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106-733: The Jubba River has a rich history of a once-booming sophisticated civilization and trade network conducted by the powerful Somalis that held sway over the Jubba River. During the Middle Ages Jubba River was under the Ajuran Empire of the Horn of Africa which utilized the Jubba River for its plantations and was the only hydraulic empire in Africa. A hydraulic empire that rose in the 13th century AD, Ajuran monopolized

212-537: A Cushitic ethnic group native to the Horn of Africa who share a common ancestry, culture and history. The East Cushitic Somali language is the shared mother tongue of ethnic Somalis, which is part of the Cushitic branch of the Afroasiatic language family. They are predominantly Sunni Muslim . Forming one of the largest ethnic groups on the continent, they cover one of the most expansive landmasses by

318-479: A chartered company . An Anglo-Italian border protocol was later signed on 5 May 1894, followed by an agreement in 1906 between Cavalier Pestalozza and General Swaine acknowledging that Baran fell under the Majeerteen Sultanate's administration. With the gradual extension into northern Somalia of Italian colonial rule, both Kingdoms were eventually annexed in the early 20th century. However, unlike

424-585: A bloodless takeover. The putsch was spearheaded by Major General Mohamed Siad Barre , who at the time commanded the army. Alongside Barre, the Supreme Revolutionary Council (SRC) that assumed power after President Sharmarke's assassination was led by Lieutenant Colonel Salaad Gabeyre Kediye and Chief of Police Jama Korshel . The SRC subsequently renamed the country the Somali Democratic Republic , dissolved

530-458: A central part in Somali culture and politics. Clan families are patrilineal , and are divided into clans, primary lineages or subclans, and dia -paying kinship groups. The lineage terms qabiil , qolo , jilib and reer are often interchangeably used to indicate the different segmentation levels. The clan represents the highest kinship level. It owns territorial properties and is typically led by

636-435: A clan-head or Sultan . Primary lineages are immediately descended from the clans, and are exogamous political units with no formally installed leader. They comprise the segmentation level that an individual usually indicates he or she belongs to, with their founding patriarch reckoned to between six and ten generations. The five major clan families are the traditionally nomadic pastoralist Dir , Isaaq , Darod , Hawiye and

742-438: A continuous tree canopy which would prevent further grass growth. Prior to European settlement aboriginal land use practices, including fire, influenced vegetation and may have maintained and modified savanna flora. It has been suggested by many authors that aboriginal burning created a structurally more open savanna landscape. Aboriginal burning certainly created a habitat mosaic that probably increased biodiversity and changed

848-491: A dramatic reduction in basal area and canopy cover, often leaves a high percentage of woody plants alive either as seedlings too small to be affected or as plants capable of re-sprouting from lignotubers and broken stumps. A population of woody plants equal to half or more of the original number often remains following pulling of eucalypt communities, even if all the trees over 5 metres are uprooted completely. A number of exotic plants species have been introduced to savannas around

954-645: A further report inclusive of Somali Region stipulating 2% adherence to a minority sect (e.g. Ibadism , Quranism etc.). In the neighboring country of Somalia , 99.8% of the population is Muslim according to the Pew Research Center. The majority belong to the Sunni branch of Islam and the Shafi'i school of Islamic jurisprudence . Sufism , the mystical sect of Islam, is also well established, with many local jama'a ( zawiya ) or congregations of

1060-804: A high tree density. It is often believed that savannas feature widely spaced, scattered trees. However, in many savannas, tree densities are higher and trees are more regularly spaced than in forests. The South American savanna types cerrado sensu stricto and cerrado dense typically have densities of trees similar to or higher than that found in South American tropical forests, with savanna ranging from 800 to 3300 trees per hectare (trees/ha) and adjacent forests with 800–2000 trees/ha. Similarly Guinean savanna has 129 trees/ha, compared to 103 for riparian forest , while Eastern Australian sclerophyll forests have average tree densities of approximately 100 per hectare , comparable to savannas in

1166-687: A later date from the Arabian Peninsula in the 10th or 11th centuries. Sheikh Darod is asserted to have married a woman from the Dir (while some accounts say Hawiye ), thus establishing matrilateral ties with the Samaale family. The Isaaq clan trace paternal descent to the Islamic leader Ishaaq bin Ahmed al-Hashimi (Sheikh Isaaq). The Digil & Mirifle (Rahanweyn) trace their ancestry back to

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1272-670: A length of two years. In the late 19th century, after the Berlin Conference had ended, the Scramble for Africa reached the Horn of Africa. Increasing foreign influence in the region culminated in the creation of the first Darawiish, an armed resistance movement calling for the independence from the European powers. The Dervish had their leaders, Mohammed Abdullah Hassan , Haji Sudi and Sultan Nur Ahmed Aman , who sought

1378-663: A long-time practice in the Horn of Africa, continued unchanged in Ajuran times. Today, numerous ruins and abandoned towns throughout the interior of Somalia and the Horn of Africa are evidence of a once-booming inland trade network dating from the medieval period. With the centralized supervision of the Ajuran, farms in Afgooye , Bardhere and other areas in the Jubba and Shebelle valleys increased their productivity. A system of irrigation ditches known locally as Kelliyo fed directly from

