite ancient. The term appears as part of a schema of Buddhist literary forms called

1560-425: The different Buddhist schools . These texts are transmitted in various Indian dialects and stem from a prior oral tradition." Furthermore, while these texts cannot be dated in a precise manner, "the fact that many narratives are passed on in almost identical form within the canons of the different schools shows that they date back to the time before the schisms between the schools took place." Sarah Shaw, writing on

1625-434: The jātaka range from simpler Aesopic style animal tales to longer more complex dramas which resemble epics or novels with intricate dialogue, characters and poetry. Despite the diversity of the plots and characters, they are all unified by the character of the heroic bodhisattva Gautama (whose identity is generally only revealed at the end of the story) and his struggles on the quest for awakening . In spite of this, Gautama

1690-563: The jātakamālās can be seen in the Ajanta Cave complex, where illustrations of Jātakas are inscribed with quotes from Āryaśūra, with script datable to the sixth century. The Jātakamālā was also translated into Chinese in 434 CE. Borobudur , a massive 9th century Buddhist site in Java , contains depictions of all 34 Jatakas from the Jātakamālā . Two other Sanskrit authors associated with

1755-614: The "four great stupas" as well as stupas in Pushkalavati , Mangalura, Hadda Mountain, and Sarvadattaan. According to Naomi Appleton, the "four great stupas" visited by Faxian (337–422 CE) are: the first (in 'So-ho-to') was where the Buddha ransomed the life of a dove with his own flesh; the second (in Gandhāra ) was where he gave away his eyes to a blind beggar; and the third and fourth (in Takshaśilā ) were where he gave away his head to

1820-561: The 10th century Shia scholar Ibn Bābūya , who adapted a jātaka into a story titled Balawhar wa-Būdāsf, which became the Christian narrative of Barlaam and Joasaph . Deva (Buddhism) A Deva ( Sanskrit and Pali : देव ; Mongolian : тэнгэр , tenger) in Buddhism is a type of celestial being or god who shares the god-like characteristics of being more powerful, longer-lived, and, in general, much happier than humans, although

1885-511: The 2nd century BCE and 4th century CE. The Mahāvastu was first published in the West in an editio princeps by Émile Senart between 1882 and 1897. This edition is in a language which has been termed Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit . The text is a composite one which includes past life narratives, stories of previous Buddhas , stories of Gautama Buddha 's final life, embedded early Buddhist sutras and two prologues ( nidānas ). Over half of

1950-550: The Brahmās have become proud, imagining themselves as the creators of their own worlds and of all the worlds below them (because they came into existence before those worlds began to exist). The devas of the Kāmadhātu have physical forms similar to, but larger than, those of humans. They lead the same sort of lives that humans do, though they are longer-lived and generally more content; indeed sometimes they are immersed in pleasures. This

2015-413: The Buddha, very little biographical material about Gautama's own life has been recorded. Jātaka tales also assimilate many traditional Indian fables and folklore that are not specifically Buddhist. As the genre spread outside of India, it also drew on local folk tales. The Mahayana author Asaṅga provides a working definition of jātaka in his Śrāvakabhūmi : What is jātaka ? That which relates

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2080-549: The Chinese pilgrim Yijing , who visited India in the 7th century, jātaka plays were performed 'throughout the five countries of India'. This culture of performance spread to other regions as well. In Tibet, the Viśvāntara-jātaka was transformed into a popular play called the Dri med kun ldan . Other popular jataka plays include Nor bzaṅ or Sudhana and the story of Prince Maṇicūḍa (Lokānanda). In Theravada countries, several of

2145-619: The Pali Jātaka , states that the earliest part of the Jātaka , the verse portions, are "considered amongst the very earliest part of the Pali tradition and date from the fifth century BCE" while "the later parts were incorporated during the period up to the third century CE." According to A. K. Warder , jātaka are the precursors to the various legendary biographies of the Buddha, which were composed at later dates. Although many jātaka were written from an early period, which describe previous lives of

2210-612: The Pali Buddhist canon, such as those belonging to the Paññāsa Jātaka collection, have been adapted to fit local culture in certain South East Asian countries and have been retold with amendments to the plots to better reflect Buddhist morals. According to Kate Crosby, "there is also a collection of Jātaka of ten future Buddhas, beginning with Metteyya , which though less well-known today clearly circulated widely in

