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104-783: The personal union between the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (converted in 1569 with the Treaty of Lublin into the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ) is the reason for the common appellation " Poland–Lithuania " in discussions about the area from the Late Middle Ages onward. One Jagiellon, Władysław III of Poland , briefly ruled both Poland and Hungary (1440–1444), and two others ruled both Bohemia and Hungary (1490–1526) and then continued in

208-567: A levée en masse , called for a military campaign against Moldavia . However, the lesser and middle strata of the nobility called a rebellion, or semi-legal rebellion, to force the King to abandon his risky reforms. The nobles presented him with 36 demands, most notably: a cessation of further land acquisitions by Queen Bona , exemption of the nobility from the tithes, a clean-up of the Treasury rather than its expansion, confirmation and extension of

312-652: A Duke of Silesia by the authority of his brother Ladislaus II of Bohemia , but like other Jagiellon rulers before him, he had not pursued the Polish Crown's claim to Silesia. After the death of King Alexander I , Sigismund I arrived in Vilnius , where he was elected by the Lithuanian Ducal Council on 13 September 1506 as Grand Duke of Lithuania , contrary to the Union of Mielnik , which involved

416-628: A "free lord" ( pan – dominus ). When the news arrived in Poland concerning the proclamation of Casimir IV Jagiellon as the Grand Duke of Lithuania, it was met with hostility, even to the point of military threats against Lithuania. Since the young Lithuanian Grand Duke was underage, the supreme control over the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was in the hands of the Lithuanian Council of Lords, presided by Jonas Goštautas, while Casimir IV Jagiellon

520-631: A boy by Władysław III on a mission there in 1440, was surprisingly proclaimed by the Lithuanians as a Grand Duke of Lithuania , and he stayed in Lithuania. Oleśnicki gained the upper hand again and pursued his long-term objective of Poland's union with Hungary . At that time the Ottoman Empire embarked on a new round of European conquests and threatened Hungary, which needed the powerful Polish–Lithuanian ally. In 1440 Władysław III assumed

624-657: A high degree the tenacity and patience that seem to have characterized all the Jagiellons, and he added to these qualities a dexterity and diplomatic finesse. No other Polish king seems to have so thoroughly understood the nature of the Polish sejm . Both the Austrian ambassadors and the papal legates testify to the care with which he controlled his nation. Everything went as he wished, they said, because he seemed to know everything in advance. He managed to get more money out of

728-462: A horse during hunting of a bear and gave a preterm birth to her second son who was born alive and baptized as Albert, but died a few hours after his birth and was buried in the Niepołomice Castle 's chapel. The Polish "Golden Age" , the period of the reigns of Sigismund I and Sigismund II , the last two Jagiellonian kings, or more generally the 16th century, is most often identified with

832-634: A joint Polish-Lithuanian election of a monarch. On 8 December 1506 during the session of the Polish Senate in Piotrków , Sigismund I was elected King of Poland. He arrived in Kraków on 20 January 1507 and was crowned four days later in Wawel Cathedral by Primate Andrzej Boryszewski. In 1518 Sigismund I married Bona Sforza d'Aragona , a young, strong-minded Italian princess. Bona's sway over

936-511: A personal union, in a federation or a unitary state , a central (federal) government spanning all member states exists, with the degree of self-governance distinguishing the two. The ruler in a personal union does not need to be a hereditary monarch. The term was coined by German jurist Johann Stephan Pütter , introducing it into Elementa iuris publici germanici (Elements of German Public Law) of 1760. Personal unions can arise for several reasons, such as: They can also be codified (i.e.,

1040-655: A second expedition to subdue all of Hungary. Louis made a tactical error when he tried to stop the Ottoman army in an open field battle with a medieval army, insufficient firearms, and obsolete tactics. On 29 August 1526, Louis led his forces against Suleiman the Magnificent of the Ottoman Empire in the disastrous Battle of Mohács . In a pincer movement, the Hungarian army was surrounded by Ottoman cavalry, and in

1144-730: A slight deficiency, or a tendency toward sin yet without collective guilt , referred to as a "sin nature", to something as drastic as total depravity or automatic guilt of all humans through collective guilt. Most Western Christians use a version of the Nicene Creed that states that the Holy Spirit " proceeds from the Father and the Son ", where the original text as adopted by the First Council of Constantinople had "proceeds from

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1248-859: A son, Sigismund III Vasa ; as a result, the Polish branch of the Jagiellonians merged with the House of Vasa , which ruled Poland from 1587 until 1668. During the interval, among others, Stephen Báthory , the husband of the childless Anna, reigned. At one point, the Jagiellonians established dynastic control also over the kingdoms of Bohemia and Hungary (from 1490 onwards), with Vladislaus Jagiello whom several history books call Vladisla(u)s II. After being elected and crowned King of Hungary, Vladislaus moved his court to Hungary from where he ruled both countries and his children were born and raised. By Louis' sudden death in Battle of Mohács in 1526, that royal line