1484-402: A lucrative foreign commerce with ships sailing to and coming from Arabia , Persia , India , Venice , Egypt , Portugal , and as far away as Java and China . Over two centuries passed until German explorer Baron Karl Klaus von der Decken ascended on the lower reaches of the river on the small steamship Welf in 1863. He wrecked the steamship in the rapids above Bardhere , where the party

1590-402: A means of clearing land. In the 1950s arboricides suitable for stem injection were developed. War-surplus heavy machinery was made available, and these were used for either pushing timber, or for pulling using a chain and ball strung between two machines. These two new methods of timber control, along with the introduction and widespread adoption of several new pasture grasses and legumes promoted

1696-489: A position to which he was appointed by Shermarke. On 15 October 1969, while paying a visit to the northern town of Las Anod , Somalia's then President Abdirashid Ali Shermarke was shot dead by one of his own bodyguards. His assassination was quickly followed by a military coup d'état on 21 October 1969 (the day after his funeral), in which the Somali Army seized power without encountering armed opposition — essentially

1802-444: A reduction in the need to burn to produce a flush of green growth because legumes retain high nutrient levels throughout the year, and because fires can have a negative impact on legume populations which causes a reluctance to burn. The closed forest types such as broadleaf forests and rainforests are usually not grazed owing to the closed structure precluding grass growth, and hence offering little opportunity for grazing. In contrast

1908-539: A regional power reputed for their advanced architecture and gold wealth, which was so plentiful that they shackled their prisoners in golden chains. Several ancient city-states, such as Opone , Essina , Sarapion , Nikon , Malao , Damo and Mosylon near Cape Guardafui , which competed with the Sabaeans , Parthians and Axumites for the wealthy Indo - Greco-Roman trade, also flourished in Somalia. Islam

2014-721: A result of its successes against the British, the Dervish movement received support from the Ottomans and Germans . The Ottoman government also named Hassan Emir of the Somali nation, and the German government promised to officially recognise any territories the Dervishes were to acquire. After a quarter of a century of military successes against the British, the Dervishes were finally defeated by Britain in 1920 in part due to

2120-469: A resurgence in tree clearing. The 1980s also saw the release of soil-applied arboricides, notably tebuthiuron , that could be utilised without cutting and injecting each individual tree. In many ways "artificial" clearing, particularly pulling, mimics the effects of fire and, in savannas adapted to regeneration after fire as most Queensland savannas are, there is a similar response to that after fire. Tree clearing in many savanna communities, although causing

2226-486: A robust trading network, entered into treaties with foreign powers, and exerted strong centralized authority on the domestic front. The Majeerteen Sultanate was nearly dismantled in the late-1800s by a power struggle between Boqor Osman Mahamuud and his ambitious cousin, Yusuf Ali Kenadid who founded the Sultanate of Hobyo in 1878. Initially Kenadid wanted to seize control of the neighbouring Sultanate. However, he

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2332-459: A simplified yet widespread climatic concept. The divergence has sometimes caused areas such as extensive savannas north and south of the Congo and Amazon Rivers to be excluded from mapped savanna categories. In different parts of North America, the word "savanna" has been used interchangeably with " barrens ", " prairie ", " glade ", "grassland" and " oak opening ". Different authors have defined

2438-495: A single ethnic group in Africa . According to most scholars, the ancient Land of Punt and its native inhabitants formed part of the ethnogenesis of the Somali people. This ancient historical kingdom is where a great portion of their cultural traditions and ancestry are said to derive from. Somalis share many historical and cultural traits with other Cushitic peoples , especially with Lowland East Cushitic people, specifically

2544-526: A state in the Nugaal and began one of the longest African conflicts in modern history. The news of the incident that sparked the 21 year long Dervish rebellion , according to the consul-general James Hayes Sadler , was spread or as he claimed was concocted by Sultan Nur of the Habr Yunis . The incident in question was that of a group of Somali children who were converted to Christianity and adopted by

2650-524: Is a reference to the ubiquitous pastoralism of the Somali people. Another plausible etymology proposes that the term Somali is derived from the Arabic word for "wealthy" ( zāwamāl ), again referring to Somali riches in livestock. Alternatively, the ethnonym Somali is believed to have been derived from the Automoli (Asmach), a group of warriors from ancient Egypt described by Herodotus . Asmach

2756-412: Is generally regarded as the source of the ethnonym Somali . One other theory is that the name is held to be derived from the words soo and maal , which together mean "go and milk". This interpretation differs depending on region with northern Somalis imply it refers to go and milk in regards to the camel's milk, southern Somalis use the transliteration " sa' maal " which refers to cow's milk. This

2862-483: Is not prominent but that rivers in savanna landscapes erode more by lateral migration . Flooding and associated sheet wash have been proposed as dominant erosion processes in savanna plains. The savannas of tropical America comprise broadleaved trees such as Curatella , Byrsonima , and Bowdichia , with grasses such as Leersia and Paspalum . Bean relative Prosopis is common in the Argentinian savannas. In

