112-740: The First Ecumenical Council of the Vatican , commonly known as the First Vatican Council or Vatican I , was the 20th ecumenical council of the Catholic Church , held three centuries after the preceding Council of Trent which was adjourned in 1563. The council was convoked by Pope Pius IX on 29 June 1868, under the rising threat of the Kingdom of Italy encroaching on the Papal States . It opened on 8 December 1869 and
224-583: A dogma until 1854, by Pope Pius IX in the papal bull Ineffabilis Deus . While the Immaculate Conception asserts Mary's freedom from original sin, the Council of Trent , held between 1545 and 1563, had previously affirmed her freedom from personal sin . The Immaculate Conception became a popular subject in literature, but its abstract nature meant it was late in appearing as a subject in works of art. The iconography of Our Lady of
336-470: A Franciscan Scotist and devoted Immaculist, placed it on the Roman calendar (i.e., list of church festivals and observances) via the bull Cum praexcelsa . Thereafter in 1481 and 1483, in response to the polemic writings of the prominent Thomist , Vincenzo Bandello , Pope Sixtus IV published two more bulls which forbade anybody to preach or teach against the Immaculate Conception, or for either side to accuse
448-587: A continuation of, the Third Council of Constantinople . To be considered ecumenical, Orthodox accept a council that meets the condition that it was accepted by the whole church. That it was called together legally is also an important factor. A case in point is the Third Ecumenical Council , where two groups met as duly called for by the emperor, each claiming to be the legitimate council. The Emperor had called for bishops to assemble in
560-553: A council is accepted as being ecumenical if it is accepted by the Eastern Orthodox church at large—clergy, monks and assembly of believers. Teachings from councils that purport to be ecumenical, but which lack this acceptance by the church at large, are, therefore, not considered ecumenical. Oriental Orthodoxy accepts three ecumenical councils, the First Council of Nicaea, the First Council of Constantinople, and
672-400: A derived authority to the extent that they correctly expound Scripture (as most would generally consider occurred with the first four councils in regard to their dogmatic decisions). Church councils were, from the beginning, bureaucratic exercises. Written documents were circulated, speeches made and responded to, votes taken, and final documents published and distributed. A large part of what
784-530: A few Armenians . Only a few bishops appear to have had doubts about the dogma itself. On 24 April 1870, the dogmatic constitution on the Catholic faith Dei Filius was adopted unanimously. The draft presented to the council on 8 March drew no serious criticism, but a group of 35 English-speaking bishops, who feared that the opening phrase of the first chapter, " Sancta romana catholica Ecclesia " ('Holy Roman Catholic Church'), might be construed as favouring
896-428: A formal definition of papal infallibility as they were in strengthening papal authority and, because of this, were willing to accept the agenda of the fallibilists. A minority, some 10% of the bishops, McBrien says, opposed the proposed definition of papal infallibility on both ecclesiastical and pragmatic grounds, because, in their opinion, it departed from the ecclesiastical structure of the early Christian church. From
1008-415: A number of artistic masterpieces based on the use of these same symbols. The popularity of this particular representation of The Immaculate Conception spread across the rest of Europe, and has since remained the best known artistic depiction of the concept: in a heavenly realm, moments after her creation, the spirit of Mary (in the form of a young woman) looks up in awe at (or bows her head to) God. The Moon
1120-667: A popular subject in literature, but its abstract nature meant it was late in appearing as a subject in art. During the Medieval period it was depicted as " Joachim and Anne Meeting at the Golden Gate ", meaning Mary's conception through the chaste kiss of her parents at the Golden Gate in Jerusalem; the 14th and 15th centuries were the heyday for this scene, after which it was gradually replaced by more allegorical depictions featuring an adult Mary. The definitive iconography for
1232-450: A potential "Eighth Ecumenical Council" following debates on several issues facing Eastern Orthodoxy, however not all autocephalous churches were represented. Although some Protestants reject the concept of an ecumenical council establishing doctrine for the entire Christian faith, Catholics, Lutherans, Anglicans, Methodists, Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox all accept the authority of ecumenical councils in principle. Where they differ
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#17327656355541344-626: A pragmatic perspective, they feared that defining papal infallibility would alienate some Catholics, create new difficulties for union with non-Catholics, and provoke interference by governments in ecclesiastical affairs. Those who held this view included most of the German and Austro-Hungarian bishops, nearly half of the Americans, one third of the French, most of the Chaldaeans and Melkites , and
1456-535: A prisoner in the Vatican, issued the bull Postquam Dei munere , adjourning the council indefinitely. While some proposed to continue the council in the Belgian city of Mechlin , it was never reconvened. The council was formally closed in 1960 by Pope John XXIII , prior to the formation of the Second Vatican Council . In reaction to the political implications of the doctrine of infallibility on
1568-514: A sexual union which was sinless because it was pure and free of sexual lust. In the 16th and especially the 17th centuries there was a proliferation of Immaculatist devotion in Spain, leading the Habsburg monarchs to demand that the papacy elevate the belief to the status of dogma. In France in 1830 Catherine Labouré (May 2, 1806 – December 31, 1876) saw a vision of Mary standing on a globe while