1352-664: Is an ex officio co-prince. This led to personal unions with: : After 1707, see Great Britain below. Note: The point at issue in the War of the Spanish Succession was the fear that the succession to the Spanish throne dictated by Spanish law, which would devolve on Louis, le Grand Dauphin — already heir to the throne of France — would create a personal union that would upset the European balance of power ; France had

1456-701: Is applied to distinguish all these denominations collectively from Eastern Christianity. The establishment of the distinct Latin Church, a particular church sui iuris of the Catholic Church , coincided with the consolidation of the Holy See in Rome , which claimed primacy since Antiquity. The Latin Church is distinct from the Eastern Catholic Churches , also in full communion with

1560-590: Is his mother's maiden name. The latter surname may refer to his occupation. "Lanthos" means "lutenist", or "bard". He received incomes from the Royal Treasury regularly. He had further offspring. The Jagiellonians were the primary inheritors of the title of the Grand Duke of Lithuania following the deaths of Vytautas the Great , Sigismund Kęstutaitis (children of Grand Duke Kęstutis ) as they remained as

1664-580: Is not nearly as absolute as in Antiquity or the Middle Ages, due to the spread of Christian missionaries , migrations , and globalisation . As such, the adjectives "Western Christianity" and "Eastern Christianity" are typically used to refer to historical origins and differences in theology and liturgy rather than present geographical locations. While the Latin Church maintains the use of

1768-665: Is often regarded as a period of maximum political power, great prosperity, and in its later stage, the Golden Age of Polish culture . The Great War of 1409–1411, precipitated by the Lithuanian uprising in the Order controlled Samogitia , included the Battle of Grunwald (Tannenberg), where the Polish and Lithuanian-Rus' armies completely defeated the Teutonic Knights . The offensive that followed lost its impact with

1872-664: Is one of two subdivisions of Christianity ( Eastern Christianity being the other). Western Christianity is composed of the Latin Church and Western Protestantism , together with their offshoots such as the Old Catholic Church , Independent Catholicism and Restorationism . The large majority of the world's 2.3 billion Christians are Western Christians (about 2 billion: 1.2 billion Latin Catholic and 1.17 billion Protestant). One major component,

1976-518: The Americas , much of the Philippines , Southern Africa , pockets of West Africa , and throughout Australia and New Zealand . Thus, when used for historical periods after the 16th century, the term "Western Christianity" does not refer to a particular geographical area but is used as a collective term for all these. Today, the geographical distinction between Western and Eastern Christianity

2080-682: The Catholic Church and the Protestants . Unsuccessful and debilitating beginning of the Livonian War for the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Lithuanian nobility 's desire for equal rights with the Polish nobility resulted in childless Sigismund II's possibly the most striking memorial—the Union of Lublin , which united Poland and Lithuania with equal rights into the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth —the "Republic of

2184-592: The Council of Chalcedon (451), and then from Eastern Orthodoxy with the East-West Schism of 1054. With the last-named form of Eastern Christianity, reunion agreements were signed at the Second Council of Lyon (1274) and the Council of Florence (1439), but these proved ineffective. Historian Paul Legutko of Stanford University said the Catholic Church is "at the center of the development of

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2288-808: The Council of Constance . During the Hussite Wars (1420–1434), Jagiełło, Vytautas and Sigismund Korybut were involved in political and military maneuvering concerning the Czech crown , offered by the Hussites first to Jagiełło in 1420. Zbigniew Oleśnicki became known as the leading opponent of a union with the Hussite Czech state. The Jagiellonian dynasty was not entitled to automatic hereditary succession, as each new king had to be approved by nobility consensus. Władysław Jagiełło had two sons late in life from his last wife, Sophia of Halshany. In 1430

2392-777: The Duchy of Oświęcim and Duchy of Zator on Silesia 's border with Lesser Poland , and there was notable progress regarding the incorporation of the Piast Masovian duchies into the Crown . The influence of the Jagiellonian dynasty in Central Europe had been on the rise. In 1471 Casimir's son Władysław became a king of Bohemia , and in 1490 also of Hungary . The southern and eastern outskirts of Poland and Lithuania became threatened by Turkish invasions beginning in

2496-694: The Holy Roman Empire , while Schleswig was a part of Denmark). The situation was complicated by the fact that for some time, the Duchies were divided among collateral branches of the House of Oldenburg (the ruling House in Denmark and Schleswig-Holstein). Besides the "main" Duchy of Schleswig-Holstein-Glückstadt, ruled by the Kings of Denmark, there were states encompassing territory in both Duchies. Notably

2600-666: The Julian calendar and Gregorian calendar respectively. However, before the Council of Nicea, various dates including Jewish Passover were observed. Nicea "Romanized" the date for Easter and anathematized a "Judaized" (i.e. Passover date for) Easter. The date of observance of Easter has only differed in modern times since the promulgation of the Gregorian calendar in 1582; and further, the Western Church did not universally adopt

2704-463: The Kingdom of Poland after his father's Sigismund I death in 1548, overcame the resistance and had Barbara crowned in 1550; a few months later the new queen died. Sigismund II accompanied the funeral procession of Barbara from Kraków to Vilnius by personally going on foot through cities. Bona, estranged from her son returned to Italy in 1556, where she died soon afterwards. Sigismund II possessed to