2968-473: Is possible for there to be multiple stable biomes. The annual rainfall ranges from 500 mm (19.69 in) to 1,270 mm (50.00 in) per year, with the precipitation being more common in six or eight months of the year, followed by a period of drought. Savannas may at times be classified as forests. In climatic geomorphology it has been noted that many savannas occur in areas of pediplains and inselbergs . It has been posited that river incision

3074-565: Is thought to have been their Egyptian name, with Automoli being a Greek derivative of the Hebrew word S’mali (meaning "on the left hand side"). A Tang Chinese document from the 9th century CE referred to the northern Somalia coast — which was then part of a broader region in Northeast Africa known as Barbaria , in reference to the area's Barbars ( Cushitic ) inhabitants — as Po-pa-li . The first clear written reference of

3180-419: Is vague and therefore the two can be combined into a single biome as both woodlands and savannas feature open-canopied trees with crowns not usually interlinking (mostly forming 25-60% cover). Over many large tropical areas, the dominant biome (forest, savanna or grassland) can not be predicted only by the climate, as historical events plays also a key role, for example, fire activity. In some areas, indeed, it

3286-664: The Afar and the Saho . Ethnic Somalis are principally concentrated in Somalia (around 17.6 million), Somaliland (5.7 million), Ethiopia (4.6 million), Kenya (2.8 million), and Djibouti (534,000). Somali diasporas are also found in parts of the Middle East , North America , Western Europe , African Great Lakes region, Southern Africa and Oceania . Samaale , the oldest common ancestor of several Somali clans ,

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3392-706: The Arab world , eventually joining the Arab League (AL) in 1974. That same year, Barre also served as chairman of the Organization of African Unity (OAU), the predecessor of the African Union (AU). Somalis are ethnically of Cushitic ancestry , but have genealogical traditions of descent from various patriarchs associated with the spread of Islam. Being one tribe, they are segmented into various clan groupings, which are important kinship units that play

3498-432: The Arabian Peninsula . Additionally, the Somali and Ethiopian interiors were very dependent on Berbera for trade, where most of the goods for export arrived from. During the 1833 trading season, the port town swelled to over 70,000 people, and upwards of 6,000 camels laden with goods arrived from the interior within a single day. Berbera was the main marketplace in the entire Somali seaboard for various goods procured from

3604-608: The East and the West . In antiquity , the ancestors of the Somali people were an important link in the Horn of Africa connecting the region's commerce with the rest of the ancient world. Somali sailors and merchants were the main suppliers of frankincense , myrrh and spices , items which were considered valuable luxuries by the Ancient Egyptians , Phoenicians , Mycenaeans and Babylonians . According to most scholars,

3710-632: The Gulf of Aden . The terms of each treaty specified that Italy was to steer clear of any interference in the Sultanates' respective administrations. In return for Italian arms and an annual subsidy, the Sultans conceded to a minimum of oversight and economic concessions. The Italians also agreed to dispatch a few ambassadors to promote both the Sultanates' and their own interests. The new protectorates were thereafter managed by Vincenzo Filonardi through

3816-612: The Macrobians , who may have been ancestral to the Automoli or ancient Somalis, established a powerful tribal kingdom that ruled large parts of modern Somalia . They were reputed for their longevity and wealth, and were said to be the "tallest and handsomest of all men". The Macrobians were warrior herders and seafarers. According to Herodotus' account, the Achaemenid emperor Cambyses II , upon his conquest of Egypt in 525 BCE , sent ambassadors to Macrobia, bringing luxury gifts for

3922-462: The Mediterranean region were likewise created and maintained by anthropogenic fire. Intentional controlled burns typically create fires confined to the herbaceous layer that do little long term damage to mature trees. This prevents more catastrophic wildfires that could do much more damage. However, these fires either kill or suppress tree seedlings, thus preventing the establishment of

4028-763: The Middle Ages , several powerful Somali empires dominated the regional trade including the Ajuran Sultanate , which excelled in hydraulic engineering and fortress building, the Adal Sultanate , whose general Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi (Ahmed Gurey) was the first commander to use cannon warfare on the continent during Adal's conquest of the Ethiopian Empire , and the Sultanate of the Geledi , whose military dominance forced governors of

4134-538: The Ogaden to Ethiopia, based on a treaty they signed in 1897 in which the British ceded Somali territory to the Ethiopian Emperor Menelik in exchange for his help against raids by Somali clans. Britain included the proviso that the Somali nomads would retain their autonomy, but Ethiopia immediately claimed sovereignty over them. This prompted an unsuccessful bid by Britain in 1956 to purchase back

4240-681: The Omani empire north of the city of Lamu to pay tribute to the Somali Sultan Ahmed Yusuf . The Harla , an early group who inhabited parts of Somalia, Tchertcher and other areas in the Horn, also erected various tumuli . These masons are believed to have been ancestral to the Somalis ("proto-Somali"). Berbera was the most important port in the Horn of Africa between the 18th–19th centuries. For centuries, Berbera had extensive trade relations with several historic ports in