1680-542: A solemn manner its supreme and full power over the whole Church. It holds that "there never is an ecumenical council which is not confirmed or at least recognized as such by Peter's successor". Its present canon law requires that an ecumenical council be convoked and presided over, either personally or through a delegate, by the Pope, who is also to decide the agenda; but the church makes no claim that all past ecumenical councils observed these present rules, declaring only that
1792-652: A specific local matter. From this point of view, there has been no fully "pan-Orthodox" (Ecumenical) council since 787. The use of the term "pan-Orthodox" is confusing to those not within Eastern Orthodoxy, and it leads to mistaken impressions that these are ersatz ecumenical councils rather than purely local councils to which nearby Orthodox hierarchs, regardless of jurisdiction, are invited. Others, including 20th-century theologians Metropolitan Hierotheos (Vlachos) of Naupactus , Fr. John S. Romanides , and Fr. George Metallinos (all of whom refer repeatedly to
1904-421: A voice commanded her to have a medal made in imitation of what she saw. The medal said "O Mary, conceived without sin, pray for us who have recourse to thee", which was a confirmation of Mary herself that she was conceived without sin, confirming the Immaculate Conception. Her vision marked the beginning of a great 19th-century Marian revival. In 1849 Pope Pius IX issued the encyclical Ubi primum soliciting
2016-479: Is a meeting of bishops and other church authorities to consider and rule on questions of Christian doctrine, administration, discipline, and other matters in which those entitled to vote are convoked from the whole world ( oikoumene ) and which secures the approbation of the whole Church. The word " ecumenical " derives from the Late Latin oecumenicus "general, universal", from Greek oikoumenikos "from
2128-670: Is an example of a council accepted as ecumenical in spite of being rejected by the East, as the Councils of Ephesus and Chalcedon are accepted in spite of being rejected respectively by the Church of the East and Oriental Orthodoxy . The Catholic Church teaches that an ecumenical council is a gathering of the College of Bishops (of which the Bishop of Rome is an essential part) to exercise in
2240-610: Is held or on the granting or withholding of prior authorization or legal status by any state, in line with the attitude of the 5th-century bishops who "saw the definition of the church's faith and canons as supremely their affair, with or without the leave of the Emperor" and who "needed no one to remind them that Synodical process pre-dated the Christianisation of the royal court by several centuries". The Catholic Church recognizes as ecumenical various councils held later than
2352-464: Is in which councils they accept and what the conditions are for a council to be considered "ecumenical". The relationship of the Papacy to the validity of ecumenical councils is a ground of controversy between Catholicism and the Eastern Orthodox churches. The Catholic Church holds that recognition by the Pope is an essential element in qualifying a council as ecumenical; Eastern Orthodox view approval by
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#17327656355542464-450: Is known about the beliefs of heresies comes from the documents quoted in councils in order to be refuted, or indeed only from the deductions based on the refutations. Most councils dealt not only with doctrinal but also with disciplinary matters, which were decided in canons ("laws"). Study of the canons of church councils is the foundation of the development of canon law , especially the reconciling of seemingly contradictory canons or
2576-440: Is under her feet and a halo of twelve stars surround her head, possibly a reference to "a woman clothed with the sun" from Revelation 12:1–2 . Additional imagery may include clouds, a golden light, and putti . In some paintings the putti are holding lilies and roses , flowers often associated with Mary. Eastern Orthodoxy never accepted Augustine's specific ideas on original sin, and in consequence did not become involved in
2688-844: The Catholic Encyclopedia , Justin Martyr , Irenaeus , and Cyril of Jerusalem developed the idea of Mary as the New Eve, drawing comparison to Eve , while yet immaculate and incorrupt – that is to say, not subject to original sin. Holweck adds that Ephrem the Syrian said she was as innocent as Eve before the Fall . Ambrose asserted Mary's incorruptibility, attributing her virginity to grace and immunity from sin. Severus, Bishop of Antioch , concurred affirming Mary's purity and immaculateness. John Damascene extended
2800-464: The Anglican branch theory , later succeeded in having an additional adjective inserted, so that the final text read: " Sancta catholica apostolica romana Ecclesia " ('Holy Catholic Apostolic Roman Church'). The constitution thus set forth the teaching of the "Holy Catholic Apostolic Roman Church" on God, revelation and faith. There was stronger opposition to the draft constitution on the nature of
2912-1109: The Bonn Agreement . The Union of Utrecht still exists to this day and includes the Old Catholic Church of the Netherlands , the Catholic Diocese of the Old Catholics in Germany , the Old Catholic Church of Austria , the Old Catholic Church of the Czech Republic , the Polish-Catholic Church of the Republic of Poland and the Christian Catholic Church of Switzerland . The Union of Scranton , formed by more theologically conservative Old Catholics,
3024-570: The Council of Elvira (306), the Council of Carthage (311) , the Synod of Neo-Caesarea (c. 314), the Council of Ancyra (314) and the Council of Arles (314) . The first seven councils recognised in both East and West as ecumenical and several others to which such recognition is refused were called by the Byzantine emperors. In the first millennium, various theological and political differences such as Nestorianism or Dyophysitism caused parts of
3136-607: The Council of Serdica (343), the Second Council of Ephesus (449) and the Council of Hieria (754), which saw themselves as ecumenical or were intended as such. As late as the 11th century, seven councils were recognised as ecumenical in the Catholic Church. Then, in the time of Pope Gregory VII (1073–1085), canonists who in the Investiture Controversy quoted the prohibition in canon 22 of
