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54-594: According to Pamela Crossley , a historian specializing in Manchu history, the origin of the name Jianzhou is contested. Xu Zhongsha thought it was derived from the region of Parhae , from the Songari and Hun Rivers . Japanese scholars disagree and state that the name was created from the migrating Jurchens, near the present border with Korea. After the fall of the Yuan dynasty in 1368, pockets of Yuan loyalists retreated to

108-596: A "Manchu-centered" school and another group who view the Qing empire as a "historical object" in its own right (not only a phase in Chinese history). She criticized the "Manchu-centered" school for romanticism and relying on disproved theories about "Altaic" language, culture and history. She also argued that the analyses used by the group called "New Qing Historians" by Waley-Cohen and later popular with Chinese historians were various and conflicting, and that "New Qing History" as

162-455: A "school" could not reasonably be extended beyond the small group who actually called themselves writers of "New Qing History." On the other hand, she seems to have included herself in the Qing empire school, which she calls "Qing Studies." She sees the Qing empire not as a Manchu empire but as a "simultaneous" system (like many other historical empires) in which the emperor is not subordinate to any single culture. Of Crossley's books, only What

216-487: A charismatic quality with no basis in fact. She disagreed with earlier scholars that Manchus had been "sinicized", but she did not argue that Manchu culture in modern China was the traditional culture of Manchuria. Rather, it was a new culture of individual Manchu communities in China, what she called "the sense of difference that has no outward sign". Many historians such as Joanna Waley-Cohen have named Crossley as related to

270-622: A disastrous defeat for the Ming at Guangning. Nurhaci's troops soon occupied Shenyang, the former Ming provincial capitol. This battle helped strengthen the Jianzhou and established more relationships with surrounding groups. Pamela Crossley Pamela Kyle Crossley (born 18 November 1955) is a historian of modern China , northern Asia, and global history and is the Charles and Elfriede Collis Professor of History, Dartmouth College . She

324-663: A major component of the Jianzhou Jurchens led by Mentemu during the Ming dynasty, and the Jianzhou Jurchens later became Manchus. The Jurchens during the Ming dynasty lived in Jilin. According to the records of Ming Dynasty officials, the Jianzhou Jurchen was descended from Mohe people who established Balhae Kingdom. The Taowen, Huligai, and Wodolian Jurchen tribes lived in the area of Heilongjiang in Yilan during

378-630: A result of this experience. Nurhaci would later be responsible for unifying the Jurchens confederacies. The leadership of the Jianzhou confederacies found its lineage from the Odori Jurchens whose leader Mongke Temur was renown by both the Ming and by the Yi. Giocangga, Nurgaci grandfather, claimed to be a fourth-generation descendant of Mongke Temur. The elite members of the Jurchen lineage possessed

432-645: A special form of rulership which gave high priority to the institutionalization of cultural identity . Crossley suggests that these concepts were encoded in political practice and academic discourse on " nationalism ," and prevailed till the end of the twentieth century. Crossley was born in Lima, Ohio , and attended high school in Emmaus, Pennsylvania . After leaving high school she worked as an editorial assistant and writer on environmental subjects for Rodale Press . In 1977 she graduated from Swarthmore College , where she

486-632: Is Global History? has been successfully translated and published in China. On April 20, 2015, the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences published a criticism by historian Li Zhiting of historians he called a "New Qing History" faction, accusing former Association for Asian Studies President Evelyn Rawski , Crossley, Mark C. Elliott and James A. Millward personally as being apologists for imperialism, producing fraudulent history and encouraging "splittism" in border areas. This followed Internet criticism by Chinese posters of Crossley's 2011 editorial in

540-557: Is a founding appointment of the Dartmouth Society of Fellows. She is author of The Wobbling Pivot: China since 1800: An Interpretive History (2010), as well as influential studies of the Qing dynasty (1644–1911) and leading textbooks in global history. Crossley is known for an interpretation of the source of twentieth-century identities . In her view overland conquest by the great empires of early modern Eurasia produced

594-509: Is not "global" since it would bring together Chinese and European history but isolate the histories of Africa, Australia, and North and South America. Crossley is a software author, and has created applications for use by teachers, professors, community organizers to manage web pages. The free applications are specially designed for display of all "horizontally-written" scripts, and integrate functions needed for instant web page management. A widely used app aids students in study and memorization of