2808-620: The Latin liturgical rites , Protestant denominations and Independent Catholicism use various liturgical practices. The earliest concept of Europe as a cultural sphere (instead of simply a geographic term) appeared during the Carolingian Renaissance of the 9th century, which included territories that practiced Western Christianity at the time. For much of its history, the Christian church has been culturally divided between

2912-559: The Middle Ages , adherents of the Latin Church, irrespective of ethnicity, commonly referred to themselves as "Latins" to distinguish themselves from Eastern Christians ("Greeks"). Western Christianity has played a prominent role in the shaping of Western civilization . With the expansion of European colonialism from the Early Modern era , the Latin Church, in time along with its Protestant secessions, spread throughout

3016-732: The Pope in Rome , and from the Eastern Orthodox Church and Oriental Orthodox Churches , which are not in communion with Rome. These other churches are part of Eastern Christianity . The terms "Western" and "Eastern" in this regard originated with geographical divisions mirroring the cultural divide between the Hellenistic East and Latin West and the political divide between the Western and Eastern Roman empires . During

3120-636: The Renaissance style reconstruction of the Palace of the Grand Dukes of Lithuania in Vilnius which was started by his father, Sigismund I. Sigismund II maintained two separate and equally lavish Lithuanian -speaking and Polish -speaking royal courts in Vilnius. From the outset of his reign, Sigismund II came into collision with the country's nobility, who had already begun curtailing the power of

3224-402: The Roman province of Africa . There is evidence of a Latin translation of the Bible as early as the 2nd century (see also Vetus Latina ). With the decline of the Roman Empire , distinctions appeared also in organization, since the bishops in the West were not dependent on the Emperor in Constantinople and did not come under the influence of the Caesaropapism in the Eastern Church . While

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3328-516: The distaff line as a branch of the House of Habsburg . The Polish "Golden Age ", the period of the reigns of Sigismund I and Sigismund II , the last two Jagiellonian kings, or more generally the 16th century, is most often identified with the rise of the culture of Polish Renaissance . The cultural blossoming had its material base in the prosperity of the elites, both the landed nobility and urban patriciate at such centers as Kraków and Gdańsk . The name comes from Jogaila ( Jagiełło ),

3432-401: The eponymous first ruler of the Jagiellonian dynasty, started as the Grand Duke of Lithuania. As a result of the Union of Krewo he then converted to Christianity and married the 11-year-old Queen Jadwiga of Poland (daughter of King Louis I of Hungary from the Angevins Dynasty). Thereby he became jure uxoris King of Poland as her co-ruler and founded the dynasty. Angevin rulers were

3536-443: The see of Constantinople became dominant throughout the Emperor's lands, the West looked exclusively to the see of Rome , which in the East was seen as that of one of the five patriarchs of the Pentarchy , "the proposed government of universal Christendom by five patriarchal sees under the auspices of a single universal empire. Formulated in the legislation of the emperor Justinian I (527–565), especially in his Novella 131,

3640-436: The sejm than his father ever could, and at one of his sejm s he won the hearts of the assembly by unexpectedly appearing before them in the simple grey coat of a Masovian lord. Like his father, a pro- Austrian by conviction, he contrived even in this respect to carry with him the nation, often distrustful of the Germans. He avoided serious complications with the powerful Turks. Sigismund II mediated for twenty years between

3744-445: The 15 Commonwealth realms , who share Charles III as their head of state, and one of the co-princes of Andorra being the President of France . King Chungseon reigned as King of Goryeo in 1298 and 1308–1313 and as King of Shenyang or King of Shen from 1307 (according to the History of Yuan ) or 1308 (according to Goryeosa ) to 1316. At that time, Goryeo had already become a vassal of Mongol Empire and Mongol imperial family and

3848-401: The Americas (especially South America), Africa, Asia, Australia and the Pacific. Protestantism, including Anglicanism, came to North America, Australia-Pacific and some African locales. Today, the geographical distinction between Western and Eastern Christianity is much less absolute, due to the great migrations of Europeans across the globe, as well as the work of missionaries worldwide over

3952-426: The Dukes of Schleswig-Holstein-Gottorp and the subordinate Dukes of Schleswig-Holstein-Beck, Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg and Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg. The duchies of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt and Schwarzburg-Sondershausen were in personal union from 1909, when Prince Günther of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt succeeded also to the throne of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, until 1918, when he (and all

4056-544: The Eastern Orthodox Church, has traditionally held a distinction between God's essence, or that which He is, with God's energies, or that which He does. They hold that while God is unknowable in His essence, He can be known (i.e. experienced) in His energies. This is an extension of Eastern Christianity's apophatic theology , while Western Christians tend to prefer a view of divine simplicity , and claim that God's essence can be known by its attributes. Today, Western Christianity makes up close to 90% of Christians worldwide with

4160-412: The Father" without the addition of either "and the Son" or "alone". This Western version also has the additional phrase "God from God" ( Latin : Deum de Deo ), which was in the Creed as adopted by the First Council of Nicaea , but which was dropped by the First Council of Constantinople. The date of Easter usually differs between Eastern and Western Christianity, because the calculations are based on

