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120-830: After centuries of hiatus, the first Assyrian Church of the East Divine Liturgy was celebrated in China in 2010. Two possibly Church of the East monks were preaching Christianity in India in the 6th century before they smuggled silkworm eggs from China to the Eastern Roman Empire . The first recorded Christian mission to China was led by the Syriac monk known in Chinese as Alopen . Alopen's mission arrived in

240-399: A crucifix ) in the circle of a ringed cross (in the form of Celtic cross ) surrounded by four angels. Three Syriac manuscripts from the early 19th century and earlier—they were edited into a compilation titled The Book of Protection by Hermann Gollancz —containing a number of illustrations which are more or less crude. These manuscripts prove the continuous use of images. Moreover,

360-576: A Central Asian and Turkic-speaking immigrant community. There was also a paucity of native Han Chinese converts, a lack of Chinese translations of the Bible, and a heavy political reliance on patronage by the Yuan imperial court. In consequence of these factors, once the Yuan dynasty fell, the Church of the East in China quickly became marginalized and soon vanished, leaving little trace of its existence. In 1998,

480-447: A chancellor and effectively put most of the responsibilities of governance in his hands. (In 841, Emperor Wuzong further ordered Liu Hongyi and Xue Jileng to commit suicide and planned to order Yang and Li Jue to do so as well, but Yang and Li Jue were spared (and only demoted) after the intercession by Li Deyu and the other chancellors, Cui Gong , Cui Dan , and Chen Yixing .) One of the first things that Emperor Wuzong had to deal with

600-479: A complex term, equivalent for Greek term hypostasis ), unmingled, but everlastingly united in the one prosopon (person) of Christ. The precise Christological teachings of Nestorius are shrouded in obscurity. Wary of Monophysitism, Nestorius rejected Cyril's theory of a hypostatic union , proposing instead a much looser concept of prosopic union . Nestorianism has come to mean radical Dyophysitism , in which Christ's two natures are eternally separate, though it

720-546: A decline from which it never recovered. At the same time, Wuzong went far to promote Taoist worship in China through religious regulations and the construction of the Temple for Viewing Immortals in the Imperial court. (Emperor Wuzong was one of the last Tang emperors and ruled China during a long period of decline; despite his reforms, he was unable to revive the empire through his religious persecutions. After his death, with

840-563: A decree issued by Emperor Wuzong demanded that foreign religions like Buddhism and Christianity be cast out of the kingdom. The decree required that Christians be forced to return to laity and become taxpayers. The decree had tremendously negative effects on the Christian community and later imperial decrees calling for religious toleration likely had no effect for the Christians, who were likely severely marginalized or extinct by then. By

960-414: A different kind. In 843, Liu Congjian the military governor ( Jiedushi ) of Zhaoyi Circuit (昭義, headquartered in modern Changzhi , Shanxi ), who had governed Zhaoyi in de facto independence from the imperial government and who had a strident rivalry with Qiu Shiliang, was seriously ill, and Liu wanted his adoptive son (and biological nephew) Liu Zhen to succeed him, and set up the power structure at

1080-470: A life-size male stucco figure was discovered in a church of Seleucia-Ctesiphon from the late 6th century. Beneath this church were found the remains of an earlier church. Although it cannot be determined which Nestorian Church was involved, the discovery nevertheless proves that the Church of the East also used figurative representations. The Assyrian Church of the East is governed by an episcopal polity ,

1200-684: A local lord ( malik ), while each malik was ultimately subject to the patriarch, who mediated between Christian Assyrians and the Ottoman authorities. In 1780, at the beginning of the patriarchal tenure of Eliya XII (XIII) (1778–1804), a group seceded from the Eliya line in Alqosh and elected Yohannan Hormizd , who entered full communion with the Catholic Church and was officially appointed Archbishop of Mosul and patriarchal administrator of

1320-765: A military commander. Yisi and the Church of the East were rewarded by the Tang dynasty with titles and positions as described in the Xi'an Stele . It is unlikely that there were many Christian communities in central China , and the only inland Chinese city south of the Yellow River where a Christian presence can be confirmed in the Tang dynasty is Chengdu . And two monasteries have been located in Chengdu and Omei Shan , both in Sichuan . Shortly afterwards Thomas of Marga mentions

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1440-470: A number of changes to the church, including liturgical reform, the adoption of the Gregorian calendar , and the shortening of Lent . These changes, combined with Shimun's long absence from Iraq, caused a rift in the community there, which led to another schism. In 1968, traditionalists within the church elected Thoma Darmo as a rival patriarch to Shimun XXI Eshai, forming the independent Ancient Church of

1560-607: A previous khan ( Chongde Khan ), and held her hostage. Various Huigu remnants pillaged the Tang border regions, causing much disturbance for the Tang people. At Li Deyu's suggestion, Emperor Wuzong supplied food to the Huigu remnants to try to calm them, while accepting Wamosi's submission. When Wujie Khan subsequently demanded that Tang turn Wamosi over to him as a traitor, Emperor Wuzong refused. Subsequently, Wujie Khan's forces and Tang's border defense forces came into open combat, even though both sides continued negotiations. In 843,

1680-611: A result, Niu and Li Zongmin were exiled to remote regions. In 845, Emperor Wuzong wanted to create his favorite concubine, Consort Wang , empress. Li Deyu, pointing out that Consort Wang was of low birth and that she was sonless, opposed. Emperor Wuzong therefore did not do so. (Emperor Wuzong had five known sons, but very little is known about them other than their names and their princely titles.) Late in Emperor Wuzong's life, he began taking pills made by Taoist alchemists , which were intended to lead to immortality, and it

1800-585: A short mourning period, Li Chan took the throne (as Emperor Wuzong). Buddhism had flourished into a major religious force in China during the Tang period, and its monasteries enjoyed tax-exempt status. Because they didn't contribute taxes, Emperor Wuzong believed Buddhism to be a drain on the state's economy. Coupled with his devotion to Taoism as well and his deep trust in the Taoist monk Zhao Guizhen ( 趙歸真 ), he set out to act against Buddhism, initiating an imperial edict in 842 weeding out sorcerers and convicts from