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648-782: The Mongols . Jurchens began accepting Ming titles. Ahacu, chief of the Huligai, became commander of the Jianzhou Guard in 1403, named after a Yuan Dynasty political unit in the area. Möngke Temür (猛哥帖木儿) of the Odoli became the leader of the Jianzhou Left Guard and accepted the Chinese surname of Tong not long afterward. The two Jianzhou guards engaged in trade with the Ming at the designated market of Kaiyuan and Fushun. They undertook several short-term moves west, battling

702-703: The Qing Empire . More specialists subsequently adopted this practice. Crossley is a Guggenheim fellow, an NEH fellow (2011–2012) and a recipient of the Association for Asian Studies Joseph Levenson Book Prize for A Translucent Mirror . Dartmouth students have given her the Goldstein Prize for teaching. Crossley resides in Norwich, Vermont . Most recently Crossley has published The Wobbling Pivot: China Since 1800, An Interpretive History which takes

756-520: The Wall Street Journal , in which she contrasted the international foundations of the 1911 revolution in China with the narrow nationalism of the hundred-year celebration in 2011. Possibly Li Zhiting used some criticisms that Crossley herself had written in a 2008 essay which was translated into both Korean and Chinese in 2009 and 2010. The criticisms by Li were followed by an interview with associate professor Zhong Han (Minzu University) in

810-575: The "New Qing History" school. William T. Rowe of Johns Hopkins University describes Crossley as the "pioneer" of these new ways of thinking about Qing history. Earlier, political commentator Charles Horner pointed to Crossley as one of the most important current historians in the reconceptualization of the Qing period and its significance, which he did not refer to as "New Qing History.". In publications in Korea and China since 2008 Crossley has written that there are two trends that are often conflated, one

864-513: The 12th century. However, the Yi order in Korea included intense military campaigns to drive Jurchens northward toward the Yalu River and ultimately beyond it, into present-day Manchuria. One of the most vivid narratives and depictions of the Jianzhou comes from a passage supplied by Sin Chun-li. Sin Chun-li's mission to the Jianzhou Jurchens was aimed to resolve the incident of 1594, in which

918-586: The Cambridge histories. She is widely published both in academic journals and in periodicals such as London Review of Books , Wall Street Journal , The New York Times Literary Supplement , The New Republic , Royal Academy Magazine , Far Eastern Economic Review, Calliope , and in the online editorial spaces of the BBC. She has participated in A&;E 's "In Search of..." series ("The Forbidden City"). In January 2012

972-470: The Chinese Academy of Social Sciences. Crossley pointed out that Manchu language, religion, documents, and customs remained of great importance to the Qing until the middle nineteenth century. Her book Orphan Warriors was the first to develop a sustained critique of conventional assumptions of " sinicization ." She agreed that assimilation and acculturation were part of China's history, but considered "sinicization" to be something that historians had imbued with

1026-456: The Chinese characters for Jiagu in their names. In 1588 Nurhaci brought the Wanggiya tribe and Donggo tribe together. The unification of the Jianzhou Jurchens became a stepping stone for Nurhaci to expand his power throughout southern and central Manchuria, and to create a truly unified Manchu state. The very name Manchu (Jurchen: manju) was perhaps an old term for the Jianzhou Jurchens. Unlike

1080-673: The Chinese classic Daxue 大學. Other software makes this famous reference work Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period used by students who do not know the Wade–Giles system accessible, and also integrates to Harvard University GIS database. It is available to the public (link) both as a web interface and as a desktop internet application. Nikan Wailan Nikan Wailan ( Manchu : ᠨᡳᡴᠠᠨ ᠸᠠᡳᠯᠠᠨ ,  Möllendorff : nikan wailan ; simplified Chinese : 尼堪外兰 ; traditional Chinese : 尼堪外蘭 ; pinyin : Níkān Wàilán , ? - 1587)

1134-712: The End of the Qing World (Princeton University Press, 1990); The Manchus (Blackwells Publishers, 1997); A Translucent Mirror: History and Identity in Qing Imperial Ideology (University of California Press, 1999). She is also a co-author of the best-selling global history textbooks, The Earth and its Peoples (Houghton Mifflin, 5th edition, 2009; 6th edition, 2014) and Global Society: The World since 1900 (Houghton Mifflin, 2nd edition, 2007; 3rd edition, 2012). Her work has appeared in two separate series of