4264-400: The Goryeo royal family had close relationship by marriages of convenience. Because he was a very powerful man during Külüg Khan 's reign, he could become the King of Shenyang where many Korean people lived in Liaodong . However, he lost his power in the Mongol imperial court after the death of the Külüg Khan. Because the Mongol Empire made Chungseon abdicate the crown of the Goryeo in 1313,

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4368-482: The Gregorian calendar at once, so that for some time the dates of Easter differed between the Eastern Church and the Roman Catholic Church, but not necessarily as between the Eastern Church and the Western Protestant churches. For example, the Church of England continued to observe Easter on the same date as the Eastern Church until 1753. Even the dates of other Christian holidays often differ between Eastern and Western Christianity. Eastern Christianity, and particularly

4472-421: The Habsburgs' advantage. The decisive factor that damaged or weakened the monarchies of the last Jagiellons was the Ottoman Empire 's Turkish expansion. Hungary's vulnerability greatly increased after Suleiman the Magnificent took the Belgrade fortress in 1521. To prevent Poland from extending military aid to Hungary, Suleiman had a Tatar-Turkish force raid southeastern Poland–Lithuania in 1524. The Hungarian army

4576-436: The Hungarian throne. Influenced by Julian Cesarini, the young king led the Hungarian army against the Ottomans in 1443 and again in 1444. Like Cesarini, Władysław III was killed at the Battle of Varna . Beginning toward the end of Jagiełło's life, Poland was practically governed by a magnate oligarchy led by Oleśnicki. The rule of the dignitaries was actively opposed by various szlachta groups. Their leader Spytek of Melsztyn

4680-417: The Jagiellon brothers, Vladislaus II of Bohemia and Hungary and Sigismund I of Poland and Lithuania. It was supposed to end the Emperor's support for Poland's enemies, the Teutonic and Russian states , but after the election of Charles V , Maximilian's successor in 1519, the relations with Sigismund had worsened. The Jagiellon rivalry with the House of Habsburg in central Europe was ultimately resolved to

4784-444: The King Matthias Corvinus died without heir in 1490. His illegitimate son John Corvinus was not recognized by the Hungarian nobility , and after being forced to retreat, they called Vladislaus to Hungary, as his mother was the sister of the long ago deceased King Ladislaus and granddaughter of King Sigismund. Vladislaus was then crowned King of Hungary on 18 September 1490. Vladislaus immediately moved to Hungary, and there he lived

4888-490: The Kingdoms of Bohemia and Hungary, but the Hungarian throne was contested by John Zápolya , who ruled the areas of the kingdom conquered by the Turks as an Ottoman client. Although Louis II's marriage remained childless, he probably had an illegitimate child with his mother's former lady-in-waiting, Angelitha Wass , before his marriage. This son was called John (János in Hungarian). This name appears in sources in Vienna as either János Wass or János Lanthos. The former surname

4992-413: The Latin Church, developed under the bishop of Rome . Out of the Latin Church emerged a wide variety of independent Protestant denominations , including Lutheranism and Anglicanism , starting from the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century, as did Independent Catholicism in the 19th century. Thus, the term "Western Christianity" does not describe a single communion or religious denomination but

5096-412: The Latin-speaking West, whose centre was Rome , and the Greek-speaking East, whose centre was Constantinople . Cultural differences and political rivalry created tensions between the two churches, leading to disagreement over doctrine and ecclesiology and ultimately to schism . Like Eastern Christianity , Western Christianity traces its roots directly to the apostles and other early preachers of

5200-455: The Lithuanian words joti (to ride) and gailus (strong, powerful). The rule of Piasts , the earlier Polish ruling house (c. 962–1370) had ended with the death of King Casimir III the Great . Gediminids , the immediate predecessors of the first Jagiellonian, were rulers of medieval Lithuania with the title of Grand Duke . Their realm, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , was chiefly inhabited by Lithuanians and Ruthenians . Jogaila,

5304-425: The Ottoman ambassador executed and sent the head to the Sultan. Louis believed that the Papal States and other Christian States including Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor would help him. This event hastened the fall of Hungary. The Ottoman Empire declared war on the Kingdom of Hungary , Suleiman postponed his plan to besiege Rhodes and made an expedition to Belgrade. Louis failed to coordinate and gather his forces. At

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5408-555: The Polish throne only on a condition that Lithuania and Poland will be equivalent states. Casimir IV Jagiellon succeeded his brother Władysław III as King of Poland after a three-year interregnum on 25 June 1447. In 1454, Casimir IV Jagiellon married Elisabeth of Austria , daughter of the late King of the Romans Albert II of Habsburg by his late wife Elisabeth of Bohemia . Her distant relative Frederick of Austria became Holy Roman Emperor and reigned as Frederick III until after Casimir IV Jagiellon's own death. The marriage strengthened