1920-493: Is Classical Syriac , a dialect of Eastern Aramaic , and the majority of its adherents are ethnic Assyrians who speak differing Akkadian influenced dialects of Eastern Aramaic in everyday life. The Assyrian Church of the East is officially headquartered in the city of Erbil , in northern Iraq ; its original area encompassed Iraq , southeastern Turkey , northeastern Syria and northwestern Iran , corresponding roughly to ancient Assyria . The current Catholicos-Patriarch of

2040-543: Is composed of metropolitan bishops and diocesan bishops , while lower clergy consists of priests and deacons , who serve in dioceses (eparchies) and parishes throughout the Western Asia , India , North America , Oceania , and Europe (including the Caucasus and Russia ). The Assyrian Church of the East considers itself as the continuation of the Church of the East , a church that originally developed among

2160-526: Is doubtful whether Nestorius ever taught such a doctrine. Nestorius' rejection of the term Theotokos ('God-bearer', or 'Mother of God') has traditionally been held as evidence that he asserted the existence of two persons (dyoprosopism) — not merely two natures — in Jesus Christ, but there exists no evidence that Nestorius denied Christ's oneness. In the controversy that followed the Council of Ephesus,

2280-748: Is in communion with it. Membership is estimated to 385,000 adherents, although some sources say as high as 500,000. According to scholar James Minahan around 19% of the Assyrian people belong to the Assyrian Church of the East. In its own 2018 Report on Religious Freedom, the United States Department of State put the Assyrian Church of the East adherents at approximately 20% of the Christians in Iraq . The patriarchal seat

2400-467: Is known about Li Chan's activities during the reigns of Emperor Muzong or Li Chan's older brothers Emperor Jingzong (Emperor Muzong's oldest son) and Emperor Wenzong (Emperor Muzong's second son), other than that during the middle of Emperor Wenzong's Kaicheng era (836–840), Emperor Wenzong bestowed the honorary title of Kaifu Yitong Sansi ( 開府儀同三司 ) on him, as well as the title of honorary minister of civil service affairs (吏部尚書, Libu Shangshu ). It

2520-472: The Antiochene theological tradition of the early church. The founders of Assyrian theology are Diodorus of Tarsus and Theodore of Mopsuestia , both of whom taught at Antioch . "Antiochene" is a modern designation given to the style of theology associated with the early church at Antioch, as contrasted with the theology of the Church of Alexandria. Antiochene theology emphasizes Christ's humanity and

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2640-646: The Archbishop of Canterbury and the Bishop of London , and elected Dinkha as the 120th Catholicos-Patriarch of the Church of the East. On 17 October he was consecrated as Dinkha IV at St Barnabas Church, Ealing, in an area where many Assyrians lived. Dinkha, who was then aged 33, operated his see at Tehran until the Iran–Iraq War of 1980–1988, when he went into exile in the United States and transferred

2760-620: The Assyrian Church of the East sent then-Bishop Mar Gewargis to China. A later visit to Hong Kong led the Assyrian Church to state that: "after 600 years, the Eucharistic Liturgy, according to the anaphora of Mar Addai & Mari was celebrated at the Lutheran Theological Seminary chapel on Wednesday evening, October 6, 2010." This visit was followed up two years later at the invitation of

2880-712: The Assyrians during the first century AD in Assyria , Upper Mesopotamia and northwestern Persia , east of the Byzantine Empire . It is an apostolic church established by Thomas the Apostle , Addai of Edessa , and Bartholomew the Apostle . Contrary to a widespread opinion, the Apostle Saint Peter never visited the Church of Babylon . The historical distinctiveness of the Assyrian Church of

3000-623: The British mandate there, and joined the already existing indigenous Assyrian communities of both Eastern Orthodox and Catholic rites in the north, where they formed communities in Baghdad , Basra , and other areas. In the aftermath of World War I, the British-educated Patriarch Shimun XXI Eshai , born into the line of patriarchs at Qodchanis, had agitated for an independent Assyrian state. Following

3120-677: The Chaldean Catholic Church , in 1783. Only after the death in 1827 of the last representative of the Josephite line, Joseph V Augustine Hindi , was Yohannan recognized as the Chaldean Catholic Patriarch by the Pope, in 1830. By this official appointment, the final merger of various factions committed to the union with the Catholic Church was achieved, thus forming the modern Chaldean Catholic Church. At

3240-541: The Chaldean Catholics . The next Assyrian Patriarch Shimun XVII Abraham (1820–1861) also governed his church from Qodshanis . During years marked by political turbulence, he tried to maintain good relations with the local Ottoman authorities. In 1843, he was faced with renewed hostilities from Kurdish warlords, who attacked and looted many Christian villages, killing 10,000 Christian men and taking away women and children as captives. The patriarch himself

3360-668: The Church of the East and officially known as the Holy Apostolic Catholic Assyrian Church of the East ( HACACE ), is an Eastern Christian church that follows the traditional Christology and ecclesiology of the historical Church of the East . It belongs to the eastern branch of Syriac Christianity , and employs the Divine Liturgy of Saints Addai and Mari belonging to the East Syriac Rite . Its main liturgical language

3480-795: The Common Christological Declaration in 1994 between the Church of the East and the Catholic Church , and a 2001 theological dialogue between the churches, they drew up guidelines for faithful to have mutual admission to the Eucharist between the Chaldean Catholic Church and the Assyrian Church of the East. The Assyrian Church of the East has a traditional episcopal structure, headed by the Catholicos-Patriarch . Its hierarchy

3600-561: The Council of Ephesus (431) and the Council of Chalcedon (451), and still adheres to the Church of the East 's traditional Christology , that is often labeled as Nestorian . The use and exact meaning of that term has been the subject of many debates, not only throughout history but also in modern times, since the Assyrian Church of the East has distinctive views on several Christological questions and claims that its theological doctrines and traditions are essentially Orthodox, while admitting