3248-546: The Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople , has affirmed all of the first seven councils as ecumenical and authoritative. It teaches: Immaculate Conception The Immaculate Conception is the belief that the Virgin Mary was free of original sin from the moment of her conception. It is one of the four Marian dogmas of the Catholic Church. Debated by medieval theologians, it was not defined as
3360-675: The First Council of Nicaea (325) to the Second Council of Nicaea (787), represent an attempt to reach an orthodox consensus and to unify Christendom . All of the original seven ecumenical councils as recognized in whole or in part were called by an emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire and all were held in the Eastern Roman Empire , a recognition denied to other councils similarly called by an Eastern Roman emperor and held in his territory, in particular
3472-526: The Liturgy of the Hours , included offices venerating Mary's immaculate conception on the feast of the Immaculate Conception. An example is the antiphon that begins: " Tota pulchra es, Maria, et macula originalis non est in te " ("You are all beautiful, Mary, and the original stain [of sin] is not in you". It continues: "Your clothing is white as snow, and your face is like the sun. You are all beautiful, Mary, and
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3584-625: The Second Council of Ephesus of 449, also held in Anatolia, was called by the Byzantine Emperor Theodosius II and, though annulled by the Council of Chalcedon, was confirmed by Emperor Basiliscus , who annulled the Council of Chalcedon. This too ceased to be considered an ecumenical council. The Catholic Church does not consider the validity of an ecumenical council's teaching to be in any way dependent on where it
3696-660: The Sixth Ecumenical Council , Pope Honorius and Patriarch Sergius were declared heretics. The council anathematized them and declared them tools of the devil and cast them out of the church. It is their position that, since the Seventh Ecumenical Council, there has been no synod or council of the same scope. Local meetings of hierarchs have been called "pan-Orthodox", but these have invariably been simply meetings of local hierarchs of whatever Eastern Orthodox jurisdictions are party to
3808-466: The cardinals resident in Rome to tender him their opinions as to the advisability of a council. The majority pronounced in favour of the scheme, dissenting voices being rare. After March 1865, the convocation of the council was no longer in doubt. Special bulls were reportedly issued with invitations to Eastern Orthodox and Protestant clerics as well as to other non-Catholics, but apparently none accepted
3920-543: The eastern and western denominations comprising Chalcedonian Christianity , were convoked by Roman Emperors, who also enforced the decisions of those councils within the state church of the Roman Empire . Starting with the third ecumenical council, noteworthy schisms led to non-participation by some members of what had previously been considered a single Christian Church . Thus, some parts of Christianity did not attend later councils, or attended but did not accept
4032-567: The ecumenical movement . The Oriental Orthodox hold that the Dyophysite formula of two natures formulated at the Council of Chalcedon is inferior to the Miaphysite formula of "One Incarnate Nature of God the Word" ( Byzantine Greek : Mia physis tou theou logou sarkousomene ) and that the proceedings of Chalcedon themselves were motivated by imperial politics . The Alexandrian Church ,
4144-586: The sovereignty of secular states , some of the European kingdoms and republics took rapid action against the Catholic Church. The Austrian Empire annulled the Concordat of 1855 . In the Kingdom of Prussia , the anti-Catholic Kulturkampf broke out immediately afterwards, and in the French Third Republic the synod so accentuated the power of ultramontanism (an emphasis on the powers of
4256-619: The "Eighth and Ninth Ecumenical Councils"), Fr. George Dragas , and the 1848 Encyclical of the Eastern Patriarchs (which refers explicitly to the "Eighth Ecumenical Council" and was signed by the patriarchs of Constantinople , Jerusalem , Antioch , and Alexandria as well as the Holy Synods of the first three), regard other synods beyond the Seventh Ecumenical Council as being ecumenical. Before
4368-650: The 11th. It was suppressed there after the Norman Conquest (1066), and the first thorough exposition of the doctrine was a response to this suppression. It continued to spread through the 15th century despite accusations of heresy from the Thomists and strong objections from several prominent theologians. Beginning around 1140 Bernard of Clairvaux , a Cistercian monk, wrote to Lyons Cathedral to express his surprise and dissatisfaction that it had recently begun to be observed there, but in 1477 Pope Sixtus IV ,
4480-488: The 20th century, the Council at Constantinople in 879 AD was recognised as the 8th ecumenical council by people like the famous expert on Canon Law, Theodore Balsamon (11th century), St. Neilos of Rhodes, St. Mark of Ephesus (15th century), St. Symeon of Thessalonica (15th century), and the Patriarch Dositheos II of Jerusalem in his Tome of Joy (17th century). From the Eastern Orthodox perspective,
4592-590: The Bishop of Rome (the Pope) as being roughly equivalent to that of other patriarchs. Some have held that a council is ecumenical only when all five patriarchs of the Pentarchy are represented at it. Others reject this theory in part because there were no patriarchs of Constantinople and Jerusalem at the time of the first ecumenical council. Both the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches recognize seven councils in
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4704-659: The Blessed Virgin Mary gave birth always was that of the Son of God himself". Both sides recognised the legitimacy and rightness, as expressions of the same faith, of the Assyrian Church's liturgical invocation of Mary as "the Mother of Christ our God and Saviour" and the Catholic Church's use of "the Mother of God" and also as "the Mother of Christ". The Lutheran World Federation , in ecumenical dialogues with