5512-418: The Two Nations" ( Polish : Rzeczpospolita Obojga Narodów , Lithuanian : Abiejų Tautų Respublika ). Also, German-speaking Royal Prussia and Prussian cities were included. This achievement might well have been impossible without Sigismund II. Bona Sforca was pregnant and expected to give birth to a legitimate brother of Sigismund II Augustus; however, in 1527, being pregnant for five-months, she fall from

5616-418: The Union was to create a common state under Władysław II Jagiełło, but the Polish ruling oligarchy's idea of incorporation of Lithuania into Poland turned out to be unrealistic. There would be territorial disputes and warfare between Poland and Lithuania or Lithuanian factions; the Lithuanians at times had even found it expedient to conspire with the Teutonic Knights against the Poles . Geographic consequences of

5720-416: The center, the Hungarian heavy knights and infantry were repulsed and suffered heavy casualties, especially from the well-positioned Ottoman cannons and well-armed and trained Janissary musketeers. Nearly the entire Hungarian Royal army was destroyed on the battlefield. During the retreat, the twenty-year-old king died in a marsh. As Louis had no legitimate children, Ferdinand was elected as his successor in

5824-408: The constitutions of the states clearly express that they shall share the same person as head of state) or non-codified, in which case they can easily be broken (e.g., by the death of the monarch when the two states have different succession laws ). The concept of a personal union has only very rarely crossed over from monarchies into republics . There are currently two personal unions in the world:

5928-450: The couple's marriage and constituted the beginning of the Polish–Lithuanian union . The Union strengthened both nations in their shared opposition to the Teutonic Knights and the growing threat of the Grand Duchy of Moscow . Uniquely in Europe, the union connected two states geographically located on the opposite sides of the great civilizational divide between the Western or Latin, and the Eastern or Byzantine worlds. The intention of

6032-412: The death of George of Poděbrady was a time of conflict for the Bohemian throne (see Bohemian–Hungarian War (1468–1478) ), and Vladislaus was unable to confront it. At the time of his arrival in Prague , he was only fifteen years old and significantly dominated by his advisers. The succession conflict was settled in 1479 in the Peace of Olomouc, which allowed both Vladislaus and Matthias Corvinus to use

6136-438: The duchies failed. The duchies of Saxe-Weimar and Saxe-Eisenach were in personal union from 1741, when the ruling house of Saxe-Eisenach died out, until 1809, when they were merged into the single duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach . Duchies with peculiar rules for succession . See the Schleswig-Holstein Question . The kings of Denmark at the same time being dukes of Schleswig and Holstein 1460–1864. (Holstein being part of

6240-447: The dynastic union and the preferences of the Jagiellonian kings accelerated the process of reorientation of Polish territorial priorities to the east. The political influence of the Jagiellonian kings was diminishing during this period, which was accompanied by the ever-increasing role in central government and national affairs of landed nobility. The royal dynasty, however, had a stabilizing effect on Poland's politics. The Jagiellonian Era

6344-407: The eastern territories in 1482 and 1487, until they were confronted by King Jan Olbracht (John Albert), Casimir's son and successor. Poland was attacked in 1487–1491 by remnants of the Golden Horde . They had invaded into Poland as far as Lublin before being beaten at Zaslavl. King John Albert in 1497 made an attempt to resolve the Turkish problem militarily, but his efforts were unsuccessful as he

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6448-430: The first Grand Duke of Lithuania to become King of Poland. In Polish, the dynasty is known as Jagiellonowie and the patronymic form: Jagiellończyk ; in Lithuanian it is called Jogailaičiai , in Belarusian Яґайлавічы ( Jagajłavičy ), in Hungarian Jagelló , and in Czech Jagellonci , as well as Jagello or Jagellon in Latin . Etymologically, the name Jogaila means "strong rider", from

6552-405: The great families. The ostensible cause of the nobility's animosity to the King was his second marriage, secretly contracted before his accession to the throne, with (said to be beautiful) Lithuanian Calvinist, Barbara Radziwiłł , daughter of Hetman Jerzy Radziwiłł . The secret marriage was strongly opposed by his mother Bona and by the magnates of the Crown. Sigismund II, who took over the reign of

6656-493: The ineffective siege of Malbork (Marienburg). The failure to take the fortress and eliminate the Teutonic (later Prussian) state had for Poland dire historic consequences in the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries. The Peace of Thorn (1411) had given Poland and Lithuania rather modest territorial adjustments, including Samogitia. Afterwards there were negotiations and peace deals that didn't hold, more military campaigns and arbitrations. One attempted, unresolved arbitration took place at

6760-420: The king and the magnates , her efforts to strengthen the monarch's political position, financial situation, and especially the measures she took to advance her personal and dynastic interests, including the forced royal election of the minor Sigismund Augustus in 1529 and his premature coronation in 1530, increased the discontent among szlachta activists. The rebellion of Lwów (the so-called Chicken War )

6864-440: The king's death in 1503, resulting in a territorial compromise and an unstable truce. The Grand Duke Alexander was elected King of Poland in 1501, after the death of John Albert. In 1506 he was succeeded by Sigismund I the Old ( Polish : Zygmunt I Stary , Lithuanian : Žygimantas Senasis ) in both Poland and Lithuania, as the political realities were drawing the two states closer together. Prior to that Sigismund I had been