3720-797: The Patriarchate of Seleucia-Ctesiphon . On 18 September 2015, the Holy Synod of the Assyrian Church of the East elected the Metropolitan of Iraq, Jordan, and Russia, Warda Sliwa, to succeed the late Dinkha IV as Catholicos-Patriarch of the Assyrian Church of the East . On 27 September 2015, he was consecrated as Catholicos-Patriarch in the Cathedral Church of St. John the Baptist, in Erbil , Iraq. Upon his consecration, he assumed

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3840-574: The Persian Gulf , is the largest diocese of the church. Its history goes back to the Church of the East that established a presence in Kerala , but the two communities maintained only a sporadic connection for several centuries, and consistent relations were only established with the arrival of the Portuguese in India around 1500. The church is represented by the Assyrian Church of the East and

3960-464: The chancellors , Li Jue opposed this proposal. Emperor Wenzong thus, in 839, created Emperor Jingzong's youngest son Li Chengmei the Prince of Chen crown prince. When Emperor Wenzong became seriously ill early in 840, he had his trusted eunuchs Liu Hongyi ( 劉弘逸 ) and Xue Jileng ( 薛季稜 ) summon the chancellors Yang Sifu and Li Jue to the palace, intending to entrust Li Chengmei to them. However,

4080-516: The 10th century, the number of Church of the East Christians in China declined significantly due to the persecution. The province of Beth Sinaye is last mentioned in 987 by the Arab writer Ibn al-Nadim , who met a Church of the East monk who had recently returned from China, who informed him that 'Christianity was just extinct in China; the native Christians had perished in one way or another;

4200-491: The Assyrian Church of the East hang a Christian cross (without the corpus) on the eastern wall of the main room. The Assyrian Church of the East does not make use of icons , and the interiors of its houses of worship are simple. Iconography has been present in the Church of the East's history; opposition to religious images eventually became the norm due to the spread of Islam in the region, which forbade any type of depictions of saints and biblical prophets . As such,

4320-636: The Assyrian Church of the East, Mar Awa III , was consecrated in September 2021. The Assyrian Church of the East claims continuity with the historical Church of the East , and it is not in communion with the Catholic, Oriental Orthodox or Eastern Orthodox churches. The faction of the original Church of the East in that came into full communion with the Holy See of Rome is the Chaldean Catholic Church , whose members are mostly ethnic Assyrians . After

4440-541: The Assyrian defense under Agha Petros , but they were pursued into Iranian territory despite the fact they were fleeing. Later, in 1918, after the murder of their de facto leader and Patriarch Shimun XIX Benyamin and 150 of his followers during a negotiation, fearing further massacres at the hands of the Turks and Kurds, most of the survivors fled by train from Iran into what was to become Iraq. They sought protection under

4560-461: The Chinese capital Chang'an in 635, during the reign of Emperor Taizong of the Tang dynasty . Taizong extended official tolerance to the mission and invited the Christians to translate their sacred works for the imperial library. This tolerance was followed by many of Taizong's successors, allowing the Church of the East to thrive in China for over 200 years. China became a metropolitan province of

4680-569: The Christians and Manicheans of Manzi (south China)'. Marco Polo had earlier reported the existence of a Manichean community in Fujian, at first thought to be Christian, and it is not surprising to find this small religious minority represented officially by a Christian bishop. The relationship between the Catholic Franciscan missionaries and the Church of the East Christians were strained and often in conflict. The Catholics viewed

4800-436: The Church of the East Christians as heretics and rivals while the Church of the East Christians viewed them as political rivals. Roman Catholicism in China was expanded at the expense of the Church of the East during the Yuan dynasty, with some converting to Catholicism. The Church of the East declined in China substantially in the mid-14th century. Several contemporaries, including the papal envoy John of Marignolli , mention

4920-414: The Church of the East, under the name Beth Sinaye, in the first quarter of the 8th century. According to the 14th-century writer ʿAbdishoʿ of Nisibis, the province was established by the patriarch Sliba-zkha (714–28). Arguing from its position in the list of exterior provinces, which implied an 8th-century foundation, and on grounds of general historical probability, ʿAbdishoʿ refuted alternative claims that

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5040-464: The East , based in Baghdad , Iraq . In 1972, Shimun decided to step down as patriarch, and the following year he got married, in contravention to longstanding church custom. This led to a synod in 1973 in which further reforms were introduced, the most significant of which included the permanent abolition of hereditary succession — a practice introduced in the middle of the fifteenth century by Patriarch Shemon IV Basidi (who had died in 1497) — and it

5160-691: The East , the modern Assyrian Church of the East recognizes the first two ecumenical councils : the First Council of Nicaea (325), and the First Council of Constantinople (381). The Assyrian Church follows trinitarian doctrines, expressed in the Nicene Creed , and professes the eternal procession of the Holy Spirit from the Father . Theologically , the Assyrian Church of the East does not accept doctrinal definitions that were adopted at

5280-594: The East Han Chinese husband, Hua Xian (花献) who died in 827. These Han Chinese Christian men may have married Sogdian Christian women because of a lack of Han Chinese women belonging to the Christian religion, limiting their choice of spouses among the same ethnicity. Another epitaph in Luoyang of a Nestorian Christian Sogdian woman also surnamed An was discovered and she was put in her tomb by her military officer son on 22 January, 815. This Sogdian woman's husband

5400-483: The East had about 380,000 members, mostly living in the United States, Iran , Iraq , Syria , and Turkey. On 6 September 2021, Mar Gewargis III formally stepped down as Catholicos-Patriarch during an Extraordinary Session of the Holy Synod of the Assyrian Church of the East, leaving the Patriarchal See vacant. On 8 September 2021, the Holy Synod elected Mar Awa Royel , Bishop of California and Secretary of

5520-399: The East resulted from the series of complex processes and events that occurred within the Church of the East during the transitional period that started in the middle of the 16th century, and lasted until the beginning of the 19th century. That turbulent period was marked by several consequent splits and mergers, resulting in the creation of separate branches and rival patriarchal lines. During