4816-574: The Catholic Church), the Catholic Church continues to hold general councils of the bishops in full communion with the Pope , reckoning them as ecumenical. In all, the Catholic Church recognizes twenty-one councils as ecumenical. The first four ecumenical councils are recognized by some Lutheran Churches , Anglican Communion and Reformed Churches —though they are " considered subordinate to Scripture ". The Lutheran World Federation recognizes
4928-499: The Church to separate after councils such as those of Ephesus and Chalcedon , but councils recognised as ecumenical continued to be held. The Council of Hieria of 754, held at the imperial palace of that name close to Chalcedon in Anatolia, was summoned by Byzantine Emperor Constantine V and was attended by 338 bishops, who regarded it as the seventh ecumenical council. The Second Council of Nicaea , which annulled that of Hieria,
5040-733: The Coptic Orthodox Church , and the Patriarch Ignatius Zakka I of the Syriac Orthodox Church opposed the teaching, while the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church and Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church accept it. Anne , the mother of Mary, first appears in the 2nd-century apocryphal Gospel of James . The author of the gospel borrowed from Greek tales of the childhood of heroes. For Jesus' grandmother
5152-659: The Council of Constantinople of 869–870 against laymen influencing the appointment of prelates elevated this council to the rank of ecumenical council. Only in the 16th century was recognition as ecumenical granted by Catholic scholars to the Councils of the Lateran, of Lyon and those that followed. The following is a list of further councils generally recognised as ecumenical by Catholic theologians: Eastern Orthodox catechisms teach that there are seven ecumenical councils and there are feast days for seven ecumenical councils. Nonetheless, some Eastern Orthodox consider events like
5264-415: The Council of Constantinople of 879–880, that of Constantinople in 1341–1351 and that of Jerusalem in 1672 to be ecumenical: It is unlikely that formal ecumenical recognition will be granted to these councils, despite the acknowledged orthodoxy of their decisions, so that seven are universally recognized among the Eastern Orthodox as ecumenical. The 2016 Pan-Orthodox Council was sometimes referred to as
5376-533: The Council of Ephesus. The formulation of the Chalcedonian Creed caused a schism in the Alexandrian and Syriac churches. Reconciliatory efforts between Oriental Orthodox with the Eastern Orthodox and the Catholic Church in the mid- and late 20th century have led to common Christological declarations. The Oriental and Eastern Churches have also been working toward reconciliation as a consequence of
5488-479: The Dragon underfoot. Luke 1:28 , and specifically the phrase "full of grace" by which Gabriel greeted Mary, was another reference to her Immaculate Conception: "she was never subject to the curse and was, together with her Son, the only partaker of perpetual benediction". Ineffabilis Deus was one of the pivotal events of the papacy of Pius, pope from 16 June 1846 to his death on 7 February 1878. Four years after
5600-410: The East (accused by others of adhering to Nestorianism ) accepts as ecumenical the first two councils. Oriental Orthodox Churches accept the first three. Both the Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodox Church recognize as ecumenical the first seven councils , held from the 4th to the 9th centuries. While some Eastern Orthodox accept one later council as ecumenical (which was later repudiated by
5712-460: The Eastern Orthodox churches uphold versions of this doctrine. However, the Catholic Church holds that solemn definitions of ecumenical councils meet the conditions of infallibility only when approved by the Pope, while the Eastern Orthodox Church holds that an ecumenical council is itself infallible when pronouncing on a specific matter. Protestant churches would generally view ecumenical councils as fallible human institutions that have no more than
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#17327656355545824-401: The Enclosed Garden from the Song of Songs , and many more passages. From this wealth of support the pope's advisors singled out Genesis 3:15 : "The most glorious Virgin ... was foretold by God when he said to the serpent: 'I will put enmity between you and the woman, ' " a prophecy which reached fulfilment in the figure of the Woman in the Revelation of John , crowned with stars and trampling
5936-418: The First Council of Ephesus (after which churches out of communion with the Holy See because of the Nestorian Schism did not participate), later than the Council of Chalcedon (after which there was no participation by churches that rejected Dyophysitism ), later than the Second Council of Nicaea (after which there was no participation by the Eastern Orthodox Church ), and later than the Fifth Council of
6048-453: The Gospel of James' persistent emphasis on Mary's sacred purity, but the story does not advance the idea of an immaculate conception. The author of the Gospel of James may have based this account of Mary's conception on that of John the Baptist as recounted in the Gospel of Luke . The Eastern Orthodox Church holds that "Mary is conceived by her parents as we are all conceived". According to church historian Frederick Holweck , writing in
6160-413: The Immaculate Conception shows Mary standing, with arms outstretched or hands clasped in prayer. The feast day of the Immaculate Conception is December 8. Many Protestant churches rejected the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception as unscriptural, though some Anglicans accept it as a pious devotion . Opinions on the Immaculate Conception in Oriental Orthodoxy are divided: Shenouda III , Pope of
6272-410: The Immaculate Conception is December 8. The Roman Missal and the Roman Rite Liturgy of the Hours include references to Mary's immaculate conception in the feast of the Immaculate Conception. Its celebration seems to have begun in the Eastern church in the 7th century and may have spread to Ireland by the 8th, although the earliest well-attested record in the Western church is from England early in
