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98-637: The Haud is of indeterminate extent; some authorities consider it denotes the part of Ethiopia east of the city of Harar . I.M. Lewis provides a much more detailed description, indicating that it reaches south from the foothills of the Golis and Ogo Mountains , and is separated from the Ain and Nugal valleys by the Buurdhaab mountain range. "The northern and eastern tips lie within the Somali Republic, while

196-739: A 2nd delegation this time United Nations in New York City. The issue was that the British government had clearly violated the treaties it signed with Somali clans when it unjustly handed over their territory to Ethiopia in the Anglo-Ethiopian Treaty of 1897 Mariano was a strong campaigner for independence and he was a member of the British Somaliland Protectorate advisory committee which worked extensively to prepare Somaliland for independence from

294-694: A campaign against the Oromo. After the death of Nur ibn Mujahid , for the next following decade Harar would fall into a state of political instability, mainly due to the pressures of the Oromo. Nur was succeeded by Uthman the Abyssinian , who soon came into conflict with the ulama as he did not strictly observe sharia among the nobility and had made a humiliating peace agreement with the pagan Oromo by granting them special privileges. A local official of Aussa named Jibril denounced what he considered Uthman's transgressions against Islamic law. The conflict came to

392-457: A head when a local Muslim woman who had been taken by the pagan Oromos arrived as a refugee to Aussa. Uthman ordered Jibril to return the woman to the Oromos, Jibril refused, declaring that doing so would be contrary to God's law. Uthman dispatched an army against Jibril, who was defeated and killed. However, while Uthman was gone the clergymen of Harar elected Talha ibn Abbas as the new leader, he

490-777: A large Oromo presence leading to the town. During his visit in the Khedivate of Egypt occupation of the Emirate of Harar , researcher Paultischke describes Harar as having roughly 40,000 inhabitants with 25,000 of these being Hararis, 6,000 Oromo, 5,000 Somalis, 3,000 Abyssinians as well as a minority of Europeans and Asians. After the conquest of the Emirate of Harar by the Ethiopian Empire , an influx of Amhara settled in Harar and its surroundings. The Somali population of

588-503: A new policy: instead of simply keeping the Oromo at bay, he "made systematic efforts to convert them to Islam and extend their involvement in commercial agriculture; he thereby attempted to assimilate more of the Oromo and re-establish the balance on which the town's survival depended." Until the 1830s, only the Babile Oromo and groups of mixed Oromo-Somali ethnicity had been converted to Islam to any degree. Nonetheless, Muhammad lack

686-739: A peak in August, whilst November to February is usually dry. Based on the 2007 national census conducted by the Central Statistical Agency of Ethiopia (CSA), Harar city had a total urban population of 99,368, of whom 49,727 were men and 49,641 women. The six largest ethnic groups reported in Harar were the Amhara (40.55%), the Oromo (28.14%), the Harari (11.83%), the Gurage (2.94%),

784-590: A reply like "We cannot rule you separately and temporarily and it is better for you to be tied to Kenya as before." This is the worst thing and can bring discontent. The best thing for the people to do is to make their position very clear, that is, a) to secede from Kenya and b) to unite with their brothers in the Somali Republic. All Somalis support you in this. They support you in what you have decided and what you will decide. We shall work with you. We are beside you, shoulder to shoulder. The whole of Africa wants uhuru (freedom) and you want your share of it. That share, then,

882-582: A significant affect as for the first time in history, Hararis began migrating out of the city in large numbers, mainly to Dire Dawa and Addis Ababa , but also eventually abroad to Europe and North America , creating a large Harari diaspora. Following the aftermath of World War II , the city saw the construction of a high school and a military academy. With the rise of the Derg in the 1970s, Harari disatsifcation remained high, Derg officials appropriating Harari property and forcibly conscripting Harari youth into

980-672: Is about 500 kilometres (310 mi) from the Ethiopian capital Addis Ababa at an elevation of 1,885 metres (6,184 ft). For centuries, Harar has been a major commercial center, linked by the trade routes with the rest of Ethiopia, the entire Horn of Africa , the Arabian Peninsula , Asia, and through its ports, the outside world. Harar Jugol, the old walled city, was listed as a World Heritage Site in 2006 by UNESCO in recognition of its cultural heritage. Because of Harar's long history of involvement during times of trade in

1078-454: Is also vast stretches of bush-less grassy plains referred to as ban in Somali . The region is filled with anthills rising up to 7 metres in height. The region is home to a wide variety of fauna including lions, leopards, cheetahs, hyenas and jackals, as well as many species of antelopes, wart-hogs and a wide array of other smaller animals. The Haud is also home to the Somali ostrich , which

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1176-516: Is an exclusive Somali inhabited territory within Kenya now encompassing Wajir County , Garissa County and Mandera County . From 1960 to 1967 the Somali Republic pushed and supported Somali efforts to unify ethnic Somali territory with Somalia proper. Mariano himself held a radio program on Radio Mogadishu called 'Needs of the Somali People' and in 1962 gave advice regarding the situation of