5640-921: The East, the Chaldean Catholic Church, the Syriac Orthodox Church and Assyrian Protestants) entered into a war of independence and allied themselves with the United Kingdom , the Russian Empire and the Armenians against the Ottomans and their Islamic Kurdish, Iranian and Arab allies. Despite the odds, the Assyrians fought successfully against the Ottomans and their allies for three years throughout southeastern Turkey, northern Iraq, northwestern Iran and northeastern Syria. Eventually, however, they were abandoned by their allies,

5760-400: The Holy Synod, to succeed Mar Gewargis III as the 122nd Catholicos-Patriarch of the Assyrian Church of the East . He was Consecrated and Enthroned as Catholicos-Patriarch on 13 September 2021, on the Feast of the Holy Cross, in the Cathedral Church of St. John the Baptist in Erbil, Iraq, and assumed the ecclesiastical name Mar Awa III. Following doctrinal traditions of the ancient Church of

5880-400: The Jǐngjiào Fellowship with Mar Awa Royel accompanied by Reverend and Deacon, arriving in Xi'an , China in October 2012. On Saturday October 27, the Holy Eucharist in the Aramaic language was celebrated by Mar Awa, assisted by Fr. Genard and Deacon Allen in one of the churches in the city. Assyrian Church of the East The Assyrian Church of the East ( ACOE ), sometimes called

6000-504: The Mongol-led Yuan dynasty in the 13th century allowed the church to return to China, and rise to a greater status than it had ever had before. However, this was primarily among foreigners. By the end of the century, two new metropolitan provinces had been created for China: Tangut and 'Katai and Ong'. The province of Tangut covered northwestern China, and its metropolitan seems to have sat at Almaliq . The province evidently had several dioceses, even though they cannot now be localised, as

6120-408: The Patriarchal See to Chicago. Much of his patriarchate had been concerned with tending to the Assyrian diaspora community and with ecumenical efforts to strengthen relations with other churches. On 26 March 2015, Dinkha IV died in the United States, leaving the Assyrian Church of the East in a period of sede vacante until 18 September 2015. During that time, Aprem Mooken served as the custodian of

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6240-467: The Pope decided to appoint Yohannan Sulaqa as "Patriarch of Babylon" and named the breakaway Church as 'The Church of Assyria and Mosul" in April 1553. Upon consecration, Yohannan Sulaqa took the name Shimun and by the end of the year he returned to his homeland. He started to organize the pro-Catholic party by appointing several metropolitans and bishops. Union with Rome was actively opposed by Patriarch Shemon VII Ishoyahb , who continued to reside in

6360-412: The Pope. By that time, the movement towards full commitment to the traditional faith was constantly growing stronger within the Shimun line. When the next Patriarch Shimun XII Yoalaha decided to send his profession of faith to the Pope, he was deposed by his bishops because of his pro-Catholic attitude. The Pope tried to intervene on his behalf, but without success. Final resolution of conflicts within

6480-407: The Pope. That interlude was ended by his successor Shimun IX Dinkha (1580–1600) who restored full communion with the Catholic Church, and was officially confirmed by the Pope in 1584. After his death, the patriarchal office was made hereditary, and Patriarchs of this line continued to use the name Shimun , thus creating the Shimun line. Hereditary succession was not acceptable to Rome, and during

6600-492: The Rabban Hormizd Monastery near the ancient Assyrian town of Alqosh . He was succeeded by his nephew Eliya (1558–1591), who was designated as Eliya "VII" in older historiography, but renumbered as Eliya "VI" in recent scholarly works. The same renumbering was applied to his successors, who all took the same name thus creating the Eliya line . During his patriarchal rule, the Eliya line preserved its traditional christology and full ecclesiastical independence. His successor

6720-456: The Russian Empire and the First Republic of Armenia , due to the Russian Revolution and the collapse of the Armenian defense, leaving the Assyrians vastly outnumbered, surrounded, and cut off from supplies of ammunition and food. During this period, their See at Qodchanis was completely destroyed and the Turks and their Islamic allies massacred all of the Assyrians in the Hakkari Mountains. Those who survived fled into Iran with what remained of

6840-405: The Scriptures, including the Pentateuch ( 牟世法王經 ) - Genesis is known as 渾元經 , Psalms ( 多惠聖王經 ), the Gospels ( 阿思瞿利容經 ), Acts of the Apostles ( 傳化經 ) and a collection of the Pauline epistles ( 寳路法王經 ). These translations of the Scriptures have not survived. However, three non-scriptural Christian books listed in the Zunjing are among the Jingjiao manuscripts that were discovered in

6960-406: The Shimun line occurred under the next Patriarch Shimun XIII Dinkha (1662–1700), who definitively broke communion with the Catholic Church. In 1670, he gave a traditionalist reply to an approach that was made from the Pope, and by 1672 all connections with the Catholic Church were terminated. At the same time, Patriarch Shimun XIII moved his seat from Amid to Qochanis . After the final return to

7080-492: The Shimun line to become the sole primate of both Assyrian traditionalist branches. Consolidated after 1804, the reunited traditionalist Church led by patriarchs of the Shimun line became widely known as the "Assyrian Church of the East". Still based in Qodchanis, Assyrian Patriarch Shimun XVI Yohannan was not able to secure control over the traditional seat of the former Eliya line in the ancient Rabban Hormizd Monastery; and around 1808 that venerated monastic institution passed to

7200-402: The Tang general Liu Mian ( 劉沔 ) launched a surprise attack against Wujie Khan, led by his officer Shi Xiong . Shi crushed Wujie Khan's forces and rescued Princess Taihe. Wujie Khan fled, and subsequently, the Huigu remnants created only minor nuisances for Tang and no longer posed a major threat. Immediately after the dissipation of the Huigu threat, however, Emperor Wuzong faced a crisis of

7320-426: The Tang's side during the An Lushan Rebellion, Guo Ziyi's descendants joined the Mongol forces; his direct descendant Guo Kan was instrumental in the Mongol Siege of Baghdad (1258) and the destruction of the Abbasid caliphate which saw the execution of the last Abbasid caliph and the slaughter of 800,000-2,000,000 Arab Muslim civilians in Baghdad, with only the Nestorian Assyrian Christians being spared. The rise of