6968-407: The late 15th century. Moldavia 's involvement with Poland goes back to 1387, when Petru I , Hospodar of Moldavia , seeking protection against the Hungarians, paid Jagiełło homage in Lviv , which gave Poland access to the Black Sea ports. In 1485 King Casimir undertook an expedition into Moldavia, after its seaports were overtaken by the Ottoman Turks. The Turkish controlled Crimean Tatars raided

7072-418: The most powerful branch of the Lithuanian Gediminids dynasty and were direct ancestors of Grand Duke Gediminas by the man's line. After Sigismund II Augustus, the dynasty underwent further changes. Sigismund II's heirs were his sisters Anna Jagiellon and Catherine Jagiellon . The latter had married Duke John (a son of King Gustav I ), who thereby from 1569 became King John III of Sweden , and they had

7176-451: The most powerful military in Europe at the time, and Spain the largest empire. Before 1707, see England and Scotland . After 1801, see United Kingdom below. In 1826, the newly created Duchy of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha was initially a double duchy, ruled by Duke Ernest I in a personal union. In 1852, the duchies were bound in a political and real union. They were then a quasi-federal unitary state, even though later attempts to merge

7280-681: The nobility agreed to the succession of the future Władysław III , only after the King gave in and guaranteed the satisfaction of their new demands. In 1434 the old monarch died and his minor son Władysław was crowned; the Royal Council led by Bishop Oleśnicki undertook the regency duties. In 1438 the Czech anti- Habsburg opposition, mainly Hussite factions, offered the Czech crown to Jagiełło's younger son Casimir IV . The idea, accepted in Poland over Oleśnicki's objections, resulted in two unsuccessful Polish military expeditions to Bohemia . After Vytautas ' death in 1430 Lithuania became embroiled in internal wars and conflicts with Poland. Casimir IV, sent as

7384-417: The other German monarchs) abdicated. : After 1707, see Great Britain above. After 1801, see United Kingdom below. After 1542, see England above. Because heads of state and government of republics are ordinarily chosen from within the citizens of the state in question, sovereign republics very rarely share common leaders. A few examples are: Western Christianity Western Christianity

7488-717: The other was originally the Count of Foix . It is through this feudal co-prince that the Principality has entered partial personal union with: In 1607 the feudal co-prince was Henry IV of France , who issued an edict that his position should be held by the French Head of State. While during the French Revolution , the new government did not take up the title, all versions of France since 1806 regardless of their government form have accepted that their head of state

7592-587: The past five centuries. Original sin , also called ancestral sin , is a Christian belief in a state of sin in which humanity has existed since the fall of man , stemming from Adam and Eve 's rebellion in the Garden of Eden , namely the sin of disobedience in consuming the forbidden fruit from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil . Theologians have characterized this condition in many ways, seeing it as ranging from something as insignificant as

7696-588: The personal union was ended. King Chungsuk , Chungseon's eldest son, became the new King of Goryeo. In 1316, the Mongol Empire made Chungseon abdicate the crown of Shen in favour of Wang Ko , one of his nephews, resulting in him becoming the new King of Shen. Due to Andorra's special government form resulting from the Paréage of 1278 , it is a diarchy with co-princes . One of them is the Bishop of Urgell ,

7800-404: The privileges of the nobility, lifting of the toll or exemption of the nobility from it, adoption of a law concerning incompatibilitas —the incompatibility of certain offices that were not to be joined in the same hand, the carrying out of a law requiring the appointment of only the local nobles to most important local offices and the creation of a body of permanent advisors to the king. Finally,

7904-506: The process of national integration. The Academy of Kraków and Sigismund II possessed well-stocked libraries; smaller collections were increasingly common at noble courts, schools and the households of townspeople. Illiteracy levels were falling, as by the end of the 16th century almost every parish ran a school. In 1515, during a congress in Vienna , a dynastic succession arrangement was agreed to between Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor and

8008-410: The protesters criticised the role of Queen Bona, whom they blamed for the "bad education" of young Prince Sigismund Augustus (the future King Sigismund II Augustus), as well as for seeking to increase her power and influence in the state. Following an agreement between Sigismund I, Bona Sforza and Lithuanian Council of Lords , Sigismund II Augustus was proclaimed as Grand Duke of Lithuania when he

8112-513: The religion. In Western Christianity's original area, Latin was the principal language. Christian writers in Latin had more influence there than those who wrote in Greek , Syriac , or other languages. Although the first Christians in the West used Greek (such as Clement of Rome ), by the fourth century Latin had superseded it even in the cosmopolitan city of Rome , as well as in southern Gaul and

8216-502: The rest of his life, having his court and all his children born in the palace of Buda. The Hungarian nobility reigned and took many important decisions in his name, and his role as monarch soon passed to be in a second plan. Stephen Zápolya , the archbishop Tamás Bakócz and George Szatmári continued with the Turkish war plans and tried then to maintain the Kingdom that fell in a severe economical crisis after Matthias's death. Vladislaus