6384-399: The Immaculate Conception. By the 4th century the idea that Mary was free from sin was generally more widespread, but original sin raised the question of whether she was also free of the sin passed down from Adam. The question became acute when the feast of her conception began to be celebrated in England in the 11th century, and the opponents of the feast of Mary's conception brought forth
6496-406: The Immaculately Conceived One, is closely associated with Lourdes . The Loreto Litanies included the official Latin Marian title of Regina sine labe originali concepta (Queen conceived without original sin), which had been granted by Pope Gregory XVI (1831-1846) from 1839 onwards to some dioceses, thus several years before the proclamation of the dogma. The Immaculate Conception became
6608-411: The Lateran (after which groups that adhered to Protestantism did not participate). Of the twenty-one ecumenical councils recognised by the Catholic Church, some gained recognition as ecumenical only later. Thus the Eastern First Council of Constantinople became ecumenical only when its decrees were accepted in the West also. In the history of Christianity , the first seven ecumenical councils, from
6720-419: The Pope's confirmation or at least recognition has always been required, and saying that the version of the Nicene Creed adopted at the First Council of Constantinople (381) was accepted by the Church of Rome only seventy years later, in 451. The Eastern Orthodox Church accepts seven ecumenical councils , with the disputed Council in Trullo —rejected by Catholics—being incorporated into, and considered as
6832-459: The Theotokos. The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church celebrates the Feast of the Immaculate Conception on Nehasie 7 (August 13). In the mid-19th century, some Catholics who were unable to accept the doctrine of papal infallibility left the Roman Church and formed the Old Catholic Church . This movement rejects the Immaculate Conception. Protestants overwhelmingly condemned the promulgation of Ineffabilis Deus as an exercise in papal power, and
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#17327656355546944-443: The Vatican, hence its name. The object of the council was a mystery for a while. The first revelation was given in February 1869 by an article in La Civiltà Cattolica , a Jesuit periodical. It claimed, as the view of many Catholics in France, that the council would be of very brief duration, since the majority of its members were in agreement, and mentioned inter alia the proclamation of papal infallibility. Factions around
7056-459: The author drew on the more benign biblical story of Hannah—hence Anna—who conceived Samuel in her old age, thus reprising the miraculous birth of Jesus with a merely remarkable one for his mother. Anne and her husband, Joachim , are infertile, but God hears their prayers and Mary is conceived. According to Stephen J. Shoemaker , within the Gospel of James, the conception occurs without sexual intercourse between Anne and Joachim, which fits well with
7168-456: The bishops of the church for their views on whether the doctrine should be defined as dogma; ninety percent of those who responded were supportive, although the Archbishop of Paris, Marie-Dominique-Auguste Sibour , warned that the Immaculate Conception "could be proved neither from the Scriptures nor from tradition". In 1854 the Immaculate Conception dogma was proclaimed with the bull Ineffabilis Deus . We declare, pronounce, and define that
7280-423: The church, which at first did not include the question of papal infallibility, but the majority party in the council, whose position on this matter was much stronger, brought it forward. It was decided to postpone discussion of everything in the draft except infallibility. The decree did not go forward without controversy; Cardinal Filippo Maria Guidi [ it ] , Archbishop of Bologna, proposed adding that
7392-567: The city of Ephesus. Theodosius did not attend but sent his representative Candidian to preside. However, Cyril managed to open the council over Candidian's insistent demands that the bishops disperse until the delegation from Syria could arrive. Cyril was able to completely control the proceedings, completely neutralizing Candidian, who favored Cyril's antagonist, Nestorius. When the pro-Nestorius Antiochene delegation finally arrived, they decided to convene their own council, over which Candidian presided. The proceedings of both councils were reported to
7504-593: The depiction of "Our Lady of the Immaculate Conception" seems to have been finally established by the painter and theorist Francisco Pacheco in his "El arte de la pintura" of 1649: a beautiful young girl of 12 or 13, wearing a white tunic and blue mantle, rays of light emanating from her head ringed by twelve stars and crowned by an imperial crown, the Sun behind her and the Moon beneath her feet. Pacheco's iconography influenced other Spanish artists or artists active in Spain such as El Greco , Bartolomé Murillo , Diego Velázquez , and Francisco Zurbarán , who each produced
7616-484: The determination of priority between them. Canons consist of doctrinal statements and disciplinary measures—most Church councils and local synods dealt with immediate disciplinary concerns as well as major difficulties of doctrine. Eastern Orthodoxy typically views the purely doctrinal canons as dogmatic and applicable to the entire church at all times, while the disciplinary canons apply to a particular time and place and may or may not be applicable in other situations. Of
7728-433: The divine Redeemer willed his Church to enjoy in defining doctrine concerning faith or morals. None of the bishops who had argued that proclaiming the definition was inopportune refused to accept it. Some Catholics, mainly of German language and largely inspired by the historian Ignaz von Döllinger , formed the separate Old Catholic Church in protest; von Döllinger did not formally join the new group himself. Discussion of
7840-530: The doctrine itself as unscriptural, for it denied that all had sinned and rested on the Latin translation of Luke 1:28 (the "full of grace" passage) that the original Greek did not support. Protestants, therefore, teach that Mary was a sinner saved through grace, like all believers. The Catholic–Lutheran dialogue 's statement The One Mediator, the Saints, and Mary , issued in 1990 after seven years of study and discussion, conceded that Lutherans and Catholics remained separated "by differing views on matters such as