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7440-442: The Yuan capital Khanbaliq . The patriarch Yahballaha III grew up in a monastery in northern China in the 1270s, and the metropolitans Giwargis and Nestoris are mentioned in his biography. Yahballaha himself was consecrated metropolitan of Katai and Ong by the patriarch Denha I shortly before his death in 1281. During the first half of the 14th century there were Church of the East Christian communities in many cities in China, and

7560-437: The bishop Yohannan. These references confirm that the Church of the East in China had a well-developed hierarchy at the end of the 8th century, with bishops in both northern capitals, and there were probably other dioceses besides Chang'an and Lo-yang. Nestorian Christians like the Bactrian Priest Yisi of Balkh helped the Tang dynasty general Guo Ziyi militarily crush the An Lushan rebellion , with Yisi personally acting as

7680-453: The church was forced to get rid of her icons. A Nestorian Peshitta Gospel book written in Estrangela , from the 13th century, resides at the State Library of Berlin . This illustrated manuscript from Upper Mesopotamia or Tur Abdin proves that in the 13th century the church was not yet aniconic . The Nestorian Evangelion preserved in the Bibliothèque nationale de France , which contains an illustration depicting Jesus Christ (not

7800-400: The church which they had used had been destroyed; and there was only one Christian left in the land'. The collapse of the Church of the East in China coincided with the fall of the Tang dynasty , which led to a tumultuous era (the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period ). The eventual extinction of Christianity has been attributed to factors such as that the religion had a minority status and

7920-418: The church's and the general Assyrian community's disorganized state as a result of the conflicts of the 20th century, Patriarch Shimun XXI Eshai was forced to reorganize the church's structure in the United States . He transferred his residence to San Francisco in 1954, and was able to travel to Iran , Lebanon , Kuwait , and India , where he worked to strengthen the church. In 1964, the patriarch decreed

8040-406: The circuit to facilitate the transition. He submitted petitions requesting that Liu Zhen be allowed to take over the circuit. When Liu Congjian thereafter died, Liu Zhen sought to inherit the circuit. Li Deyu, believing that this would be a prime opportunity for the imperial government to seize control of Zhaoyi Circuit, advocated a campaign against Liu Zhen, and Emperor Wuzong agreed. Initially,

8160-618: The dynasty's own spirits (as Tang beliefs included that the dynasty was protected by earth), while Yan ( 炎 ) contained two instances of fire ( 火 ), which was more harmonious with earth. Despite this change, his conditions did not get better. The eunuchs, believing that Emperor Wuzong's uncle Li Yi the Prince of Guang to be simple-minded, decided to make him Emperor Wuzong's successor; they therefore had an edict issued in Emperor Wuzong's name creating Li Yi crown prince (and changing Li Yi's name to Li Chen). Soon thereafter, Emperor Wuzong died after drinking an elixir of immortality, and Li Chen took

8280-476: The early 20th century: the Sutra on the Origin of Origins , the Sutra of Ultimate and Mysterious Happiness , and the Hymn of Perfection of the Three Majesties (also called Gloria in Excelsis Deo ). Two additional Jingjiao manuscripts not listed in the Zunjing have also been discovered: Sutra of Hearing the Messiah and Treatise on the One God . The Mongols called Church of the East Christians (or Christian priests in particular) Arka′un or Erke′un , which

8400-411: The ecclesiastical name Gewargis III . Church leaders proposed moving the Patriarchal See from Chicago back to Erbil. There have also been talks of reunification. In the Common Christological Declaration Between the Catholic Church and the Assyrian Church of the East in 1994, the two churches recognized the legitimacy and rightness of each other's titles for Mary . In 2005, the Assyrian Church of

8520-424: The end of the 19th century, the Assyrian Church of the East consolidated itself as the sole representative of all traditionalist Assyrians. It also managed to secure a certain level of autonomy within the highly complex system of Ottoman local governance in the bordering regions. On several occasions, Assyrian patriarchs refused to enter communion with the Catholic Church or merge with the Chaldean Catholic Church. On

8640-672: The end of the British mandate in 1933 and a massacre of Assyrian civilians at Simele by the Iraqi Army, the patriarch was forced to take refuge in Cyprus . There, Shimun petitioned the League of Nations regarding his people's fate, but to little avail, and he was consequently barred from entering Syria and Iraq. He traveled through Europe before moving to Chicago in 1940 to join the growing Assyrian diaspora community there. Due to

8760-491: The entire 18th century, residing in the ancient Monastery of Rabban Hormizd, which was eventually attacked and looted by muslim Turks in 1743, at the beginning of the Ottoman–Persian War (1743–1746) . Faced with a centuries-old rivalry and frequent conflicts between two mighty Islamic empires ( Ottoman and Persian ), all Christian communities in the bordering regions were constantly exposed to danger – and not only in

8880-473: The entire period, one of the main questions of dispute was the union with the Catholic Church . Ultimately, the pro-Catholic branches were consolidated as the Chaldean Catholic Church , while the traditional branches were consolidated as the Assyrian Church of the East. During the patriarchal tenure of Shemon VII Ishoyahb (1539–1558), who resided in the ancient Rabban Hormizd Monastery near Alqosh , an internal dissent occurred over several issues, including

9000-568: The fall of the Tang dynasty, what was left of the church quickly vanished without such support. Dozens of Jingjiao texts were translated from Syriac into Chinese. Only a few have survived. These are generally referred to as the Chinese Jingjiao Documents . One of the surviving texts, the Zunjing or Book of Praise ( 尊經 ), lists about 35 books that had been translated into Chinese. Among these books are some translations of

9120-491: The grounds of a local monastery. The stele contains a long inscription in Chinese with Syriac glosses, composed by the cleric Adam , probably the metropolitan of Beth Sinaye. The inscription describes the eventful progress of the Church of the East mission in China since Alopen's arrival. The inscription also mentions the archdeacons Gigoi of Khumdan [Chang'an] and Gabriel of Sarag [Lo-yang]; Yazdbuzid, 'priest and country-bishop of Khumdan'; Sargis, 'priest and country-bishop'; and