4346-584: The Shebelle River and Jubba River into the plantations where sorghum , maize , beans, grain and cotton were grown during the gu ( Spring in Somali) and xagaa ( Summer in Somali) seasons of the Somali calendar . This irrigation system was supported by numerous dikes and dams. To determine the average size of a farm, a land measurement system was also invented with moos , taraab and guldeed being

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4452-631: The State of Somaliland , and the Trust Territory of Somalia (the former Italian Somalia) followed suit five days later. On 1 July 1960, the two territories united to form the Somali Republic , albeit within boundaries drawn up by Italy and Britain. A government was formed by Abdullahi Issa Mohamud and Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal other members of the trusteeship and protectorate governments, with Haji Bashir Ismail Yusuf as president of

4558-577: The Stone Age , the Doian and Hargeisan cultures flourished here with their respective industries and factories. The oldest evidence of burial customs in the Horn of Africa comes from cemeteries in Somalia dating back to 4th millennium BC . The stone implements from the Jalelo site in Somalia are said to be the most important link in evidence of the universality in palaeolithic times between

4664-555: The Walashma dynasty with its capital at Zeila , ruled over parts of what is now eastern Ethiopia, Djibouti and Somaliland. The historian al-Umari records that Ifat was situated near the Red Sea coast, and states its size as 15 days travel by 20 days travel. Its army numbered 15,000 horsemen and 20,000 foot soldiers. Al-Umari also credits Ifat with seven "mother cities": Belqulzar, Kuljura, Shimi, Shewa , Adal, Jamme and Laboo. In

4770-476: The greenhouse effect may result in an alteration of the structure and function of savannas. Some authors have suggested that savannas and grasslands may become even more susceptible to woody plant encroachment as a result of greenhouse induced climate change . However, a recent case described a savanna increasing its range at the expense of forest in response to climate variation, and potential exists for similar rapid, dramatic shifts in vegetation distribution as

4876-696: The prairies in North America and steppes in Eurasia , which feature cold winters, savannas are mostly located in areas having warm to hot climates, such as in Africa, Australia, Thailand, South America and India. The word derives from the Spanish sabana , which is itself a loanword from Taíno , which means "treeless grassland" in the West Indies . The letter b in Spanish, when positioned in

4982-554: The Australian savanna, mammals in the family Macropodidae predominate, such as kangaroos and wallabies, though cattle, horses, camels, donkeys and the Asian water buffalo , among others, have been introduced by humans. It is estimated that less than three percent of savanna ecosystems can be classified as highly intact. Reasons for savanna degradation are manifold, as outlined below. Savannas are subject to regular wildfires and

5088-505: The East African savannas, Acacia , Combretum , baobabs , Borassus , and Euphorbia are a common vegetation genera. Drier savannas there feature spiny shrubs and grasses, such as Andropogon , Hyparrhenia , and Themeda . Wetter savannas include Brachystegia trees and Pennisetum purpureum , and elephant grass type. West African savanna trees include Anogeissus , Combretum , and Strychnos . Indian savannas are mostly cleared, but

5194-527: The French Catholic Mission at Berbera in 1899. Whether Sultan Nur experienced the incident first hand or whether he was told of it is not clear but what is known is that he propagated the incident in June 1899, precipitating the religious rebellion of the Dervishes. The Dervish movement successfully stymied British forces four times and forced them to retreat to the coastal region. As

5300-508: The Garen rulers effectively held a monopoly over their nomadic subjects as they were one of the few hydraulic empire in Africa. Large wells made out of limestone were constructed throughout the state, which attracted Somali nomads with their livestock. The centralized regulations of the wells made it easier for the nomads to settle disputes by taking their queries to government officials who would act as mediators. Long distance caravan trade,

5406-592: The Macrobian king to entice his submission. The Macrobian ruler, who was elected based on his stature and beauty, replied instead with a challenge for his Persian counterpart in the form of an unstrung bow: if the Persians could manage to draw it, they would have the right to invade his country; but until then, they should thank the gods that the Macrobians never decided to invade their empire. The Macrobians were

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5512-527: The Northern Territory, Australia savanna, and 480,000 ha of savanna were being cleared annually in Queensland in the 2000s, primarily to improve pasture production. Substantial savanna areas have been cleared of woody vegetation and much of the area that remains today is vegetation that has been disturbed by either clearing or thinning at some point in the past. Clearing is carried out by

5618-597: The Somali National Assembly, Aden Abdullah Osman Daar as the president of the Somali Republic and Abdirashid Ali Shermarke as Prime Minister (later to become president from 1967 to 1969). On 20 July 1961 and through a popular referendum , the people of Somalia ratified a new constitution , which was first drafted in 1960. The constitution was rejected by the people of Somaliland. In 1967, Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal became Prime Minister,