7952-456: The doctrine which holds that the most Blessed Virgin Mary, in the first instance of her conception, by a singular grace and privilege granted by Almighty God, in view of the merits of Jesus Christ, the Saviour of the human race, was preserved free from all stain of original sin, is a doctrine revealed by God and therefore to be believed firmly and constantly by all the faithful. Dom Prosper Guéranger , Abbot of Solesmes Abbey , who had been one of
8064-520: The dogma was slow and elaborate and it was more the fruit of popular devotion than scholarly. The Immaculate Conception became a popular subject in literature and art, and some devotees went so far as to hold that Anne had conceived Mary by kissing her husband Joachim, and that Anne's father and grandmother had likewise been conceived without sexual intercourse, although Bridget of Sweden ( c. 1303 –1373) told how Mary herself had revealed to her that Anne and Joachim conceived their daughter through
8176-458: The dogmas of the Immaculate Conception and papal infallibility as "Roman novelties" and called on the Roman church to return to the faith of the early centuries. Eastern Orthodox Bishop Kallistos Ware comments that "the Latin dogma seems to us not so much erroneous as superfluous". The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo and Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Churches believe in the Immaculate Conception of
8288-456: The early 1500s, made no explicit declaration on the subject but exempted her from the universality of original sin; and also affirmed that she remained during all her life free from all stain of sin, even the venial one.; by 1571 the revised Roman Breviary set out an elaborate celebration of the Feast of the Immaculate Conception on 8 December. According to Patrizia Granziera , the creation of
8400-498: The early centuries of the church, but Catholics also recognize fourteen councils in later times called or confirmed by the Pope. At the urging of German King Sigismund , who was to become Holy Roman Emperor in 1433, the Council of Constance was convoked in 1414 by Antipope John XXIII , one of three claimants to the papal throne, and was reconvened in 1415 by the Roman Pope Gregory XII . The Council of Florence
8512-590: The ecumenical councils were a continuation of earlier councils (also known as synods ) held in the Empire before Christianity was made legal. These include the Council of Jerusalem (c. 50), the Council of Rome (155), the Second Council of Rome (193), the Council of Ephesus (193), the Council of Carthage (251) , the Council of Iconium (258), the Council of Antioch (264) , the Councils of Arabia (246–247),
8624-542: The emperor, who decided ultimately to depose Cyril, Memnon and Nestorius. Nonetheless, the Orthodox accept Cyril's group as being the legitimate council because it maintained the same teaching that the church has always taught. Paraphrasing a rule by St Vincent of Lérins , Hasler states ...a teaching can only be defined if it has been held to be revealed at all times, everywhere, and by all believers. Orthodox believe that councils could over-rule or even depose popes. At
8736-518: The errors of rationalism , anarchism , communism , socialism , liberalism , materialism , modernism , naturalism , pantheism , and secularism . Its other concern was the doctrine of the primacy ( supremacy ) and infallibility of the Bishop of Rome (the Pope ), which it defined in the First Dogmatic Constitution on the Church of Christ ( Pastor aeternus ). As early as late 1864, Pope Pius IX had commissioned
8848-575: The faithful through the teaching of the ordinary magisterium. Finally, it is necessary that it be attested by the liturgy, and the Fathers and Doctors of the Church . Guéranger maintained that these conditions were met and that the definition was therefore possible. Ineffabilis Deus found the Immaculate Conception in the Ark of Salvation ( Noah's Ark ), Jacob's Ladder , the Burning Bush at Sinai,
8960-566: The first seven Ecumenical Councils as "exercises of apostolic authority" and recognizes their decisions as authoritative; while member churches are not required to accept all theological statements produced by the Federation, but only to subscribe to the most basic Lutheran historical confessional documents, most do follow this recommendation. The doctrine of the infallibility of ecumenical councils states that solemn definitions of ecumenical councils, which concern faith or morals, and to which
9072-554: The formal liturgy. The Immaculata prayer , composed by Maximillian Kolbe , is a prayer of entrustment to Mary as the Immaculata. A novena of prayers, with a specific prayer for each of the nine days has been composed under the title of the Immaculate Conception Novena . Ave Maris Stella is the vesper hymn of the feast of the Immaculate Conception. The hymn Immaculate Mary , addressed to Mary as
9184-597: The high prices in Rome. When Lord Houghton asked Cardinal Manning what had been going on, he answered: "Well, we meet, and we look at one another, and then we talk a little, but when we want to know what we have been doing, we read The Times ." Unlike the five earlier general councils held in Rome , which met in the Lateran Basilica and are known as Lateran councils , it met in Saint Peter's Basilica in
9296-414: The idea of preservative redemption as being a more perfect one: to have been preserved free from original sin was a greater grace than to be set free from sin". In 1439, the Council of Basel , in schism with Pope Eugene IV who resided at the Council of Florence , declared the Immaculate Conception a " pious opinion " consistent with faith and Scripture; the Council of Trent , held in several sessions in
9408-460: The invitations. The council was summoned by the pope by a bull on 29 June 1868. The first session was held in St. Peter's Basilica on 8 December 1869. Preliminary sessions dealt with general administrative matters and committee assignments. Bishop Bernard John McQuaid complained of rainy weather, inadequate heating facilities, and boredom. Bishop James Roosevelt Bayley of Newark, New Jersey, noted