9240-561: The help of his uncle Emperor Xuānzong, Buddhism was able to recover from the persecution; but Christianity, Manichaeism, and Zoroastrianism never again played as significant a role in Chinese religious life.) By the time that Emperor Wuzong took the throne, his mother Consort Wei had already died, and he posthumously honored her as an empress dowager . Also, knowing that Yang Sifu and Li Jue had not supported him as Emperor Wenzong's successor, he had them removed from their offices. He instead installed Li Deyu , former chancellor under Wenzong, as

9360-450: The imperial forces could not advance well against Zhaoyi forces, and the campaign was complicated by a mutiny by the officer Yang Bian ( 楊弁 ) at Hedong Circuit (河東, headquartered in modern Taiyuan , Shanxi ) early in 844. Yang's mutiny was quickly put down, however, and the imperial forces continued their assault on Zhaoyi. In fall 844, the three eastern prefectures surrendered to He Hongjing and Wang Yuankui, and soon thereafter, Liu Zhen

9480-473: The imperial government was concerned that three other de facto independent circuits north of the Yellow River (Weibo (魏博, headquartered in modern Handan , Hebei ), then governed by He Hongjing ; Chengde (成德, headquartered in modern Shijiazhuang , Hebei ), then governed by Wang Yuankui ; and Lulong (盧龍, headquartered in modern Beijing , then governed by Zhang Zhongwu ) would side with Zhaoyi. Emperor Wuzong secured their cooperation by effectively promising

9600-538: The last references to East Syriac and Latin Christians date from the 1350s, and it is likely that all foreign Christians were expelled from China soon after the collapse of the Yuan dynasty and the rise of the Ming dynasty in 1368. Reasons often cited for the rapid decline and disappearance of Church of the East after the fall of the Yuan dynasty include the foreign character of the religion and its adherents, comprising mainly

9720-423: The leadership of the prince Wamosi and the nobles Chixin ( 赤心 ), Pugu ( 僕固 ), and Najiachuo ( 那頡啜 ), headed for the Tang border city of Tiande (天德, in modern Hohhot , Inner Mongolia ) and sought to submit to Tang. The leader of another major group, the noble Yaoluoge Wuxi , claimed the khan title for himself (as Wujie Khan). Wujie Khan subsequently seized Emperor Wuzong's aunt Princess Taihe , who had married

9840-575: The metropolitan Shem ʿ on Bar Qaligh of Tangut was arrested by the patriarch Denha I shortly before his death in 1281 'together with a number of his bishops'. The province of Katai ( Cathay ) and Ong, which seems to have replaced the old Tang dynasty province of Beth Sinaye, covered northern China and the country of the Christian Ongut tribe around the great bend of the Yellow River. The metropolitans of Katai and Ong probably sat at

9960-542: The monk David of Beth ʿAbe, who was metropolitan of Beth Sinaye during the reign of Timothy I (780–823). Timothy I is said also to have consecrated a metropolitan for Tibet (Beth Tuptaye), a province not again mentioned. Epitaphs were found dating from the Tang dynasty of a Christian couple in Luoyang of a Church of the East Christian Sogdian woman, who Lady An (安氏) who died in 821 and her Church of

10080-511: The murder of the Latin bishop Richard and six of his companions in 1339 or 1340 by a Muslim mob in Almaliq, the chief city of Tangut, and the forcible conversion of the city's Christians to Islam. The last tombstones in two East Syriac cemeteries discovered in modern-day Mongolia around the end of the 19th century date from 1342, and several commemorate deaths during a plague in 1338. In China,

10200-406: The need for further inter-Christian dialogue that would resolve various questions in the field of comparative Christological terminology. The Nestorian nature of Assyrian Christianity remains a matter of contention. Elements of Nestorian doctrine were explicitly repudiated by Patriarch Dinkha IV on the occasion of his accession in 1976. The Christology of the Church of the East has its roots in

10320-475: The newly established line of patriarchs who were united with the Catholic Church was continued by Abdisho IV Maron (1555–1570), who remained in full communion with the Catholic Church. He visited Rome and was officially confirmed by the Pope of Rome in 1562. Soon after his death, connections with Rome were weakened for the first time during the tenure of Patriarch Yahballaha IV who did not seek confirmation from

10440-536: The other hand, by the end of the 19th century some of its communities were converted to Protestantism by various western missionaries, while other communities were drawn to Eastern Orthodoxy . That movement was led by Assyrian Bishop Mar Yonan of Supurghan in the region of Urmia who converted to Eastern Orthodoxy in 1898, through the Russian Ecclesiastical Mission in Urmia . Among all

10560-660: The patriarchs temporarily resided between Urmia and Salmas , and after 1918 the patriarchs resided in Mosul . After the Simele massacre of 1933, the then Patriarch Shimun XXI Eshai was exiled to Cyprus due to his agitation for independence . In 1940, he was welcomed to the United States where he set up his residence in Chicago , and administered the United States and Canada as his patriarchal province. The patriarchate

10680-438: The persecution was directed not only towards Buddhism but also towards other foreign religions, such as Zoroastrianism , Nestorian Christianity , and Manichaeism . Only the native Chinese ideologies of Confucianism and Taoism survived the upheaval relatively unaffected. He all but destroyed Zoroastrianism and Manichaeism in China, and his persecution of the growing Nestorian Christian churches sent Chinese Christianity into

10800-587: The powerful eunuchs Qiu Shiliang and Yu Hongzhi ( 魚弘志 ), who were not consulted in the decision, opposed Li Chengmei, and despite Li Jue's objection, forged an edict in Emperor Wenzong's name deposing Li Chengmei by claiming that Li Chengmei was too young, and creating Li Chan crown prince instead. Subsequently, Qiu and Yu had soldiers escort Li Chan from his mansion to the palace and, after Emperor Wenzong then died, persuaded Li Chan to order Consort Yang, Li Chengmei, and Li Rong all to commit suicide. After