2275-824: The Pali tradition: Āryaśūra's Jātakamālā , a very influential Sanskrit work that was depicted throughout the Buddhist world, contains the following Jātakas (which teach various virtues): Jātakas have been important as a way to spread Buddhist teachings and they were widely used as part of sermons, rituals, festivals, and various forms of art. Kate Crosby writes that they have been depicted in such varied forms as "apocryphal literature, vernacular retellings, performance, temple art, temporary street and festival art, films, comics, and cartoons." The sponsorship of Jātaka recitations, copyings and art eventually grew to be seen as an act which generated merit for lay Buddhists. These acts are more common around important festivals like Vesak . The earliest archeological findings which depict Jātakas are

2340-642: The Theravada world." There are also late compositions based on classic Jātakas, such as the Kavsiḷumiṇa , a poem based on the Kusa Jātaka in archaic Sinhala written King Parākkamabāhu II (13th century) and the Mahachat kham luang , the 'royal version' of the Vessantara jātaka, which was composed at the court of King Paramatrailokanātha (c. 1482). The art of putting classic Jātakas into Thai verse remains

2405-640: The Theravāda Jātakas which dated past the time of King Ashoka . The Caitikas claimed that their own Jātakas represented the original collection before the Buddhist tradition split into various lineages. In the Northern Buddhist tradition , Jātakas eventually came to be composed in classical Sanskrit . Perhaps the most influential and important Sanskrit Jātaka text is the Jātakamālā ( Garland of Jātakas ) of Āryaśūra which includes 34 Jātaka stories. This work differs from earlier sources in that it

2470-594: The allure of heaven should be something to be avoided. Mah%C4%81vastu The Mahāvastu (Sanskrit for "Great Event" or "Great Story") is a canonical text of the Mahāsāṃghika Lokottaravāda school of Early Buddhism which was originally part of the school's Vinaya pitaka . The Mahāvastu is a composite multi-life hagiography of the Buddha Shakyamuni . Its numerous textual layers are held by scholars to have been compiled between

2535-547: The austere practices and bodhisattva practices of the Blessed One in various past births: this is called jātaka . The idea that jātaka are taught in order to illustrate the bodhisattva path is an ancient one and is contained in sources like the Mahavastu , which states: "the supreme ones [Buddhas], who are skilled in jātakas and other doctrines, teach the course of practice of a bodhisattva." Many jātakas are told with

2600-432: The beings of lower worlds; higher and lower devas sometimes do this to each other. Devas do not require the same kind of sustenance as humans do, although the lower kinds do eat and drink. The higher orders of deva shine with their own intrinsic luminosity. Devas are also capable of moving great distances speedily, and of flying through the air, although the lower devas sometimes accomplish this through magical aids such as

2665-579: The best examples being the illustrations found at Ananda Temple (which depicts 554 tales). Jātaka tales are often associated with specific locations. Originally, this applied to specific places in India, which served as Buddhist pilgrimage sites . Later traditions expanded this to include other places throughout the Buddhist world. According to Naomi Appleton, the fact that Jātaka tales lack specific references to specific places allowed them to be easily transported and re-localized. This flexibility contributed to

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2730-463: The bodhisattva Gautama throughout his previous lives, and which serve as the lessons taught by the jātakas. Other jātakas, such as those found in the Buddhavaṃsa ( Chronicle of Buddhas ), focus on Gautama's meeting, serving and venerating past Buddhas and serve to place his bodhisattva path in a chronology of past Buddhas. These stories generally focus on acts of devotion to past Buddhas and how this generates much merit which many positive outcomes in

2795-531: The bodhisattva path. Parallel examples of Bahubuddhakasūtras have been found in Gandharan Buddhist text collections. One of these manuscripts dates to the 1st century BCE. Another parallel Bahubuddhaka sūtra is the Chinese translation Fo benxing ji jing (Taisho 190). The Mahāvastu 's Jātaka tales are similar to those of the Pali Canon although significant differences exist in terms of

2860-600: The devas: 'There are the devas of the Four Great Kings, the devas of the Thirty-three,... " [196. Dh.] " Feeders of joy we shall be like the radiant gods (devas). " Sometimes included among the devas, and sometimes placed in a different category, are the Asuras , the opponents of the preceding two groups of devas, whose nature is to be continually engaged in war. Humans are said to have originally had many of

2925-520: The framework of karma and rebirth . Jātaka stories have also been illustrated in Buddhist architecture throughout the Buddhist world and they continue to be an important element in popular Buddhist art . Some of the earliest such illustrations can be found at Sanchi and Bharhut . According to Naomi Appleton, Jātaka collections also may have played "an important role in the formation and communication of ideas about buddhahood , karma and merit, and