1274-422: Is an extract of the name of a plain located south of the town or a specific tree. When Harar was founded is unclear and various dates have been suggested, some state the city was founded by Hadhrami settlers in the late 7th century or a local creation in the 10th century. Islam had gained a foothold on the Harar plateau by the 10th–11th centuries CE via trade with Zeila . By the 13th century, Islam had become

1372-455: Is divided into 5 quarters: Assum Bari, Argobba Bari , Suqutat Bari, Badro Bari , and Asmadin Bari . These quarters are then further divided into neighborhoods called toya , which are often named after a Muslim shrine or a prominent tree serving as a local landmark. According to S.R. Waldron, there were 59 such neighborhoods around 1975. In the late 1960s, it was still possible to walk around

1470-656: Is endemic to the region. In 1948, under pressure from their World War II allies and to the dismay of Somalis, the British signed the Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement and gave Haud and the Somali Region to Ethiopia , based on the earlier Anglo-Ethiopian treaty they signed in 1897 in which the British ceded Somaliland territory to the Ethiopian Emperor Menelik in exchange for his help against raids by Somali clans. Britain included

1568-567: Is now a museum. The Egyptian occupation of Harar came to an end as a result of the British conquest of Egypt and the Mahdist revolt . These developments produced a crisis in 1884 when the Egyptian government's payments to the troops ceased to arrive, the garrison was forced to raid the Oromos and Somalis for food. In accordance with an agreement with another power in the region namely France,

1666-413: Is still widely in use today, with only minor changes, and Hararis who have moved to other cities try to adhere to a similar style. Hararis take great pride in their houses, and they form an important part of Harari culture. A walled compound ( abāt ) consists of several residences, which share the same walls but are not interconnected. They are arranged around a courtyard, with most of the windows facing

1764-662: Is to have it with your brother Somalis Mariano and Abdullahi Issa also justified the Somali Republic's decision to sever diplomatic ties with the United Kingdom over its support for Kenya in the NFD dispute. Giving an interview to explain the government's position and feelings of the Somali people. After Egal became the 3rd Prime Minister of Somalia in 1967 he nominated Mariano to the Minister of Planning. He held this post until

1862-490: The Battle of Fatagar , and brought his head back to Harar in triumph. The following years were very difficult for Harar, as the Oromo were able to intrude on Hararghe and defeated Nur's army at the Battle of Hazalo . This prompted Nur to construct a large wall around Harar, which served as a successful bulwark against the Oromo who devastated only the lands around Harar and forced Nur to fight them multiple times. Because of

1960-457: The Battle of Webi River but was betrayed by his own officers, which led him to get captured and executed by the Emperor with other Harari officials. While he was gone, Harar was attacked by the Oromos, his brother, wazir Hamid ibn Nasir was not able to repulse him, and was wounded in the fight. As a result, a local official named Mansur ibn Muhammad , recruited bands of Somali warriors and repel

2058-735: The Imamate of Aussa was Muhammad Gasa's own brother, Muhammad Gasa II, who later became the Imam in Aussa in 1584. The next year, Harar was ruled by wazir Saddadin, who participated in the war between Muhammad Gasa II and his minister Abbas ibn Muhammad. After this, mentions of Harar in the historical record is sporadic, with the exception of the names of some of its rulers, the first being Sabraddin ibn Adam (1620–5), Sadiq (1632–46) and his son Abram, who only ruled for eleven months. A certain Emir Ahmed,

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2156-647: The Isaaq clan-family, most notably the Garhajis , Habr Awal , Habr Je'lo and Arap clans, and is part of the wider clan-family's core traditional territory. Several subclans of the Darod clan are also present in the region, most notably the Ogaden , Jidwaaq . Dhulbahante Harar Harar ( Amharic : ሐረር ; Harari : ሀረር; Oromo : Adare Biyyo ; Somali : Herer ; Arabic : هرر ), known historically by

2254-465: The Khedivate of Egypt period. During the Ethiopian Empire , the city decayed while maintaining a certain cultural prestige. The etymology of the name "Harar" remains ambiguous; however, archaeologist Timothy Insoll suggests that it may be derived from Harla , an ancient group that existed prior to the arrival of the Oromo people in the area. Other possible etymologies include ones put forth by British explorer Richard Francis Burton who states Harar

2352-485: The Somali (6.82%), and the Tigrayans (2.76%); all other ethnic groups together comprised less than 2% of the population. Amharic was spoken as a first language by 49.2% of city inhabitants, Oromo by 23.7%, Harari by 12.2%, and Somali by 6.6%. The plurality of urban inhabitants professed Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity , with 48.54% of the population having reported they practiced that belief, while 44.56% of