10920-686: The priest Yohannan Sulaqa , who decided to legitimize his position by traveling to Rome and seeking confirmation by Pope Julius III (1550–1555). Receiving support from the Franciscan missionaries, he arrived in Rome and entered into full communion with the Catholic Church in February 1553. At that point, officials of the Roman Curia were given incorrect information that the elderly Patriarch Shemon VII had actually died. After some deliberation,

11040-509: The province of Beth Sinaye had been founded either by the 5th-century patriarch Ahha (410–14) or the 6th-century patriarch Shila (503–23). Church of the East worshippers in the time of Xuanzong accepted the Confucian religious beliefs of the emperor, and likely other traditional Chinese religions. In 781 the Christian community in Chang'an erected a tablet known as the Xi'an Stele on

11160-503: The province of Katai and Ong probably had several suffragan dioceses. In 1253 William of Rubruck mentioned a Church of the East bishop in the town of 'Segin' (Xijing, modern Datong in Shanxi province). The tomb of a Church of the East bishop named Shlemun, who died in 1313, has recently been discovered at Quanzhou in Fujian province. Shlemun's epitaph described him as 'administrator of

11280-464: The question of hereditary succession to the patriarchal throne, and the question of union with the Catholic Church. By that time, Franciscan missionaries had already gained some influence over several local communities, and they took an active role in organizing the opposition to the Patriarch at that time. By the end of 1552, a pro-Catholic party had been organized in Mosul under the leadership of

11400-465: The ranks of the Buddhist monks and nuns, and returning them to lay life. Monks and nuns were to turn their wealth over to the government unless they returned to lay life and paid taxes. During this first phase, Confucian arguments for the reform of Buddhist institutions and the protection of society from Buddhist influence and practices were predominant. The religious persecution reached its height in

11520-609: The reality of the moral choices he faced. In order to preserve the impassibility of Christ's Divine Nature, the unity of his person is defined in a looser fashion than in the Alexandrian tradition. The normative Christology of the Church of the East was written by Babai the Great (d. 628) during the controversy that followed the 431 Council of Ephesus . Babai held that within Christ there exist two qnome ( Syriac : ܩܢܘܡܐ / qnômâ ,

11640-405: The same as other apostolic churches. The church maintains a system of geographical parishes organized into dioceses and archdioceses . The Catholicos-Patriarch is the head of the church. Its synod is composed of bishops who oversee individual dioceses and metropolitans who oversee episcopal dioceses in their territorial jurisdiction. The Chaldean Syrian Church , which encompasses India and

11760-441: The same time, the long coexistence and rivalry between two traditionalist patriarchal branches — the senior Eliya line of Alqosh and the junior Shimun line of Qochanis — ended in 1804 when the last primate of the Eliya line, Patriarch Eliya XII (XIII) died and was buried in the ancient Rabban Hormizd Monastery . His branch decided not to elect a new patriarch, thus enabling the remaining patriarch Shimun XVI Yohannan (1780–1820) of

11880-405: The tenure of the next Patriarch Shimun X Eliyah (1600–1638) ties with the Catholic Church were loosened again. In 1616, Shimun X signed a traditional profession of faith that was not accepted by the Pope, leaving the Patriarch without Rome's confirmation. His successor Shimun XI Eshuyow (1638–1656) restored communion with the Catholic Church as late as 1653, eventually receiving confirmation from

12000-599: The term "Nestorian" was applied to all doctrine upholding a strictly Antiochene Christology. In consequence, the Church of the East was labelled Nestorian, though its official Christology was in fact defined by Babai the Great , at the council that was held in 612. The church employs the Syriac dialect of Eastern Aramaic in its liturgy , the East Syriac Rite , which includes three anaphoras , attributed to Addai of Edessa and Mari , Theodore of Mopsuestia and later also Nestorius . In their homes, Christians belonging to

12120-551: The three circuits that he would not interfere with their independence, and in fact secured the military cooperation of both Weibo and Chengde in the campaign against Zhaoyi by leaving the task of capturing Zhaoyi's three eastern prefectures, east of the Taihang Mountains , to Wang and He Hongjing. The other imperial generals, including Wang Zai , Shi Xiong, and Liu Mian, concentrated on Zhaoyi's two western prefectures, including its capital Lu Prefecture ( 潞州 ). Initially,

12240-420: The times of war, since local, mainly Kurdish , warlords were accustomed to attacking Assyrian and Armenian Christian communities and monasteries and taking their land, often with Ottoman support. Patriarchs Eliya X (XI) (1700–1722) and Eliya XI (XII) (1722–1778) tried to improve the increasingly worsening position of their Christian flock by staying loyal to Ottoman authorities, but the local administration

12360-530: The traditional faith, Patriarchs of the Shimun line decided to keep their independence and after that time there were two independent lines of traditional patriarchs: the senior Eliya line in Alqosh and the junior Shimun line in Qochanis. Such division was additionally caused by the complex structure of local Assyrian communities, traditionally organized as tribal confederations with each tribe being headed by

12480-511: The tragedies and schisms which thinned the church out, no other was as severe as the Assyrian genocide . At that point the Assyrian Church of the East was based in the mountains of Hakkari , as it had been since 1681. In 1915, The Young Turks invaded the region — despite the Assyrians' plea of neutrality during the Caucasus campaign by Russia and their Armenian allies — out of fear of an Assyrian independence movement . In response to this, Assyrians of all denominations (the Assyrian Church of

12600-592: The year 845 CE, ultimately confiscating the Buddhist temple properties, destroying 4,600 Buddhist temples and 40,000 shrines, and removing 260,500 monks and nuns from the monasteries. Emperor Wuzong's reasons for doing so were not purely economic. A zealous Taoist, Wuzong considered Buddhism a foreign religion that was harmful to Chinese society. One notable victim of the persecution was the Japanese Tendai monk Ennin . Among its purposes were to raise war funds and to cleanse China of foreign influences. As such,