2990-411: The future. A smaller number of jātakas illustrate various mistakes or bad actions that the bodhisattva committed in a past life (and the subsequent karmic retribution) and thus demonstrate the bodhisattva's past imperfections. Regarding the intended audience of these texts, Martin Straube notes that even though there is a widespread view that jātakas arose due to monks "catering to the needs and tastes of

3055-769: The genre. One such late text is Kṣemendra's (c. 1036–1065) Bodhisattvāvadānakalpalatā (Wish-Fulfilling Creeper Consisting in Avadānas of the Bodhisattva), a unique jātaka text written completely in verse. This work was influential on the Tibetan tradition. Jātaka are also important in Tibetan Buddhism . They were one of the main sources of teaching and study for the popular Kadam school and later Tibetan authors produced abridged collections such as Karmapa Rangjung Dorje 's Hundred Births and Padma Chopel's summary of

3120-405: The illiterate lay practitioners of Buddhism as propagandistic means of preaching or converting" there is no historical evidence for this. Instead, the opposite might be true, since "the prose portions of the Pali jātakas not infrequently have as their audience monks and nuns, who sometimes reach high levels of spiritual realization after listening to a jātaka story." Naomi Appleton, in her analysis of

3185-556: The illustrations found in the on the Bharhut stupa railing as well as at Sanchi (c. late 2nd – 1st century BCE), which also include inscriptions. After this, Jātakas appear at many Buddhist sites, like at Ajanta . Similar Jātaka tales are found in murals of Silk Road sites of the pre-Tang period (ca. 421–640 C.E.), such as at Kucha . They are also found in early Southeast Asian sites, especially at Bagan sites. Burmese Buddhism has an extensive tradition of Jātaka illustration, one of

3250-449: The incarnation cycle. It includes some very different types of beings which can be ranked hierarchically according to the merits they have accumulated over lifetimes. The lowest classes of these beings are closer in their nature to human beings than to the higher classes of deva. Devas can be degraded to humans or the beings in the three evil paths once they have consumed their merits. The devas fall into three classes depending upon which of

3315-624: The jātaka genre are Kumāralāta (2nd century CE), author of the Kalpanāmaṇḍitikā Dṛṣṭāntapaṅkti ( Collection of Examples, Adorned with an Artistic Arrangement ) and Saṅghasena's (date unknown) Pusa benyuan jing (菩薩本縁經; Sūtra of the Bodhisattva's Avadānas ). Both works exist only in Chinese translation (but there are Sanskrit fragments). These texts are a kind of predecessor to the Jātakamālā and are less poetically sophisticated. Later Sanskrit authors continued to write in

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3380-737: The jātaka murals found there. There is also evidence from inscriptions on old stūpas at various Indian sites (such as Sanchi and Bharhut ) with jātaka motifs which indicate that they were built due to the patronage of monks and nuns, some of them of high rank such as bhāṇaka (reciter). Some scholars have also concluded that Jātaka reciters were part of their own division of reciters. Jātakas were originally transmitted in prakrit languages and various forms of Sanskrit (from classical to Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit ). They were then translated into central Asian languages (such as Khotanese, Tocharian, Uighur, and Sogdian) . Various jātaka stories and source texts were also translated into Chinese and Tibetan for

3445-563: The lasting popularity of the Jātakas. This tradition of associating Jātaka tales with regions outside of India played an important part in the promotion and legitimisation of Buddhism in these regions. Thus, many stupas in Nepal and northern India are said to mark locations from the Jātaka tales. Chinese pilgrims like Xuanzang and Faxian reported several of these and discussed the stories connected with them. Sites discussed by these figures include

3510-806: The longer tales such as " The Twelve Sisters " and the Vessantara Jataka are still performed in dance, theatre, puppetry, and formal (quasi-ritual) recitation. Such celebrations are associated with particular holidays on the lunar calendar used by Thailand , Myanmar , Sri Lanka and Laos . The recitation of the Vessantara Jataka remains an important ceremony remains an important ceremony in Theravada countries today. The standard Pali collection of jātakas, with canonical text embedded, has been translated by E. B. Cowell and others, originally published in six volumes by Cambridge University Press (1895–1907) and reprinted in three volumes, by