2450-524: The Sultanate of Mogadishu , while one of his descendants founded the Hadiya Sultanate . The first mention of Harar comes from the 14th-century chronicles of Amda Seyon I , according to this text, in 1332 Gēt (Harar) sent 3 makonnen (governors) to support Salih in his rebellion against the Emperor at the Battle of Das . This reference suggests that Harar had obtained some importance by

2548-696: The United Kingdom . Alongside other active members of the protectorate such as Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal and Sultan Abdillahi Deria they oversaw independence on June 26, 1960.Republic Somaliland would unify with Italian trust territory Somalia on July 1, 1960, to form the Somali Republic . Mariano won a seat in Erigavo part of Burao District and served as MP in the Somali Parliament. The NFD ( Northern Frontier District of Kenya )

2646-598: The coffee trade, the head-quarters of slavery, the birth-place of the Chat plant" Muhammad is said to have oppressed his own people by devaluing the city's currency while extracting a special mahalaq al-Oromo or Oromo tax. This tax was needed for Emir Muhammad to meet the demands of hospitality inherent in the status of ilman gosa . Richard Pankhurst also notes that Emir Muhammad forbade his subjects from eating rice or dates , "declaring that they were suitable only for rulers." However, Caulk points that Muhammad engaged in

2744-645: The ' Haud Reserve Area' ceded to Ethiopian Empire during the Anglo Ethiopian treaty of 1954. The National United Front was a division of the Somali National League that was specially tasked for this purpose and Mariano a founding figure was nominated as vice president of the party. In Imperial Policies and Nationalism in The Decolonization of Somaliland, 1954-1960 , Historian Jama Mohamed writes: The N.U.F. campaigned for

2842-420: The 1840s, the balance between Oromo and Somali influence led Harar to significantly expand economically, developing ties with Sharmarke Ali Saleh on the Somali coast. During this period slaves of Sidama and Gurage stock were important commodities exported to the coast. However, at the end of Abu Bakr II ibn ʽAbd al-Munan 's reign in 1852, the Oromo once again attacked Harar, possibly due to drought. Abu Bakr

2940-676: The 1948 state-led crackdown on their population. The Somali tribes surrounding Harar are mainly from the Gadabuursi and Issa subclans of the Dir and the Karanle subclan of the Hawiye . They represent the most native Somali clans in the region. The Darod clans of the Geri and Jidwaaq also inhabit areas near Harar. The Gadabuursi and Geri Somali strike immediately north and north eastwards of

3038-530: The 1969 coup and was imprisoned alongside the rest of the government by the new President Siad Barre . Mariano was released with the rest of the cabinet minus Egal in 1974 and he would go on to become Ambassador to Zambia . President Barre requested his aid in writing documents justifying Somalia's territorial claims in the Ogaden War and Mariano's past expertise with the Somali Youth League

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3136-461: The 19th century. Harar began to develop into a major religious center in the region, serving as a source of Islamic proselytization to the surrounding Oromo tribes. In 1761 Ahmad I ibn Abi Bakr constructed the minaret of the grand mosque, and ʽAbd al-Shakur ibn Yusuf built a mosque in Bale . Abd al-Shakur also reintroduced the register and the chancery in the town, which strengthen the influence of

3234-573: The Arabian Peninsula, the Government of Ethiopia has made it a criminal offence to demolish or interfere with any historical sites or fixtures in the city. These include stone homes, museums and items discarded from war. According to UNESCO, it is "considered 'the fourth holiest city' of Islam " with 82 mosques, three of which date from the 10th century, and 102 shrines. Yahyá Naṣrallāh's Fatḥ Madīnat Harar , an unpublished history of

3332-560: The Christians. She invaded the highlands in 1548, but repulsed by Ras Fanu'el. In 1551, Nur ibn Mujahid married Bati del Wambara and became the new ruler of Harar. In 1559 he departed on a jihad (holy war) to Fatagar , during his absence, the Ethiopians under Ras Hamalmal breached the city and killed the last Walashma Sultan Barakat ibn Umar Din . However this victory was short-lived as Nur was able to defeat and kill Gelawdewos at

3430-514: The Egyptians were never able to pacify the Oromos, and effective Egyptian control rarely reached further then 40 miles away from the city. To strengthen their tedious control of Harar, the Khedive increased its garrison to 160 officials, 3,411 soldiers and 5,000 of their wives and children. This garrison represented a fifth of Harar's entire population, and the soldiers were usually quartered among

3528-674: The Gurage region. In 1520, the city became the capital of the Adal Sultanate under Sultan Abu Bakr ibn Muhammad after his victory over the religious faction led by Abun Adashe . At this point, the religious faction fighting against the Walashma came under the control of Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi also known as "Gragn" or "Gurey", both meaning "the Left-handed". The town's clergy attempted to mediate between both sides, but