12720-473: Was Patriarch Eliya VII (VIII) (1591–1617), who negotiated on several occasions with the Catholic Church, in 1605 and 1610, and again in 1615–1616, but without any conclusion. Further negotiations were abandoned by the next Patriarch Eliya VIII (IX) (1617–1660). David Wilmshurst noted that his successor, Patriarch Eliya IX (X) (1660–1700) also was a "vigorous defender of the traditional faith". The Eliya line of traditionalist Patriarchs continued throughout

12840-624: Was also decided that Shimun should be reinstated. The second matter was supposed to be settled at another synod in 1975; however, Shimun was assassinated in November 1975 by an estranged relative before this could take place. Almost a year after the death of Shimun, Mar Khnanya Dinkha , Metropolitan of Tehran , convened a synod of seven Assyrian bishops which took place at St Paul's Abbey, Alton , in England, from 12 to 17 October 1976. They were joined by two Church of England bishops, representing

12960-469: Was an emperor of the Tang dynasty of China, reigning from 840 to 846. Emperor Wuzong is mainly known in modern times for the religious persecution that occurred during his reign. However, he was also known for his successful reactions against incursions by remnants of the Uyghur Khanate and the rebellion by Liu Zhen , as well as his deep trust and support for chancellor Li Deyu . Li Chan

13080-539: Was born in 814, as the ninth son of Li Heng at least, who was then Crown Prince under Li Chan's grandfather Emperor Xianzong . He was born at the Eastern Palace (i.e., the Crown Prince's palace). His mother was Consort Wei, whose rank was lost to history. After Li Heng became Emperor Muzong in 820, he made many of his brothers and sons princes in 821, and Li Chan was made the Prince of Ying. Little

13200-589: Was forced to take temporary refuge in Mosul . He was succeeded by Patriarch Shimun XVIII Rubil (1861–1903) who also resided in Qodshanis. In 1869, he received an open invitation from the Vatican to visit Rome to attend the First Vatican Council as an observer, but he did not accept the invitation, In following years, he also rejected other initiatives for union with the Catholic Church. By

13320-402: Was frequently unable to provide effective protection. The Eliya line of traditionalist Patriarchs ended in 1804 with the death of Eliya XII (XIII) (1778–1804). During the second half of the 16th century, traditionalist patriarchs of the Eliya line were faced with the continuous presence of the pro-Catholic movement, led by successors of Shimun VIII Yohannan Sulaqa . After his death in 1555,

13440-713: Was killed by his own officer Guo Yi ( 郭誼 ), who then surrendered. After the Zhaoyi campaign, Li Deyu used the opportunity to carry reprisals against his political enemies in the Niu-Li Factional Struggles —those who were members of what would later be referred to as the Niu Faction (named after Niu Sengru ) against Li Deyu's Li Faction—including the former chancellors Niu Sengru and Li Zongmin —by accusing them of complicity in Liu Zhen's rebellion. As

13560-610: Was later applied for Christians in general (including Roman Catholics ) whereby Christianity was named in Chinese as 也里可溫教 ( Yělǐkěwēn jiào ). However, there is a suggestion that the term Yělǐkěwēn jiào might be used also for Míng jiào and some other religions in Jiangnan . The Church of the East had significant evangelical success under the Mongol Empire . Although both the Abbasid caliphate and General Guo Ziyi fought on

13680-607: Was moved several times throughout history. Up to the 1804, patriarchs of the senior Eliya line resided in the ancient Rabban Hormizd Monastery , while patriarchs of the junior Shimun line resided in the Cathedral Church of Mar Shallita, in the village of Qudshanis in the Hakkari Mountains of the Ottoman Empire , and continued to do so up to the First World War . After the beginning of conflict in 1915,

13800-479: Was of foreign character along with dependence on imperial support. The majority of Christians in Tang China were of foreign origin or descent (mostly from Persia and Central Asia). The religion had relatively little impact on the native Han Chinese. A decisive factor to the collapse of the Church of the East was the church's reliance on Tang imperial protection and patronage to continue to operate undisturbed. After

13920-474: Was said that Li Chan was silent, intelligent, and decisive, not showing his emotions easily. It was also said that Emperor Wenzong treated him and another brother, Li Rong the Prince of An, better than other princes. Emperor Wenzong originally created his son Li Yong crown prince, but after Li Yong died in 838, he was unsure whom to make his successor. Emperor Wenzong's favorite concubine Consort Yang recommended Li Rong, but when Emperor Wenzong consulted

14040-469: Was said that his mood became harsh and unpredictable as a side effect. By late 845, he was seriously ill. In early 846, in an attempt to ward off the illness, he changed his name to Li Yan—under the theory that under the Wu Xing cosmology, his original name of Chan ( 瀍 ) contained two instances of earth ( 土 ) while only containing one instance of water ( 水 ), which meant that he was getting suppressed by

14160-463: Was surnamed He (和) and he was a Han Chinese man and the family was indicated to be multiethnic on the epitaph pillar. In Luoyang, the mixed-race sons of Nestorian Christian Sogdian women and Han Chinese men had many career paths available to them. Neither their mixed ethnicity nor their faith were barriers and they were able to become civil officials or military officers and openly profess their Christian religion and support Christian monasteries. In 845,

14280-455: Was the collapse of Tang's erstwhile vassal and ally Huigu —which had supported Tang in various campaigns through the decades. In 840, due to internal power struggles, Huigu was weakened, such that when the Xiajiasi (Kirghiz) khan Are ( 阿熱 ) attacked, the Huigu khan Yaoluoge Hesa ( 藥羅葛闔馺 ) was killed. The Huigu tribespeople scattered, fleeing in various directions. One major group, under

14400-499: Was then moved to Modesto, California , in 1954, and finally to San Francisco in 1958 due to health issues. After the assassination of the patriarch and the election of Dinkha IV in 1976, the patriarchate was temporarily located in Tehran , where the new patriarch was living at the time. Emperor Wuzong of Tang Emperor Wuzong of Tang (July 2, 814 – April 22, 846), né Li Chan , later changed to Li Yan just before his death,

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