3575-587: The main sites include: Other ancient sites outside of India which contain Jataka illustrations include Borobudor , Dunhuang (the Mogao caves ), Polonnoruwa , Anuradhapura , Bagan city , and Nakhon Pathom . Jataka illustrations (especially of the last 10 stories of the canonical Pali collection) are widespread in the Theravada Buddhist world, adorning many temples, wats and key sites. According to

3640-470: The nine component genres of the Buddha's teaching ( navaṅga-buddhasāsana ), and depictions of them appear in early Indian art (as early as the second century BCE). They are also widely represented in ancient Indian inscriptions . According to Straube, "the presumably oldest specimens of fully elaborated narratives are dispersed throughout the Vinayapiṭakas and Sūtrapiṭakas of the canonical collections of

3705-524: The place of the Buddha in relation to other buddhas and bodhisattvas ." According to the traditional view found in the Pali Jātakanidana , a prologue to the stories, Gautama made a vow to become a Buddha in the future, in front past Buddha Dipankara . He then spent many lifetimes on the path to Buddhahood, and the stories from these lives are recorded as Jātakas. Jātakas are closely related to (and often overlap with) another genre of Buddhist narrative,

3770-403: The powers of the devas: not requiring food, the ability to fly through the air, and shining by their own light. Over time they began to eat solid foods, their bodies became coarser and their powers disappeared. There is also a humanistic definition of 'deva' [male] and 'devi' [female] ascribed to Gautama Buddha : a god is a moral person. This is comparable to another definition, i.e. that 'hell'

3835-411: The same level of veneration is not paid to them as to Buddhas. Other words used in Buddhist texts to refer to similar supernatural beings are devatā ("deities") and devaputta ("son of god"). While the former is a synonym for deva ("celestials"), the latter refers specifically to one of these beings who is young and has newly arisen in its heavenly world. In East Asian Buddhism , the word deva

3900-442: The second and fourth decade of the Avadānaśataka , notes that both sets of stories "assume a monastic audience." Likewise, Kate Crosby writes that "the format of the Jātaka in fact suggests that their original inclusion in the canonical collection was primarily for the benefit of monks." Crosby notes that many of these stories are connected with monastic behavior and decorum, some of them are also meant to illustrate specific rules in

3965-676: The stories can be found in another book of the Pali Canon, the Cariyapitaka , and a number of individual stories can be found scattered around other books of the Canon. Many of the stories and motifs found in the Jātaka such as the Rabbit in the Moon of the Śaśajātaka (Jataka Tales: no.316), are found in numerous other languages and media. The following list includes some important jātakas of

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4030-758: The tales' details. Other parts of the Mahāvastu have more direct parallels in the Pali Canon including from the Digha Nikaya ( DN 19, Mahāgovinda Sutta ), the Majjhima Nikaya ( MN 26, Ariyapariyesana Sutta ; and, MN 36, Mahasaccaka Sutta ), the Khuddakapātha , the Dhammapada (ch. 8, Sahassa Vagga ; and, ch. 25, Bhikkhu Vagga ), the Sutta Nipata ( Sn 1.3, Khaggavisā ṇ a Sutta ; Sn 3.1, Pabbajjā Sutta ; and, Sn 3.2, Padhāna Sutta ),

4095-932: The text is composed of Jātaka and Avadāna tales, accounts of the earlier lives of the Buddha and other bodhisattvas . The Mahāvastu opens with two prologues ( nidānas ), the Nidānanamaskāras (dating to around the 3rd century CE) and the Nidānavastu (c. 1st century CE). Four sections of the Mahāvastu contain texts of the Bahubuddhaka sūtra genre. This includes a bahubuddhasūtra in chapter XXI of Jones' translation, Volume III and Chapter V in Jones Volume I. The Bahubuddhakasūtras are sutras which contain narratives of past Buddhas and these narratives often served as sources for Buddhist doctrines relating to

4160-417: The three dhātus, or "realms" of the universe they are born in. The devas of the Ārūpyadhātu have no physical form or location, and they dwell in meditation on formless subjects. They achieve this by attaining advanced meditational levels in another life. They do not interact with the rest of the universe. The devas of the Rūpadhātu have physical forms, but are genderless and passionless. They live in

4225-417: The world of gods or celestial beings, the deva are so full of joy in this realm that are unable to understand the teaching about the permanent dukkha in samsara . Furthermore, even a deva having consumed all the good karma within the pleasurable existence in this realm, can be reborn in Naraka . It will not bring the final release from samsara and the evils of the six paths., therefore falling for

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