3626-580: The HNL was able to seize power. Tensions persist between the Harari people and the neighboring Oromo community, as the Oromo have taken possession of certain agricultural lands belonging to the Harari in the area surrounding Harar. In 2018, Tom Gardner reported that the Qeerroo Oromo nationalists took control of the city, demanding millions of Ethiopian birr as a condition for restoring water supplies to

3724-592: The Hararis large and unpayable loans. To stem the tide of land confiscations, a group of Harari elites established a group called the firmac . The goal of the firmac was to protect Harari property and maintain ethnic unity by discouraging un-Islamic practices. They also opened the first Islamic school in Harar that taught modern subjects. On 22 March, the Regia Aeronautica bombed Harar and Jijiga even though Harar had been declared an " open city ". Harar

3822-493: The Imam was strengthened by a recent victory over an Ethiopian raid, and was able to defeat and killed the Sultan in 1525. Imam Ahmad then installed Umar Din as a puppet sultan and made Harar the center of his various campaigns which ravaged most of Christian Ethiopia. After Imam Ahmad's defeat in 1543, his men were dispersed back to the region of Harar. The dead leader’s widow, Bati del Wambara , undertook to renew jihad against

3920-499: The NFD. He was one of the leading figures in the intellectual war against Kenya while Shifta fighters fought the Kenyan military. This is part of his broadcast statement on October 26, 1962. The cry "Let us secede from Kenya and have union with the Somali Republic" is indeed clear. It means what it says and that is that. But if there are demands such as "Let us secede from Kenya but be under separate temporary rule," This can result in

4018-435: The Oromo attack, and then subsequently declared himself sultan. After repelling the Oromos, he then turned north against the governor of Aussa , but was attacked and killed by his own soldiers. Muhammad Gasa , a descendant of Ahmad Gragn , took advantage of the situation and moved the capital to Aussa , thus founding the Imamate of Aussa , from then on Harar was ruled by a local wazir. The first wazir to govern Harar under

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4116-462: The Oromo imprisoned ʽAbd ar-Rahman in Fedis , he then fled to the Somali tribe of Bersub . In the end, ʽAbd ar-Rahman was deposed and forty villages are listed as having been destroyed by the Oromo to the north, west and south of Harar during the civil war. Harar became the home of numerous Somali scholars who came to the city to study the most notable being Sheikh Madar founder of Hargeisa . Until

4214-464: The UK was forced to withdraw its Egyptian forces from Harar. The Egyptian troops duly moved out of the city, taking some valuables with them, but leaving most of their local families behind. The Emirate was thus restored under Emir Abdullahi in 1885, however Emir Abdullahi's rule was short lived for in 1887 Menelik II would defeat him at the Battle of Chelenqo and thus conquer the walled city. In 1887,

4312-542: The army of Menelik II would conquer Harar after defeating Emir Abdullahi's troops at Chelenqo , then appointed his nephew Ras Makonnen as governor of the region. According to Jules Borelli, after Menelik's departure many of the Shewan troops quartered in the city were said to have looted the silos in which the inhabitants had stored their grain. Some of those robbed appealed to Makonnen, who promised restitution, but Borelli believes they never received any. Makonnen had ordered

4410-560: The army saw further migration abroad, specifically to Canada and the United States . After the rise of the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) in the early 1990s, Hararis were encouraged to use their language in official capacities. Considerable effort was taken to develop Harari as an official educational and administrative language. This saw a general cultural revival in Harar, with also stressed

4508-465: The city in the 13th century, records that the legendary saint Abadir Umar ar-Rida and several other religious leaders settled in the Harar plateau c.  1216 (612 AH ). Harar was later made the new capital of the Adal Sultanate in 1520 by the Sultan Abu Bakr ibn Muhammad . The city saw a political decline during the ensuing Emirate of Harar , only regaining some significance in

4606-422: The clergy. The religious importance of Harar can be further seen in the migration of various sharifs from Mecca to the town around the same time. After the death of Emir Ahmad II ibn Muhammad in 1821, a new conflict arose between the brothers ʽAbd ar-Rahman ibn Muhammad and ʽAbd al-Karim ibn Muhammad , which gave the surrounding Oromo and Somali tribes an opportunity to interfere in Harari politics. In 1825,

4704-516: The compounds are joined so that they are basically continuous. The outer gate facing the street is usually wooden but sometimes iron, and they are either painted or whitewashed. The walls form an architrave around them. Michael Mariano Michael Mariano ( Somali : Maykal Maryaano ) (1914-1987) was a Somali politician and businessman best remembered for leading a delegation to UN Headquarters in New York City and advocating for

4802-429: The courtyard instead of the street. Doors to individual residences almost always point east or west; north- or south-facing doors are rare. According to Kabir Abdulmuheimen Abdulnassir, farmers and merchants often have east-facing doors so that they can rise early for work. The several families who live in the same compound share one or two kitchens , which are disconnected from the residences. The walls that surround