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1188-493: The Haixi, Jianzhou, and wild Jurchens. Fushan was the primacy licensed center for the trade, particularly renown for cured ginseng, horse trade, and dyed clothing. Fushan was also a primary location for Jianzhou embassy members who were conducting tributary missions to stop for entertainment and refreshments. In 1618, Nurhaci's forces captured Fushun. This escalated tensions and in 1621, the Jianzhou Jurchens broke out in warfare with

1242-662: The Jianzhou Jurchens captured at least seventeen Koreans and were being held for ransom. To resolve the issue, Sin was dispatched by the Korean court to Nurgaci's capital at Fe Ala. He and a small party of Korean officials crossed the Yalu river at Mamp Ojin, and followed a tributaries northwest to the Suksu Valley where Nurhaci was based. Sin kept a detailed written record of his journey as he moved through Jianzhou Jurchen confederation. Despite it being winter, his insights tell us that

1296-401: The Jianzhou land was abundant with rivers, forests, and saw industrialization. Sin stratified his findings and stated that the Jianzhou Jurchen divided their society into villages of about twenty households or less, which were clustered along forested riverbanks. They lived off of the river and its surrounding terrain. The Jianzhou Jurchens, and other Jurchen groups were often in contention with

1350-588: The Jurchen bands around his area. In 1584, when Nurhaci was 25, he attacked Nikan Wailan at Turun (also in Xinbin) to avenge the deaths of his father and grandfather, who are said to have left him nothing but thirteen suits of armour. Nikan Wailan fled away to Erhun, which Nurhaci attacked again in 1587. Nikan Wailan this time fled to Li Chengliang's territory. Later, as a way to build relationship, Li gave Nikan Wailan to Nurhaci, who beheaded Nikan Wailan immediately. With Li's support, Nurhaci gradually grew his strength in

1404-522: The Jurchen people, who spoke the Jin Jurchen language that was adopted from phonetic Kitan language established in the Jin dynasty, the Jianzhou Jurchens commonly used three different language: Jurchen , Mongolian and Chinese . According to the Qing imperial history, the Jianzhou leader Nurgaci sought to devise a suitable system that integrated the phonetic Mongolian and Jurchen language. This resulted in

1458-501: The Jurchen were not viewed as a threat at this time by the Ming. The change of the name from Jurchen to Manchu was made to hide the fact that the ancestors of the Manchus, the Jianzhou Jurchens, were ruled by the Chinese. The Qing dynasty carefully hide the 2 original editions of the books of " Qing Taizu Wu Huangdi Shilu " and the " Manzhou Shilu Tu " (Taizu Shilu Tu) in the Qing palace, forbidden from public view because they showed that

1512-539: The Manchu Aisin Gioro family had been ruled by the Ming dynasty. In the Ming period, the Koreans of Joseon referred to the Jurchen inhabited lands north of the Korean peninsula, above the rivers Yalu and Tumen to be part of Ming China, as the "superior country" (sangguk) which they called Ming China. The Qing deliberately excluded references and information that showed the Jurchens (Manchus) as subservient to

1566-478: The Ming and Yi for rights to trade. They often contended at Nurgan and Liaodong, which were politically and culturally marked territories before the Conquest of Qing China. However, there was also simultaneously cohesion, which was reflected in the scheduled visits of Jurchen leaders to Peking to "make ritual obeisance" to the Ming emperor. These visits were to satisfy the Ming tributary system. Conversely, it helped

1620-508: The Ming dynasty, from the History of Ming to hide their former subservient relationship to the Ming. The Veritable Records of Ming were not used to source content on Jurchens during Ming rule in the History of Ming because of this. When Nurgaci came to power, he implemented a strengthening of the Jianzhou Jurchen's by way of amassing agricultural laborers. This was achieved in part through

1674-519: The Ming establish a list of Jurchen elites and military occupancies, but also deescalated tensions between the two groups. Nurgaci conducted at least two of the tributaries - one with his father at a young age and another led by himself. There, as early as 1580, he echoed the Jianzhou Jurchen elite's frustrations with the Ming officials in Liaodong. He established his grievances that the Ming officials were corrupt and often interfered with trading. However,

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1728-462: The Ming in Liaodong in which Nurhaci fought with Xiong Tingbi (1569–1625), the Ming military commander. By this time, he had declared a unified Jurchen regime that called itself "Jin," reminiscent of the former Jurchen empire. From this warfare, the Ming grew increasingly aware of Nurhaci's increasing and tremendous military power. Nurhaci, in 1622, convinced Mongols who were supporting the Ming's military efforts, to abandon their posts and it resulted in