8320-614: The ringing of church bells and the singing of the Te Deum laudamus . The Bishop of Vilnius put a Gediminas' Cap in the Vilnius Cathedral on Casimir IV Jagiellon's head, despite the Polish nobility 's opposition. This was breaching the agreements of the Union of Grodno (1432) and terminating the Polish–Lithuanian union . It manifested Lithuania as a sovereign state and its ruler Casimir IV Jagiellon stressed himself as

8424-601: The rise of the culture of Polish Renaissance . The cultural flowering had its material base in the prosperity of the elites, both the landed nobility and urban patriciate at such centers as Kraków and Gdańsk . As was the case with other European nations, the Renaissance inspiration came in the first place from Italy , a process accelerated to some degree by the marriage of Sigismund I to Bona Sforza . Many Poles traveled to Italy to study and to learn its culture. As imitating Italian ways became very trendy (the royal courts of

8528-518: The same time, Hungary was unable to get assistance from other European states, which Louis had hoped for. Belgrade and many strategic castles in Serbia were captured by the Ottomans. This was disastrous for Louis' kingdom; without the strategically important cities of Belgrade and Šabac, Hungary, including Buda, was open to further Turkish conquests. After the siege of Rhodes , in 1526 Suleiman made

8632-649: The seceded western Prussian regions, Royal Prussia , and the Polish crown's overlordship over the remaining Teutonic Monastic State , transformed in 1525 into a duchy, Ducal Prussia . Poland regained Pomerelia and with it the all-important access to the Baltic Sea , as well as Warmia . In addition to land warfare, naval battles had taken place, where ships provided by the City of Danzig (Gdańsk) successfully fought Danish and Teutonic fleets. Other 15th-century Polish territorial gains, or rather revindications, included

8736-534: The second and Jagiellonian third dynasty of Polish Kings. In 1385 the Union of Krewo was signed between Queen Jadwiga of Poland and Jogaila , the Grand Duke of Lithuania, the last pagan state in Europe. The act arranged for Jogaila's baptism (after which Jogaila was known in Poland by his baptismal name, Władysław, and the Polish version of his Lithuanian name, Jagiełło) (Zamoyski, the Polish Way) and for

8840-749: The separatist Prussian regions a protectorate of the Polish Kingdom . However, when the insurgent cities rebelled against the Order, it resisted and the Thirteen Years' War (1454–1466) ensued. Casimir IV Jagiellon and the Prussian Confederation defeated the Teutonic Order, taking over its capital at Marienburg ( Malbork Castle ). In the Second Peace of Thorn (1466), the Order recognized Polish sovereignty over

8944-463: The theory received formal ecclesiastical sanction at the Council in Trullo (692), which ranked the five sees as Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem." Over the centuries, disagreements separated Western Christianity from the various forms of Eastern Christianity: first from East Syriac Christianity after the Council of Ephesus (431) , then from that of Oriental Orthodoxy after

9048-595: The thirteen-year-old boy would become a Vice-regent for the Polish King in Lithuania. Casimir IV Jagiellon was invited by the Lithuanian magnates to Lithuania and was sent by his older brother Władysław III , King of Poland and Hungary, Supreme Duke of Lithuania, to Lithuania to rule in his name. But instead he was elected by the Lithuanian Council of Lords as the Grand Duke of Lithuania upon his arrival to Lithuania's capital Vilnius on June 29, 1440, with

9152-646: The ties between the house of Jagiellon and the sovereigns of Hungary-Bohemia and put Casimir IV Jagiellon at odds with the Holy Roman Emperor through internal Habsburg rivalry. Becoming a King of Poland Casimir IV Jagiellon also freed himself from the control the Lithuanian oligarchy had imposed on him; in the Vilnius Privilege of 1447 he declared the Lithuanian nobility having equal rights with Polish szlachta . In time Casimir IV Jagiellon

9256-522: The title "King of Bohemia". Vladislaus would reign in Bohemia proper, while Matthias gained Moravia , Silesia , and the two Lusatias. The deal also stipulated that in case of Matthias' death, Vladislaus would pay 400,000 gulden for the entirety of the Bohemian lands. However, this payment was not made once Vladislaus became King of Hungary after the death of Matthias. Great chaos overcame Hungary when

9360-475: The two kings provided the leadership and example for everybody else), many Italian artists and thinkers were coming to Poland, some settling and working there for many years. While the pioneering Polish humanists, greatly influenced by Erasmus of Rotterdam, accomplished the preliminary assimilation of the antiquity culture, the generation that followed was able to put greater emphasis on the development of native elements, and because of its social diversity, advanced

9464-696: The values, ideas, science, laws, and institutions which constitute what we call Western civilization ". The rise of Protestantism led to major divisions within Western Christianity, which still persist, and wars—for example, the Anglo-Spanish War of 1585–1604 had religious as well as economic causes. In and after the Age of Discovery , Europeans spread Western Christianity to the New World and elsewhere. Roman Catholicism came to