4900-510: The first half of the 14th century. The region became the base for the Walashma after their return from Yemen in 1415 with the foundation of the Adal Sultanate . The Walashma rulers established their residence in nearby Dakkar , which was likely in very close proximity to Harar. Tradition states the Siltʼe , Wolane , Halaba and Harari people lived in Harar, while the former three moved to

4998-564: The frontier of French Somaliland running from the frontier of Eritrea to the Franco-Ethiopian Railway. Thence south-west along the railway to the bridge at Haraua . Thence south and south-east, excluding Gildessa , to the north-eastern extremity of the Garais Mountains and along the crest of the ridge of these mountains to their intersection with the frontier of the former Italian colony of Somalia. Thence along

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5096-602: The frontier to its junction with British Somaliland. The terrain of the Haud consists mainly of plains. The plateau is covered by a characteristic red sand, which conceals solid rocks like Nubian, Lower and Middle Eocene limestones as well as gypseous shales. In the Sool region there is a central area consisting of Middle Eocene anhydrite . The region is largely covered by bushes, with many species of Acacia and other trees that measure up to 6-10 metres in height with much grass. There

5194-568: The importance of Islam. The complex social interactions of Sufi rituals at Harar's numerous shrines both refied local Islamic identity and attracted large numbers of Muslim Ethiopian tourists. By 1994, two political parties were vying over power in Harar, one being the Harari National League (HNL) and the Harari Democratic Unity Party. After a tense competition which occasionally descended into violence,

5292-406: The indigenous as Harar-Gey or simply Gey (Harari: ጌይ Gēy , lit.   ' the city ' ), is a walled city in eastern Ethiopia . It is also known in Arabic as the City of Saints ( Arabic : مدينة الأولياء , romanized :  Madīna al-ʾAwliyāʾ ). Harar is the capital city of the Harari Region . The ancient city is located on a hilltop in the eastern part of the country and

5390-439: The influx of refugees into the town and the devastation of the region by the Oromo, Harar experienced two severe famines. The prices of food and livestock rose significantly: one sa'a (a unit equal to four handfuls ) of sorghum cost 12 ashrafi s, and an equal amount of salt cost 15. A cow cost over 300 ashrafis. The second famine was followed by a plague which eventually killed Nur in 1568, three months after he conducted

5488-447: The inhabitants of Harar, allowing them to buy imported goods at the markets of the town. With this, the economic influence of Harar extended from Shewa to the west and Zeila to the east, with some overseas connections. The Emirate of Harar also began to mint its own currency, the earliest possible issues bearing a date that may be read as 615 AH (1218/19 CE); but the first coins were definitely issued by 1789 CE, and more were issued into

5586-441: The issue with the Secretary of State for the Colonies, Alan Lennox-Boyd. They told Lennox-Boyd about the 1885 Anglo-Somali treaties. Under the agreements, Michael Mariano stated, the British Government 'undertook never to cede, sell, mortgage or otherwise give for occupation, save to the British Government, any portion of the territory inhabited by them or being under their control'. But now the Somali people 'have heard that their land

5684-441: The issue with the Secretary of State for the Colonies, Alan Lennox-Boyd. They told Lennox-Boyd about the 1885 Anglo-Somali treaties. Under the agreements, Michael Mariano stated, the British Government 'undertook never to cede, sell, mortgage or otherwise give for occupation, save to the British Government, any portion of the territory inhabited by them or being under their control'. But now the Somali people 'have heard that their land

5782-483: The key documents the SYL used to communicate with the British Somaliland and Trust Territory of Somaliland authorities. His advocacy and position angered Ethiopian authorities who would eventually arrest Michael and his family. After feigning a divorce, Ethiopian authorities let him free but he was not allowed to return to the city. In touch with many other anti colonial figure such as the renowned Sheikh Bashir (who once came to Mariano's home and demanded to know why he

5880-433: The local populace and declining to follow the governor's directives. The Egyptian period witnessed the reconstruction and enlargement of the city's infrastructure. Under the governor Nadi Pasha, the height of the walls were increased. The old palace of the Emirs was demolished and erected in its place was a two-story governor's house which looked over the marketplace and dominated the entire settlement. The town's main mosque

5978-425: The local populace. The imposition of substantial taxes in Harar incited protests from the Harari people against the Egyptian occupation, prompting British administrator Charles George Gordon to intervene in 1878 to remove Governor Rauf Pasha from his position. Researcher Alice Moore-Harell indicates that before Gordon's arrival, the atmosphere had grown strained, with certain Egyptian soldiers aligning themselves with

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6076-429: The neighboring Oromos, as on 1 September 1662 Emir Ali ibn Da'ud had to face a violent Illamo Oromo raid which, had reached as near as Asmadin gate and killed his son Sabr ad-Din ibn al-Amir 'Ali b. Da'ud. Ali's successor, Abdullah, significantly improved relations with the Oromos through an extensive marriage policy by marrying 5 of his sons to Oromo women. The Oromos by now had adopted agriculture and conducted trade with