1782-527: The Ming were reluctant, Nikan Wailan was eventually held responsible for the deaths of Giocangga and Taksi, and was killed in 1586. The Ming claimed that their deaths were accidental and not part of the campaign. Afterwards, Li Chengliang even acted as a surrogate father. Nurhaci may have had actually lived within Li Chengliang's household in Fushun in his youth and perhaps gained his literacy in Chinese as

1836-484: The Suksuhu River tribe, Hunehe, Wanggiya, Donggo, and Jecen. Under the leadership of Wang Gao, the confederation raided the Ming frontier and even killed the Ming commander at Fushun in 1473. A major counterattack by the Chinese ended in the death of Wang Gao and the dissolution of the confederation. In 1582, the Jianzhou confederation was met by the Ming military who launched a campaign which intended to stabilize

1890-528: The Suksuhu tribe stood ready to take Nurhaci's place. However, Nurhaci eventually rose to power. Taking control of his grandfather's Suksuhu River tribe, Nurhaci confronted the Ming and released the Seven Grievances . Nurhaci sought vengeance for the untimely deaths of his immediate family members and a vendetta against the Ming forces who took his father and grandfather's life was launched. Although

1944-568: The Wild Jurchens of the north and the Koreans to their south. Jurchen raids into Korean territory brought about joint Korean-Ming counterattacks in 1467 and 1478 which severely weakened the Jianzhou Jurchens. Jianzhou Jurchens adopted agriculture during the Ming dynasty when they acquired knowledge of fertilization, draft animals, and iron plows as they moved south closer to Asian agricultural civilizations. Iron-smelting and mining knowledge

1998-733: The Yuan dynasty when it was part of Liaoyang province and governed as a circuit . These tribes became the Jianzhou Jurchens in the Ming dynasty. In the Jin dynasty, the Jin Jurchens did not regard themselves as the same tribes as the Hurka people who became the Huligai. Uriangqa was used as a name in the 1300s by Jurchen migrants in Korea from Ilantumen because the Uriangqa influenced the people at Ilantumen. Bokujiang, Tuowulian, Woduolian, Huligai, Taowan separately made up 30,000 households and were

2052-504: The creation of the Manchu language , which would later be deemed one of the greatest inventions that sparked the unification of Manchuria. However, for some time the script was not well received and the Jianzhou continued to use Mongolian as their lingua franca. The Korean Joseon dynasty , incepted in the 1300s, had considered some Jurchen headmen as useful allies. Jurchens were positioned as far south as Hamhung in north central Korea since

2106-662: The disintegrating confederation. The chieftain Nikan Wailan allied with the Ming general Li Chengliang against Wang Gao's son Atai. Giocangga , chief of the Beiles of the Sixes, was originally under Li's command since his grandson, the young Nurhaci was under his hostage. But Giocangga later chose to oppose Nikan Wailan and took his fourth son Taksi to support Atai at his stronghold Fort Gure. The battle at Gure, claimed Atai, Giocangga, and Taksi's lives. A number of leaders within

2160-783: The divisions used by the Yuan dynasty to govern the people along the Wusuli river and Songhua area. In the Jin dynasty the Shangjing route 上京路 governed the Huligai. A Huligai route was created as well by the Jin. In 1388, the Hongwu Emperor established contact with three tribes of Ilan Tumen in modern Yilan County near the confluence of the Mudanjiang River and the Songhua River . The Odori, Huligai (Hūrha or Hurka) and Tuowen Jurchens were enlisted as allies against

2214-422: The field of world or global history Crossley is known primarily for arguing, in agreement with a certain number of other historians of China, that not only material but also cultural and political trends produced an "early modern" period across Eurasia from about 1500 to about 1800. She has commented that while a Eurasian chronology that could be used for teaching is possible (as in the example of early modernity), it

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2268-463: The kidnapping of farmers living in border regions. However, unlike previous rulers, the Jianzhou Jurchens under Nurhaci provided shelter and gave other benefits and resources to these farmers which helped ease assimilation and established their allegiance to Nurhaci's regime. Fushan was an "Tong ancestral town" and during the early 17th century, it was fortified by the Ming since it served as Liaodong's border that met with Nurgan - territories occupied by