5724-449: The Somali administrative regions of Upper Juba ( Gedo , Bay , Bakool ), Middle Juba and Lower Juba , as well as to the larger historical region of Jubaland . Major cities which the Jubba River passes by include Dolow , Luuq , Burdhubo , Beled'hawo , Bardhere , Buale , and Goobweyn near Kismaayo . Somalis The Somali people ( Somali : Soomaalida , Osmanya : 𐒈𐒝𐒑𐒛𐒐𐒘𐒆𐒖 , Wadaad : صومالِدَ ‎) are

5830-435: The Somali lands it had turned over. The British government also granted administration of the almost exclusively Somali-inhabited Northern Frontier District (NFD) to the Kenyan government despite an informal plebiscite demonstrating the overwhelming desire of the region's population to join the newly formed Somali Republic. A referendum was held in neighboring Djibouti (then known as French Somaliland ) in 1958, on

5936-411: The Somali population by Somali Muslim scholars in the following centuries, the ancient city-states eventually transformed into Islamic Mogadishu , Berbera , Zeila , Barawa , Hafun and Merca , which were part of the Berberi civilization. The city of Mogadishu came to be known as the City of Islam , and controlled the East African gold trade for several centuries. The Sultanate of Ifat , led by

6042-409: The Somalis the opportunity to gain experience in political education and self-government. These were advantages that British Somaliland, which was to be incorporated into the new Somali Republic state, did not have. Although in the 1950s British colonial officials attempted, through various administrative development efforts, to make up for past neglect, the protectorate stagnated. The disparity between

6148-426: The ancient Land of Punt and its native inhabitants formed part of the ethnogenesis of the Somali people. The ancient Puntites were a nation of people that had close relations with Pharaonic Egypt during the times of Pharaoh Sahure and Queen Hatshepsut . The pyramidal structures , temples and ancient houses of dressed stone littered around Somalia may date from this period. In classical antiquity ,

6254-498: The city walls which frightened Al Barr's followers and caused them to abandon their posts and succeeded Al Barr as the ruler of Zeila. Sharmarke's governorship had an instant effect on the city, as he maneuvered to monopolize as much of the regional trade as possible, with his sights set as far as Harar and the Ogaden . In 1845, Sharmarke deployed a few matchlock men to wrest control of neighboring Berbera from that town's then feuding Somali local authorities. Sharmarke's influence

6360-408: The condition — first proposed by the Somali Youth League (SYL) and other nascent Somali political organizations, such as Hizbia Digil Mirifle Somali (HDMS) and the Somali National League (SNL) — that Somalia achieve independence within ten years. British Somalia remained a protectorate of Britain until 1960. To the extent that Italy held the territory by UN mandate, the trusteeship provisions gave

6466-415: The court of the cacique Carlos in present-day Panama . The accounts are inexact, but this is usually placed in present-day Madugandí or at points on the nearby Guna Yala coast opposite Ustupo or on Point Mosquitos . These areas are now either given over to modern cropland or jungle . Many grassy landscapes and mixed communities of trees, shrubs, and grasses were described as savanna before

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6572-461: The earliest known rock art on the African continent and features many elaborate pastoralist sketches of animal and human figures. In other places, such as the Dhambalin region, a depiction of a man on a horse is postulated as being one of the earliest known examples of a mounted huntsman. Inscriptions have been found beneath many of the rock paintings, but archaeologists have so far been unable to decipher this form of ancient writing. During

6678-453: The ecosystem appears to be the result of human use of fire. For example, Native Americans created the Pre-Columbian woodlands of North America by periodically burning where fire-resistant plants were the dominant species. Aboriginal burning appears to have been responsible for the widespread occurrence of savanna in tropical Australia and New Guinea , and savannas in India are a result of human fire use. The maquis shrub savannas of

6784-439: The end of April, a large fair assembles in Berbera, and caravans of 6,000 camels at a time come from the interior loaded with coffee, (considered superior to Mocha in Bombay), gum, ivory, hides, skins, grain, cattle, and sour milk, the substitute of fermented drinks in these regions; also much cattle is brought there for the Aden market.” As a tributary of Mocha , which in turn was part of the Ottoman possessions in Western Arabia,

6890-467: The establishment, growth and survival of plant species and in turn can lead to a change in woodland structure and composition. That being said, impact of grazing animals can be reduced. Looking at Elephant impact on Savannas, the overall impact is reduced in the presence of rainfall and fences. Large areas of Australian and South American savannas have been cleared of trees, and this clearing continues today. For example, land clearing and fracking threaten

6996-411: The eve of Somalia's independence in 1960, to decide whether or not to join the Somali Republic or to remain with France. The referendum turned out in favour of a continued association with France, largely due to a combined yes vote by the sizable Afar ethnic group and resident Europeans. There was also widespread vote rigging , with the French expelling thousands of Somalis before the referendum reached

7102-424: The famous Italian naturalist Giacomo Doria . The Jubba basin region is primarily savanna , and is, ecologically speaking, the richest part of the country due to its fertile farmland. Native wildlife includes giraffes , cheetahs , lions , leopards , hyenas , buffalos , hippopotamus , crocodiles , oryx , gazelles , camels , ostriches , jackals , and Somali wild asses . The Jubba River gives its name to