6174-457: The nomads cross into Somaliland for grazing. The British exerted control of the Ogaden beginning in 1941 as part of the Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement , administering the Haud as part of the British Somaliland protectorate, although Ethiopian sovereignty was still recognized in the area. This region was defined in the 1942 agreement as including the Ethiopian territory within a continuous belt of Ethiopian territory 25 miles [40km] wide contiguous to

6272-415: The outside of the city walls on foot; doing so took about an hour. By the early 1980s, though, this was no longer possible because the city had begun to expand out from the walled city, with some buildings being built directly attached to the outside of the wall. The Old City of Harar with an approximate area of 60 hectares (150 acres) is surrounded by ramparts on the northern and eastern sides and part of

6370-478: The population said they were Muslim , and 6.14% were Protestant . Barker Haines reported in 1840 that the majority of the population of Harar were Hararis however a few Oromo , Afar , Somali and Arabian traders of Yemen were also present. In 1855 Richard Francis Burton described Harar as having an approximately 8,000 inhabitants; 3,000 Bedouins (referring to seasonal nomads who "come and go", 2,500 Hararis, and 2,500 Somalis . Burton further reported

6468-483: The power to make much headway in this endeavor, and it was only after the Egyptian conquest that this policy made major strides. Due to the oppressive emir in Harar the Harari opposition requested Egypt intervene to liberate the people in the region. In October 1878, Muhammad Rauf Pasha led a well armed Egyptian force of 1,200 men into the interior of eastern Ethiopia and without encountering any opposition, seized Harar on 11 October 1875. A few days later, Emir Muhammad

6566-429: The predominant religion in the region. It is likely the original inhabitants of the region were the Harla people . Harar was part of the Harla Kingdom 's domain in the sixth century. In the Islamic period, the city was under an alliance called the confederated states of Zeila . According to the 12th-century Jewish traveler Benjamin of Tudela , the Zeila was the land of the Havilah , confined by al-Habash in

6664-560: The primary mosque of Harar torn down and replaced it with an Orthodox Church designed by an Italian architect. The French traveler Charles Michel notes that "the first years of the Abyssinian occupation were far from prosperous" as "the Abyssinian chiefs took for themselves what could have any value", while "the soldiers, several thousand in number, chased the Hararis from their dwellings to install themselves in their place, and devastated everything around them." Traders were driven away and markets becoming impossible in towns were held instead in

6762-429: The proviso that the Somali residents would retain their autonomy, but Ethiopia immediately claimed sovereignty over the area. This prompted an unsuccessful bid by Britain in 1956 to buy back the Somaliland territory that it had turned over (which some presume was a "protectorate" by British treaties with the Somali clans in 1884 and 1886). In response to the cessation of Haud Reserve and the Ogaden regions to Ethiopia in

6860-424: The remote countryside. Harar lost some of its commercial importance with the creation of the French-built Addis Ababa–Djibouti Railway , initially intended to run via the city but diverted north of the mountains between Harar and the Awash River to save money. As a result of this, Dire Dawa was founded in 1902 as New Harar . The British planned to revitalise the historic Harar-Berbera trade route by connecting

6958-458: The residents of Harar. According to Sir Richard Burton Harar is the birthplace of the khat plant. The original domesticated coffee plant is also said to have been from Harar. The climate of Harar is classified as subtropical highland climate ( Cwb ) in Köppen-Geiger climate classification system . Throughout the year, afternoon temperatures are warm to very warm, whilst mornings are cool to mild. Rain falls between March and October with

7056-584: The return of the Somali inhabited Haud reserved area to Somali administration from the Ethiopian Empire . A notable member of the Somali Youth League , Mariano was fluent in Somali, Arabic and English. Michael was born in Berbera , British Somaliland in 1914 into the Uduruxmiin sub-division of the Habr Je'lo Isaaq clan. He soon lost his father at an early age. His mother moved to Aden and Mariano

7154-774: The return of the territories both in Somaliland and abroad. In March 1955, for instance, a delegation consisting of Michael Mariano , Abokor Haji Farah and Abdi Dahir went to Mogadisho to win the support and co-operation of the nationalist groups in Somalia. And in February and May 1955 another delegation consisting of two traditional Sultans ( Sultan Abdillahi Sultan Deria , and Sultan Abdulrahman Sultan Deria ), and two Western-educated moderate politicians (Michael Mariano, Abdirahman Ali Mohamed Dubeh) visited London and New York. During their tour of London, they formally met and discussed