2322-468: The modern border of China, Russia, and North Korea. The Jianzhou Jurchen originate partially from the Huligai who were classified by the Liao dynasty as a separate ethnicity from the Jurchen people who founded the Jin dynasty and were classified as separate from Jurchens during the Yuan dynasty. Their home was in the lower reaches of the Songhua River and Mudanjiang . The Huligai later moved west and became

2376-404: The new educational platform The Faculty Project announced that Crossley would produce a video course on Modern China for their site. Unusually, Crossley maintains an errata page for her publications, including exchanges with translators. Crossley is noted for her work in what has been called either New Qing History or Qing Studies, which has come under attack by Chinese scholars associated with

2430-518: The northeast. In 1375, a former Yuan official Naghachu residing in Liaoyang province invaded Liaodong with the hope of restoring the Yuan dynasty. After he was defeated in 1387, the Ming began reorganizing the Jurchens in Liaodong to protect the Ming border region from further incursions. Various Jurchen groups had migrated south and three tribes settled themselves around the Tumen River near

2484-492: The page. Subsequently, Liu Wenpeng denounced the concept of "Inner Asia" as used by "New Qing" historians, apparently following Crossley's 2009 discussion of the history of the Inner Asian term. Criticism of Crossley, Rawski and "New Qing" historians, particularly Elliott and Millward, continues in the Chinese press, possibly reinforcing campaigns against "Western culture" encouraged by the current Chinese government. Crossley

2538-469: The resilience and coherence of local communities in China as a theme for interpreting the transition from the late imperial to the modern era. Crossley's previous books are What is Global History? (Polity Press, 2008), an examination of narrative strategies in global history that joins a new series of short introductory books inspired by E.H. Carr 's What is History? . Crossley's books on Chinese history include Orphan Warriors: Three Manchu Generations and

2592-422: The same CASS online journal, severely attacking both Crossley's methodologies and her interpretations. In a subsequent essay Zhong continued his attack on Crossley, citing errors in an article of hers that had been translated into Chinese. Crossley maintains a voluminous errata site linked to her faculty page since 1995; in a tweet, she pointed out that Zhong had missed the "good stuff" and recommended that he visit

2646-632: Was a Jurchen leader affiliated with the Ming dynasty and a rival of Nurhaci . In the Jurchen language , Nikan Wailan means "secretary of Han Chinese ", thus his existence is suspected by some historians. In 1582, Nurhaci's father Taksi and grandfather Giocangga were killed in an attack on Gure (in present-day Xinbin Manchu Autonomous County ) by Nikan, while being led by Li Chengliang . The following year, Nurhaci began to unify

2700-465: Was a co-author of The Earth and its Peoples, which was a revolutionary text in 1997. She was invited to write What is Global History? in a Polity Press series of short texts introducing historical genres to undergraduates. It is a study of "narrative strategies" used by historians from many cultures, over history, to attempt to tell "a story without a center," which Crossley regards as the defining quality of "global history." In her own research work in

2754-575: Was a student of Yu Ying-shih and Parker Po-fei Huang , and wrote a dissertation under the direction of Jonathan D. Spence . She joined the Dartmouth College faculty in Hanover, New Hampshire , in 1985. After David Farquhar, Gertraude Roth Li , and Beatrice S. Bartlett , Crossley was among the first scholars writing in English to use Manchu-language documents to research the history of

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2808-475: Was acquired by the Jurchens from 1599 after they bought iron plowshares from the Chinese and learned how to turn iron into weapons from Koreans. By the mid-sixteenth century, the Ming guard structure had mostly disappeared and the Jurchens were split between two confederations: the Haixi Jurchens and the Jianzhou Jurchens. The Jianzhou confederates continued to live north of the Yalu River in five tribes:

2862-479: Was editor-in-chief of The Phoenix ; her fellow students included David C. Page , Robert Zoellick , Ben Brantley , Wing Thye Woo , Robert P. George , Jacqueline Carey and David G. Bradley . At Swarthmore she was a student of Lillian M. Li and Bruce Cumings , and as an undergraduate began graduate study at the University of Pennsylvania with Hilary Conroy . She later entered Yale University , where she

2916-499: Was quoted in Kyodo New Service as saying, "We are not the targets," and that Chinese historians using non-Chinese documents and dealing with the history of Qing empire conquests were the real targets. In a 2024 interview with The Wall Street Journal , Crossley stated that "[a]ccording to Xi Jinping , there have been no conquests in Chinese history. Only happy unifications with people aspiring to be Chinese." Crossley

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