9520-551: The later developments that took place in the Catholic Church, including the Immaculate Conception, although Eastern Orthodoxy affirms Mary's purity and preservation from sin . In 1894, when Pope Leo XIII addressed the Eastern church in his encyclical Praeclara gratulationis , Ecumenical Patriarch Anthimos , in 1895, replied with an encyclical approved by the Constantinopolitan Synod in which he stigmatised
9632-478: The main Oriental Orthodox body, also felt unfairly underrepresented at the council following the deposition of their Pope, Dioscorus of Alexandria at the council. The Church of the East accepts two ecumenical councils, the First Council of Nicaea and the First Council of Constantinople, as well as a series of their own national councils, starting with the Council of Seleucia-Ctesiphon in 410 AD. It
9744-456: The main promoters of the dogmatic statement, wrote Mémoire sur l'Immaculée Conception , explaining what he saw as its basis: For the belief to be defined as a dogma of faith [...] it is necessary that the Immaculate Conception form part of Revelation , expressed in Scripture or Tradition, or be implied in beliefs previously defined. Needed, afterward, is that it be proposed to the faith of
9856-521: The name of the feast until 1854. The doctrine of the Immaculate Conception caused a virtual civil war between Franciscans and Dominicans during the Middle Ages, with Franciscan ' Scotists ' in its favour and Dominican ' Thomists ' against it. The English ecclesiastic and scholar Eadmer ( c. 1060 – c. 1126 ) reasoned that it was possible that Mary was conceived without original sin in view of God's omnipotence, and that it
9968-639: The new order was that of Joseph H. Reinkens, who was made bishop in Germany by a sympathetic Jansenist bishop Johannes Heykamp of Utrecht . Such new group referred to itself as the Old Catholic Church (or the Christian Catholic Church in Switzerland). Old Catholics in Europe united into the Union of Utrecht in 1889, which entered into full communion with the Anglican Communion in 1931 through
10080-463: The objection that as sexual intercourse is sinful, to celebrate Mary's conception was to celebrate a sinful event. The feast of Mary's conception originated in the Eastern Church in the 7th century, reached England in the 11th, and from there spread to Europe, where it was given official approval in 1477 and extended to the whole church in 1693; the word "immaculate" was not officially added to
10192-514: The original stain [of sin] is not in you. You are the glory of Jerusalem, you are the joy of Israel, you give honour to our people. You are all beautiful, Mary".) On the basis of the original Gregorian chant music, polyphonic settings have been composed by Anton Bruckner , Pablo Casals , Maurice Duruflé , Grzegorz Gerwazy Gorczycki , Ola Gjeilo , José Maurício Nunes Garcia , and Nikolaus Schapfl [ de ] . Other prayers honouring Mary's immaculate conception are in use outside
10304-531: The other of heresy, on pains of excommunication. Pope Pius V kept the feast on the tridentine calendar but suppressed the word "immaculate". Gregory XV in 1622 prohibited any public or private assertion that Mary was conceived in sin. Urban VIII in 1624 allowed the Franciscans to establish a military order dedicated to the Virgin of the Immaculate Conception. Following the promulgation of Ineffabilis Deus
10416-505: The outcome would be, and some 60 members of the opposition left Rome so as not to be associated with approval of the document. The final vote, with a choice only between placet and non placet , was taken on 18 July 1870, with 533 votes in favour and only 2 against defining as a dogma the infallibility of the pope when speaking ex cathedra . The two votes in opposition were cast by Bishops Aloisio Riccio and Edward Fitzgerald . The dogmatic constitution states, in chapter 4:9, that
10528-449: The pope has "full and supreme power of jurisdiction over the whole Church" (chapter 3:9); and that, when he: speaks ex cathedra , that is, when, in the exercise of his office as shepherd and teacher of all Christians, in virtue of his supreme apostolic authority, he defines a doctrine concerning faith or morals to be held by the whole Church, he possesses, by the divine assistance promised to him in blessed Peter, that infallibility which
10640-486: The pope is assisted by "the counsel of the bishops manifesting the tradition of the churches". Pius IX rejected Guidi's view of the bishops as witnesses to the tradition, maintaining: "I am the tradition." On 13 July 1870, a preliminary vote on the section on infallibility was held in a general congregation: 451 voted simply in favour ( placet ), 88 against ( non placet ), and 62 in favour but on condition of some amendment ( placet iuxta modum ). This made evident what
10752-477: The pope), that Republican France took steps to curb it by revoking the Concordat of 1801 , and therefore completely separating the Church from the state . The dogma of papal infallibility raised considerable opposition in some liberal theological circles in the Netherlands , Austria , Germany and Switzerland ; the most notable theologian opposing the formulation of the dogma was Ignaz von Döllinger , who
10864-440: The proclamation of the dogma, in 1858, the young Bernadette Soubirous said that Mary appeared to her at Lourdes in southern France, to announce that she was the Immaculate Conception; the Catholic Church later endorsed the apparition as authentic. There are other (approved) Marian apparitions in which Mary identified herself as the Immaculate Conception, for example Our Lady of Gietrzwald in 1877, Poland. The feast day of
10976-547: The proposal arose across Europe, and some Italians even proposed setting up a rival council in Naples . However, before the council met all became quiet in view of the studied vagueness of the invitation. Pope Pius defined as dogma the Immaculate Conception of Mary, the mother of Jesus , in 1854. However, the proposal to define papal infallibility itself as dogma met with resistance, not because of doubts about