7252-602: The return of the territories both in Somaliland and abroad. In March 1955, for instance, a delegation consisting of Michael Mariano, Abokor Haji Farah and Abdi Dahir went to Mogadisho to win the support and co-operation of the nationalist groups in Somalia. And in February and May 1955 another delegation consisting of two traditional Sultans ( Sultan Abdillahi Sultan Deria , and Sultan Abdulrahman Sultan Deria ), and two Western-educated moderate politicians (Michael Mariano, Abdirahman Ali Mohamed Dubeh) visited London and New York. During their tour of London, they formally met and discussed

7350-408: The son of Wazir Abram, had reigned for 10 days when `Ali ibn Da`ud assumed the throne of Harar, thus founding the Emirate of Harar . `Ali ibn Da`ud had risen through the ranks with previous occupations such as being a head of a district and the minister, had declared independence and founded a dynasty that would rule the city for the next two centuries. The reign of Ali saw significant problems with

7448-441: The southern side. There are five ancient city gates, These are, clockwise from the north of the citadel: Other gates such as the unofficial modern sixth "Harar gate" was built after the Abyssinian invasion in the 19th century. Known as gey gar ("city house", plural: gey garach ), Harari houses form a distinct archetype that differs from other Muslim regions and from other parts of Ethiopia. The traditional Harari house design

7546-552: The town was decimated following the overthrow of Lij Iyasu by Abyssinian militias. The indigenous Harari natives who once were majority within the walled city are under 15%, due to ethnic cleansing by the Haile Selassie regime. As a result of the repression by the Ethiopian regime, in the late 1970s Hararis residing in Addis Ababa outnumbered those in Harar. According to Feener, the Harari have not recovered from

7644-514: The town. Richard Francis Burton (1856) describes the Gadabuursi and Geri Somali clans as extending to within sight of Harar. The Issa and Karanle Hawiye strike north and north westwards whilst the Jidwaaq strike eastwards. I.M. Lewis (1998) states: "Including the land round Harar and Dire Dawa inhabited by the Somalis of the 'Iise and Gadabuursi clans." The old walled city of Harar

7742-597: The two cities via rail as a means to bolster trade. However, the initiative was vetoed by parliament on the grounds that it would harm the Entente Cordiale between France and Britain. Unlike with most other subjugated lands in the south, Harar's pre-conquest government employed literacy as a tool of governance. Therefore Ras Makonnen did not attempt to destroy them, but choose to inherit the long established administrative structures and official archives. The retention of historically developed administrative structure

7840-556: The use of Arabic was encouraged, Hararis and other Muslim collaborators were hired by the Italian administration and previously confiscated land was returned to their original owners and descendants. Harar would serve as the capital of Harar Governorate , one of the Italian governors of Harar was Enrico Cerulli (1939–1940). During the East African Campaign , Italian rule would almost immediately disintegrate and Harar

7938-538: The west. In the ninth century, Harar was under the Maḥzūmī dynasty's Sultanate of Shewa . According to the semi-legendary text Fatḥ Madīnat Harar , the founder of the city was saint Abadir Umar ar-Rida , who along with 405 other saints such as Aw Barkhadle , Isma'il al-Jabarti and Umardin bin Qutbaddan came from the Arabian Peninsula to settle in the Harar plateau and founded the city circa 612H (1216 CE). Abadir

8036-548: The western and southern portions (the later merging with the Ogaden plateau) form part of the Harari Province of Ethiopia." For decades it (as well as the entire Ogaden) has been an area of conflict and controversy. The eastern portion of Haud is traditionally referred to as Ciid . Due to its lack of permanent wells except to its west, the region is for the most part uninhabited during the dry season (January to April) when

8134-605: The year 1948, the fifth Grand Sultan of the Isaaq , Abdillahi Deria , led a delegation of politicians and Sultans, including the Habr Awal Sultan Sultan Abdulrahman Sultan Deria and political activist and heavyweight Michael Mariano of the Habr Je'lo , to the United Kingdom in order to petition and pressure the government to return them. In Imperial Policies and Nationalism in The Decolonization of Somaliland, 1954-1960 , Historian Jama Mohamed writes: The N.U.F. campaigned for

8232-547: Was a 'great shock to the Somali people' since they had not been told about the negotiations, and since the British Government had been administering the area since 1941. The delegates requested, as Sultan Abdulrahman put it, the postponement of the implementation of the agreement to 'grant the delegation time to put up their case' in Parliament and in international organizations. During the same year, Mariano led

8330-419: Was a 'great shock to the Somali people' since they had not been told about the negotiations, and since the British Government had been administering the area since 1941. The delegates requested, as Sultan Abdulrahman put it, the postponement of the implementation of the agreement to 'grant the delegation time to put up their case' in Parliament and in international organizations. The Haud is primarily inhabited by

8428-527: Was also torn down and replaced with a somewhat larger structure. The Egyptians also built a much needed hospital near the south western gate under Ridwan Pasha. During the period of Egyptian rule, Arthur Rimbaud lived in the city as the local functionary of several different commercial companies based in Aden ; he returned in 1888 to resume trading in coffee, musk , and skins until a fatal disease forced him to return to France. A house said to have been his residence