7208-419: The following year. In signing the agreements, both rulers also hoped to exploit the rival objectives of the European imperial powers so as to more effectively assure the continued independence of their territories. The Italians, for their part, were interested in the territories mainly because of its ports specifically Port of Bosaso which could grant them access to the strategically important Suez Canal and

7314-429: The founders of Darod, Dir and Isaaq as well as the Abgaal subclan of Hawiye are all located in northern Somalia. Tradition holds this area as the ancestral homeland of the Somali people. According to data from the Pew Research Center , the creed breakdown of Muslims in the Somali-majority Djibouti is as follows: 77% adhere to Sunnism , 8% are non-denominational Muslim , 2% are Shia and 13% declined to answer, and

7420-483: The grazing industry in an attempt to increase the quality and quantity of feed available for stock and to improve the management of livestock. The removal of trees from savanna land removes the competition for water from the grasses present, and can lead to a two to fourfold increase in pasture production, as well as improving the quality of the feed available. Since stock carrying capacity is strongly correlated with herbage yield, there can be major financial benefits from

7526-402: The interior, such as livestock , coffee , frankincense , myrrh , acacia gum , saffron , feathers , ghee , hide (skin) , gold and ivory . Historically, the port of Berbera was controlled indigenously between the mercantile Reer Ahmed Nur and Reer Yunis Nuh sub-clans of the Habar Awal . According to a trade journal published in 1856, Berbera was described as “the freest port in

7632-422: The latter is an exonym with double suffixes. The hypernym of the term Somali from a geopolitical sense is Horner and from an ethnic sense, it is Cushite . The origin of the Somali people which was previously theorized to have been from Southern Ethiopia since 1000 BC or from the Arabian Peninsula in the eleventh century has now been overturned by newer archeological and linguistic studies which puts

7738-568: The lower limits of savanna tree coverage as 5–10% and upper limits range as 25–80% of an area. Two factors common to all savanna environments are rainfall variations from year to year, and dry season wildfires . In the Americas , e.g. in Belize , Central America , savanna vegetation is similar from Mexico to South America and to the Caribbean . The distinction between woodland and savanna

7844-525: The mere fact of its possession by that Soumaulee chief, and as this change occurred whilst I was in Abyssinia, I shall not say anything more upon the subject. However, the previous governor was not eager to relinquish his control of Zeila. Hence in 1841, Sharmarke chartered two dhows (ships) along with fifty Somali Matchlock men and two cannons to target Zeila and depose its Arab Governor, Syed Mohammed Al Barr. Sharmarke initially directed his cannons at

7950-465: The middle of a word, is pronounced almost like an English v; hence the change of grapheme when transcribed into English. The word originally entered English as the Zauana in a description of the ilands of the kinges of Spayne from 1555. This was equivalent in the orthography of the times to zavana (see history of V ). Peter Martyr reported it as the local name for the plain around Comagre,

8056-425: The middle of the 19th century, when the concept of a tropical savanna climate became established. The Köppen climate classification system was strongly influenced by effects of temperature and precipitation upon tree growth, and oversimplified assumptions resulted in a tropical savanna classification concept which considered it as a "climatic climax" formation. The common usage to describe vegetation now conflicts with

8162-469: The open structure of savannas allows the growth of a herbaceous layer and is commonly used for grazing domestic livestock. As a result, much of the world's savannas have undergone change as a result of grazing by sheep, goats and cattle, ranging from changes in pasture composition to woody plant encroachment . The removal of grass by grazing affects the woody plant component of woodland systems in two major ways. Grasses compete with woody plants for water in

8268-529: The original homeland of the Somali people in Somaliland region, which concludes that the Somalis are the indigenous inhabitants of the Horn of Africa for the last 7000 years. Ancient rock paintings , which date back 5000 years (estimated), have been found in Somaliland region. These engravings depict early life in the territory. The most famous of these is the Laas Geel complex . It contains some of

8374-491: The parliament and the Supreme Court, and suspended the constitution. The revolutionary army established large-scale public works programs and successfully implemented an urban and rural literacy campaign, which helped dramatically increase the literacy rate. In addition to a nationalization program of industry and land, the new regime's foreign policy placed an emphasis on Somalia's traditional and religious links with

8480-634: The patriarch Sab. Both Samaale and Sab are supposed to have descended from a common ancestor with origins in the Arabian Peninsula . Contemporary genetic studies indicate that Somalis in general do not possess any noticeable Arab ancestry. The traditions of descent from noble elite forefathers who settled on the littoral are debated, although they are based on early Arab documents and northern folklore. A comprehensive genealogy of Somali clans can be found in Abbink (2009), providing detailed family trees and historical background information. The tombs of

8586-606: The polls. The majority of those who voted no were Somalis who were strongly in favour of joining a united Somalia, as had been proposed by Mahmoud Harbi , Vice President of the Government Council. Harbi was killed in a plane crash two years later. Djibouti finally gained its independence from France in 1977, and Hassan Gouled Aptidon , a Somali who had campaigned for a yes vote in the referendum of 1958, eventually wound up as Djibouti's first president (1977–1991). British Somaliland became independent on 26 June 1960 as