9568-435: Was 9 years old in Vilnius in 1529. Initially, Sigismund II opposed the Polish–Lithuanian union as he sought to leave the Lithuanian throne to his heirs as Jagiellonian patrimony . In 1544 Sigismund II began to independently rule the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In 1547 Sigismund II moved his royal court from Kraków to Vilnius and it had a great influence on the intellectual life of the region. In 1548 Sigismund II finished

9672-453: Was a cheerful man, but after the death of his third wife, he fell into a severe depression and almost retired from all official issues. Then he gained the nickname of "Vladislaus Bene" (Polish: Władysław Dobrze , Hungarian: Dobzse László , Czech: král Dobře ) because to almost any request he answered, "Bene" (Latin for "(It is) well"). Louis II was the son of Ladislaus II Jagiellon and his third wife, Anne of Foix-Candale . In 1515 Louis II

9776-497: Was able to remove from power Cardinal Oleśnicki and his group, basing his own power on the younger middle nobility camp instead. A conflict with the pope and the local Church hierarchy over the right to fill vacant bishop positions Casimir IV Jagiellon also resolved in his favor. That same year, Casimir IV Jagiellon was approached by the Prussian Confederation for aid against the Teutonic Order , which he promised, by making

9880-474: Was an anti-royalist and anti-absolutist rokosz (rebellion) by the Polish nobility that occurred in 1537. The derisive name was coined by the magnates, who for the most part supported the King and claimed that the "war's" only effect was the near-extinction of the local chickens, eaten by the nobles gathered for the rebellion at Lwów, in Lesser Poland . The nobility, gathered near the city to meet with

9984-470: Was christened as the namesake of his grandfather, King Władysław Jagiełło of Poland and Lithuania, his maternal uncle King Ladislaus the Posthumous of Bohemia and his paternal uncle Władysław III of Poland, an earlier king of Hungary. He was proposed for the Bohemian throne by the widow of the previous king, George of Poděbrady , and was crowned King of Bohemia on 22 August 1471. The period after

10088-631: Was defeated in 1526 at the Battle of Mohács, where the young Louis II Jagiellon , son of Vladislas II, was killed. Subsequently, after a period of internal strife and external intervention, Hungary was partitioned between the Habsburgs and the Ottomans. Vladislaus was born on 1 March 1456, the oldest son of King Casimir IV of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania, then the head of the ruling Jagiellon dynasty of Poland, and Elizabeth of Austria , daughter of Albert , King of Germany , Hungary and Bohemia. He

10192-462: Was expected to become king before his majority. Strangely, little was done for his education; he was never taught Latin, nor was he trained for the responsibilities of office, despite the fact he was the only brother of the rightful sovereign. He often relied on his instinct and feelings and had little political knowledge, but shared a great interest in the diplomacy and economic affairs of the country. Throughout Casimir's youth, Bishop Zbigniew Oleśnicki

10296-453: Was extinguished in male line. Notes: Personal union Philosophers Works List of forms of government A personal union is a combination of two or more monarchical states that have the same monarch while their boundaries, laws, and interests remain distinct. A real union , by contrast, involves the constituent states being to some extent interlinked, such as by sharing some limited governmental institutions. Unlike

10400-504: Was his mentor and tutor; however, the cleric felt a strong reluctance towards him, believing that he would be an unsuccessful monarch following Władysław's death. The sudden death of Sigismund Kęstutaitis left the office of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania empty. The Voivode of Trakai , Jonas Goštautas , and other magnates of Lithuania, supported Casimir IV Jagiellon as a candidate to the throne. However, many Polish noblemen hoped that

10504-435: Was killed during an armed confrontation in 1439 , which allowed Oleśnicki to purge Poland of the remaining Hussite sympathizers and pursue his other objectives without significant opposition. Casimir IV Jagiellon was the third and youngest son of King Władysław II Jagiełło and his fourth wife, Sophia of Halshany . His father was already 65 at the time of Casimir's birth, and his brother Władysław III, three years his senior,

10608-553: Was married to Mary of Austria , granddaughter of Emperor Maximilian I , as stipulated by the First Congress of Vienna in 1515. His sister Anne was married to Archduke Ferdinand of Austria , then a governor on behalf of his brother Charles V , and later Emperor Ferdinand I. Following the accession to the throne of Suleiman I , the sultan sent an ambassador to Louis II to collect the annual tribute that Hungary had been subjected to. Louis refused to pay annual tribute and had

10712-435: Was taught Lithuanian language and the customs of Lithuania by appointed court officials. In 1445, Casimir IV Jagiellon, already being the Grand Duke of Lithuania, was asked to also assume the Polish throne vacated by the death of his brother Władysław III (killed at the Battle of Varna in 1444). Casimir IV Jagiellon was a tough negotiator and did not accept the Polish nobility's conditions for his election, thus he assumed

10816-414: Was unable to secure effective participation in the war by his brothers, King Ladislaus II of Bohemia and Hungary and Alexander, the Grand Duke of Lithuania, and because of the resistance on the part of Stephen the Great , the ruler of Moldavia. More Ottoman Empire-instigated destructive Tatar raids took place in 1498, 1499 and 1500. John Albert 's diplomatic peace efforts that followed were finalized after

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