8526-419: Was an attempt to govern the province as inexpensively as possible. Nevertheless, with the arrival of settlers from Shewa into the region social tensions ensured, especially when Harar became to be regarded as the support base for Lij Iyasu . By the 1920s, the previously dominate position held by Hararis was beginning to be replaced by Christian immigrants, who extended their land holdings in the city by granting

8624-436: Was assisting Somalis with their English-language learning in order to prepare for the yearly civil service exam), Mariano's aptitude and great speaking ability brought him centre stage in the Haud dispute. In the year 1955, Mariano was a member of a 4 delegation team of politicians and Sultans to London , United Kingdom . Their goal was to petition and pressure the British Government in returning lost treaty territory known as

8722-463: Was being given to Ethiopia under an Anglo-Ethiopian Treaty of 1897'. That treaty, however, was 'in conflict' with the Anglo-Somali treaties 'which took precedence in time' over the 1897 Anglo-Ethiopian Treaty[.] The British Government had 'exceeded its powers when it concluded the 1897 Treaty and ... the 1897 Treaty was not binding on the tribes.' Sultan Abdillahi also added that the 1954 agreement

8820-402: Was being given to Ethiopia under an Anglo-Ethiopian Treaty of 1897'. That treaty, however, was 'in conflict' with the Anglo-Somali treaties 'which took precedence in time' over the 1897 Anglo-Ethiopian Treaty[.] The British Government had 'exceeded its powers when it concluded the 1897 Treaty and ... the 1897 Treaty was not binding on the tribes.' Sultan Abdillahi also added that the 1954 agreement

8918-603: Was captured by the 29th Infantry Division "Piemonte" on 8 May 1936 under Marshall Rodolfo Graziani during the Second Italo-Ethiopian War . The Italian invasion of Ethiopia was generally welcomed by Harar, who had grown to resent the Christian Amhara rule, the Italian policy of pitting different ethnic and religious groups had resonated with the Hararis. Under the Italians, mosques were built,

9016-777: Was captured by the 1st battalion of the Nigeria Regiment , advancing from Jijiga by way of the Marda Pass on 29 March 1941. The freedom granted to Harar by the Italians was not quickly forgotten, especially after Emperor Haile Selassie attempted to restore the political and economic power of the Shewan elites. When the Somali Youth League (SYL) began agitating Harari members, they started their own branch known as Kulubi . The Ethiopian government immediately cracked down on this movement, arresting suspected members, confiscating property and imposing travel restrictions. This had

9114-447: Was forced to pay tribute to the Oromo, which led to an economic crisis and a devaluation in the Harari currency. During the reign of Ahmad III ibn Abu Bakr , Harar was once more besieged by the Oromo for 18 months until Ahmad III agreed to let the Oromo merchants enter the town with their weapons. When Ahmad III died without an heir to his throne, the Oromo helped place Muhammad ibn 'Ali 'Abd ash-Shakur in power. Around this time, Harar

9212-456: Was murdered by an Egyptian bashi-bazouk while leading evening prayers, his relatives then fled to the countryside to seek refuge among the neighboring Oromos. The Egyptians spent much of their time establishing their authority over the surrounding Oromo to secure the caravan routes and attempt the agricultural exploitation of Harar's hinterlands. Rauf Pasha conducted brutal expeditions in the countryside from February to March 1876. Despite this,

9310-637: Was raised as by a Catholic mission in Aden Colony . He would go onto join the civil service in British Somaliland and form a men's political club in Burao by 1936. Mariano would emerge on the big stage after his successful business enterprise in Dire Dawa . Meeting Somali Youth League leaders, his expertise was sought out and Michael would join the party in 1947 and come to draft many of

9408-604: Was supposedly met by the Argobba , the Gaturi and the Harla people who accepted his leadership. In 1234, Abadir returned back to Mecca where he stayed until 1279. In the meantime Harar was ruled by several other saints, most of whom were killed fighting the Christians. Coming back from Mecca, Abadir continued to fight the Christians until his final victory over them in 1301. According to tradition, Abadir's brother Fakr ad-Din founded

9506-409: Was then able to ambush and defeat Uthman, which led to much rejoicing in the city. However Tahla Abbas was again overthrown by some of his very fanatical subjects who still longed for a jihad against Ethiopia. He was replaced by Nasir ibn Uthman , who was almost immediately succeeded by his son, Muhammad ibn Nasir . He led an unsuccessful fight against the Christians, he met Emperor Sarsa Dengel at

9604-463: Was visited by the famous British traveler Richard Francis Burton , he describes Harar during his visit in 1855: "The ancient metropolis of a once mighty race, the only permanent settlement in Eastern Africa, the reported seat of Moslem learning, a walled city of stone houses, possessing its independent chief, its peculiar population, its unknown language, and its own coinage, the emporium of

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