8692-582: The port of Zeila had seen several men placed as governors over the years. The Ottomans based in Yemen held nominal authority of Zeila when Sharmarke Ali Saleh , who was a successful and ambitious Somali merchant, purchased the rights of the town from the Ottoman governor of Mocha and Hodeida. Allee Shurmalkee [Ali Sharmarke] has since my visit either seized or purchased this town, and hoisted independent colours upon its walls; but as I know little or nothing save

8798-438: The potential to significantly alter the structure and composition of savannas worldwide, and have already done so in many areas through a number of processes including altering the fire regime, increasing grazing pressure, competing with native vegetation and occupying previously vacant ecological niches. Other plant species include: white sage, spotted cactus, cotton seed, rosemary. Human induced climate change resulting from

8904-431: The removal of trees, such as assisting with grazing management: regions of dense tree and shrub cover harbors predators, leading to increased stock losses, for example, while woody plant cover hinders mustering in both sheep and cattle areas. A number of techniques have been employed to clear or kill woody plants in savannas. Early pastoralists used felling and girdling , the removal of a ring of bark and sapwood , as

9010-585: The reserved ones feature Acacia, Mimosa , and Zizyphus over a grass cover comprising Sehima and Dichanthium . The Australian savanna is abundant with sclerophyllous evergreen vegetation, which include the eucalyptus , as well as Acacia, Bauhinia , Pandanus with grasses such as Heteropogon and kangaroo grass (Themeda). Animals in the African savanna generally include the giraffe, elephant, buffalo, zebra, gnu, hippopotamus, rhinoceros, and antelope, where they rely on grass and/or tree foliage to survive. In

9116-453: The same region. Savannas are also characterised by seasonal water availability, with the majority of rainfall confined to one season. They are associated with several types of biomes , and are frequently in a transitional zone between forest and desert or grassland , though mostly a transition between desert to forest. Savanna covers approximately 20% of the Earth's land area. Unlike

9222-496: The sedentary agropastoralist Rahanweyn . Minor Somali clans include Asharaf . The Dir , Hawiye , Gardere ( Gaalje'el , Degodia , Garre ), Hawadle and Ajuran trace agnatic origins to the patriarch Samaale . The Darod have separate paternal traditions of descent through Abdirahman bin Isma'il al-Jabarti (Sheikh Darod), who is said to have Banu Hashim origins through Aqiil Abu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib . He arrived at

9328-423: The shared religion, their presumed noble Arabian origins genealogically unite them. The purpose behind claiming genealogical traditions of descent from the Arabian Peninsula is used to reinforce one's lineage and the various associated patriarchs with the spread of Islam. Savanna A savanna or savannah is a mixed woodland - grassland (i.e. grassy woodland) biome and ecosystem characterised by

9434-414: The sobriquet Somali dates back to the early 15th century CE during the reign of Ethiopian Emperor Yeshaq I who had one of his court officials compose a hymn celebrating a military victory over the Sultanate of Ifat . Simur was also an ancient Harari alias for the Somali people. Somalis overwhelmingly prefer the demonym Somali over the incorrect Somalian since the former is an endonym, while

9540-515: The soil caused by the hooves of animals and through the erosion effects caused by the removal of protective plant cover. Such effects are most likely to occur on land subjected to repeated and heavy grazing. The effects of overstocking are often worst on soils of low fertility and in low rainfall areas below 500 mm, as most soil nutrients in these areas tend to be concentrated in the surface so any movement of soils can lead to severe degradation. Alteration in soil structure and nutrient levels affects

9646-604: The southern territories, the northern sultanates were not subject to direct rule due to the earlier treaties they had signed with the Italians. Following World War II , Britain retained control of both British Somaliland and Italian Somalia as protectorates . In 1945, during the Potsdam Conference , the United Nations granted Italy trusteeship of Italian Somalia, but only under close supervision and on

9752-606: The spread of weeds in savannas by the removal or reduction of the plants which would normally compete with potential weeds and hinder establishment. In addition to this, cattle and horses are implicated in the spread of the seeds of weed species such as prickly acacia ( Acacia nilotica ) and stylo ( Stylosanthes species). Alterations in savanna species composition brought about by grazing can alter ecosystem function, and are exacerbated by overgrazing and poor land management practices. Introduced grazing animals can also affect soil condition through physical compaction and break-up of

9858-519: The structure of woodlands and geographic range of numerous woodland species. It has been suggested by many authors that with the removal or alteration of traditional burning regimes many savannas are being replaced by forest and shrub thickets with little herbaceous layer. The consumption of herbage by introduced grazers in savanna woodlands has led to a reduction in the amount of fuel available for burning and resulted in fewer and cooler fires. The introduction of exotic pasture legumes has also led to

9964-465: The successful deployment of the newly-formed Royal Air Force by the British government . Majeerteen Sultanate was founded in the early-1700s and rose to prominence in the following century, under the reign of the resourceful Boqor (King) Osman Mahamuud . His Kingdom controlled Bari Karkaar, Nugaaal, and also central Somalia in the 19th and early 20th centuries. The Majeerteen Sultanate maintained