11088-520: The rest of the document on the nature of the church was to continue when the bishops returned after a summer break. In the meanwhile, the Franco-Prussian War broke out. With the swift German advance and the capture of Emperor Napoleon III , French troops protecting papal rule in Rome withdrew from the city. On 20 October 1870, one month after the newly founded Kingdom of Italy had occupied Rome , Pope Pius IX, who then considered himself
11200-769: The results. Bishops belonging to what became known as the Eastern Orthodox Church accept seven ecumenical councils, as described below . Bishops belonging to what became known as the Church of the East participated in the first two councils. Bishops belonging to what became known as Oriental Orthodoxy participated in the first four councils, but rejected the decisions of the fourth and did not attend any subsequent ecumenical councils. Acceptance of councils as ecumenical and authoritative varies between different Christian denominations . Disputes over Christological and other questions have led certain branches to reject some councils that others accept. The Church of
11312-598: The seven councils recognised in whole or in part by both the Catholic and the Eastern Orthodox Church as ecumenical, all were called by a Roman emperor . The emperor gave them legal status within the entire Roman Empire . All were held in the eastern part of the Roman Empire . The bishop of Rome (self-styled as "pope" since the end of the fourth century) did not attend, although he sent legates to some of them. Church councils were traditional and
11424-404: The substance of the proposed definition, but because some considered it inopportune to take that step at that time. Richard McBrien divides the bishops attending Vatican I into three groups. The first group, which McBrien calls the "active infallibilists", was led by Henry Edward Manning and Ignatius von Senestrey . According to McBrien, the majority of the bishops were not so much interested in
11536-544: The supernatural influence of God to Mary's parents, suggesting they were purified by the Holy Spirit during her generation. According to Damascene, even the material of Mary's origin was deemed pure and holy. This perspective, which emphasized an immaculate active generation and the sanctity of the conceptio carnis , found resonance among some Western authors. Notably, the Greek Fathers did not explicitly discuss
11648-476: The typically Franciscan phrase "immaculate conception" reasserted itself in the title and euchology (prayer formulae) of the feast. Pius IX solemnly promulgated a mass formulary drawn chiefly from one composed 400 years by a papal chamberlain at the behest of Sixtus IV , beginning "O God who by the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin". The Roman Rite liturgical books, including the Roman Missal and
11760-406: The whole Church must adhere, are infallible. Such decrees are often labeled as 'Canons' and they often have an attached anathema , a penalty of excommunication , against those who refuse to believe the teaching. The doctrine does not claim that every aspect of every ecumenical council is dogmatic, but that every aspect of an ecumenical council is free of errors or impeccable. Both the Catholic and
11872-560: The whole world", from he oikoumene ge "the inhabited world" (as known to the ancient Greeks); the Greeks and their neighbors, considered as developed human society (as opposed to barbarian lands); in later use "the Roman world" and in the Christian sense in ecclesiastical Greek, from oikoumenos , present passive participle of oikein ("inhabit"), from oikos ("house, habitation"). The first seven ecumenical councils , recognised by both
11984-612: Was adjourned on 20 September 1870 after the Italian Capture of Rome . Its best-known decision is its definition of papal infallibility . The council's main purpose was to clarify Catholic doctrine in response to the rising influence of the modern philosophical trends of the 19th century. In the Dogmatic Constitution on the Catholic Faith ( Dei Filius ), the council condemned what it considered
12096-451: Was also appropriate in view of her role as Mother of God : Potuit, decuit, fecit , "it was possible, it was fitting, therefore it was done". Others, including Bernard of Clairvaux (1090–1153) and Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274), objected that if Mary were free of original sin at her conception then she would have no need of redemption, making Christ's saving redemption superfluous; they were answered by Duns Scotus (1264–1308), who "developed
12208-540: Was excommunicated in 1871 by Archbishop Gregor von Scherr of Munich and Freising , for refusing to accept the council's decision. Following the council's decision, a minority of clergy and laity opposed to the newly proclaimed dogma united with the Jansenists , which had maintained a somewhat precarious existence in separation from Rome since the 18th century but had preserved an episcopal succession recognized by Rome as valid though illicit . The first consecration of
12320-652: Was formed in 2008 and currently includes the Polish National Catholic Church and the Nordic Catholic Church . Ecumenical council God Schools Relations with: Autocephaly recognized by some autocephalous Churches de jure : Autocephaly and canonicity recognized by Constantinople and 3 other autocephalous Churches: Spiritual independence recognized by Georgian Orthodox Church: Semi-Autonomous: An ecumenical council , also called general council ,
12432-476: Was itself annulled at the synod held in 815 in Constantinople under Emperor Leo V . This synod, presided over by Patriarch Theodotus I of Constantinople , declared the Council of Hieria to be the seventh ecumenical council, but, although the Council of Hieria was called by an emperor and confirmed by another, and although it was held in the East, it later ceased to be considered ecumenical. Similarly,
12544-806: Was the formulation of Mary as the Theotokos which caused a schism with the Church of the East, now divided between the Assyrian Church of the East and the Ancient Church of the East , while the Chaldean Catholic Church entered into full communion with Rome in the 16th century. Meetings between Pope John Paul II and the Assyrian Patriarch Mar Dinkha IV led to a common Christological declaration on 11 November 1994 that "the humanity to which
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