10070-457: The terms used. The urban centers of Mogadishu , Merca , Barawa , Kismayo and Hobyo and other respective ports became profitable trade outlets for commodities originating from the interior of the State. The Somali farming communities of the hinterland from Jubba and Shebelle valleys brought their crops to the Somali coastal cities, where they were sold to local merchants who maintained

10176-463: The topsoil and removal by grazing reduces this competitive effect, potentially boosting tree growth. In addition to this effect, the removal of fuel reduces both the intensity and the frequency of fires which may control woody plant species. Grazing animals can have a more direct effect on woody plants by the browsing of palatable woody species. There is evidence that unpalatable woody plants have increased under grazing in savannas. Grazing also promotes

10282-506: The trees being sufficiently widely spaced so that the canopy does not close. The open canopy allows sufficient light to reach the ground to support an unbroken herbaceous layer consisting primarily of grasses. Four savanna forms exist; savanna woodland where trees and shrubs form a light canopy, tree savanna with scattered trees and shrubs, shrub savanna with distributed shrubs, and grass savanna where trees and shrubs are mostly nonexistent. Savannas maintain an open canopy despite

10388-480: The two territories in economic development and political experience would cause serious difficulties when it came time to integrate the two parts. Meanwhile, in 1948, under pressure from their World War II allies and to the dismay of the Somalis, the British ceded official control of the Haud (an important Somali grazing area that was brought under British protection via treaties with the Somalis in 1884 and 1886) and

10494-631: The various tariiqa or Sufi orders. The constitution of Somalia likewise defines Islam as the state religion of the Federal Republic of Somalia, and Islamic sharia law as the basic source for national legislation. It also stipulates that no law that is inconsistent with the basic tenets of Shari'a can be enacted. There are some nobles who believe with great pride that they are of Arabian ancestry, and trace their stirp to Muhammad's lineage of Quraysh and those of his companions. Although they do not consider themselves culturally Arabs, except for

10600-408: The water resources of the Jubba River and Shebelle . Through hydraulic engineering , it also constructed many of the limestone wells and cisterns of the state that are still operative and in use today. Its rulers developed new systems for agriculture and taxation, which continued to be used in parts of the Horn of Africa as late as the 19th century. Through their control of the region's wells,

10706-418: The world, and the most important trading place on the whole Arabian Gulf.”: “The only seaports of importance on this coast are Feyla [Zeila] and Berbera; the former is an Arabian colony, dependent of Mocha, but Berbera is independent of any foreign power. It is, without having the name, the freest port in the world, and the most important trading place on the whole Arabian Gulf. From the beginning of November to

10812-665: The world. Amongst the woody plant species are serious environmental weeds such as Prickly Acacia ( Acacia nilotica ), Rubbervine ( Cryptostegia grandiflora ), Mesquite ( Prosopis spp.), Lantana ( Lantana camara and L. montevidensis ) and Prickly Pear ( Opuntia spp.). A range of herbaceous species have also been introduced to these woodlands, either deliberately or accidentally including Rhodes grass and other Chloris species, Buffel grass ( Cenchrus ciliaris ), Giant rat's tail grass ( Sporobolus pyramidalis ) parthenium ( Parthenium hysterophorus ) and stylos ( Stylosanthes spp.) and other legumes . These introductions have

10918-681: Was attacked by local Somalis, ending in the deaths of the Baron and three others in his party. The first European to explore widely and complete the course of the river was the Italian explorer Vittorio Bottego attended by Commander F. G. Dundas British Navy. Bottego and his expedition sailed 640 km (400 miles) of the river in 1891. During his exploration Bottego changed the name of the main affluent of Jubba—the Ganale river—in Ganale Doria after

11024-491: Was introduced to the area early on by the first Muslims of Mecca fleeing prosecution during the first Hejira with Masjid al-Qiblatayn being built before the Qiblah faced towards Mecca . The town of Zeila 's two- mihrab Masjid al-Qiblatayn dates to the 7th century, and is one of the oldest mosques in Africa. Consequently the Somalis were some of the earliest non-Arabs that converted to Islam. The peaceful conversion of

11130-773: Was not limited to the Somali coast as he had allies and influence in the interior of the Somali country, the Danakil coast and even further afield in Abyssinia. Among his allies were the Kings of Shewa. When there was tension between the Amir of Harar Abu Bakr II ibn `Abd al-Munan and Sharmarke, as a result of the Amir arresting one of his agents in Harar , Sharmarke persuaded the son of Sahle Selassie , ruler of Shewa , to imprison on his behalf about 300 citizens of Harar then resident in Shewa, for

11236-498: Was unsuccessful in this endeavour, and was eventually forced into exile in Yemen . Both sultanates maintained written records of their activities, which still exist. In late 1888, Sultan Yusuf Ali Kenadid entered into a treaty with the Italian government, making his Sultanate of Hobyo an Italian protectorate known as Italian Somalia . His rival Boqor Osman Mahamuud was to sign a similar agreement vis-a-vis his own Majeerteen Sultanate

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