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104-702: Onkaparinga River National Park is a protected area in the Australian state of South Australia located about 32 kilometres (20 mi) south of Adelaide city centre . It extends over the floodplain of the Onkaparinga River east of Main South Road . Most of the land now dedicated to the national park was purchased in the period 1973 to 1977 by a former SA government agency, the State Planning Authority. The purpose of

208-540: A concern. Responses and solutions to natural resource exploitation have emerged across the globe as communities and stakeholders grapple with the environmental, social, and economic impacts of unsustainable practices. These movements often employ a variety of tactics, including protests, legal challenges, boycotts, and direct actions, to challenge destructive practices and promote alternatives that prioritize environmental sustainability, social justice, and community well-being. Additionally, there has been growing recognition of

312-491: A critical factor in their success. Subsequently, the range of natural resources that any one protected area may guard is vast. Many will be allocated primarily for species conservation whether it be flora or fauna or the relationship between them, but protected areas are similarly important for conserving sites of (indigenous) cultural importance and considerable reserves of natural resources such as; Annual updates on each of these analyses are made in order to make comparisons to

416-757: A culture of rentierism . For instance, revenues obtained from resources can be used for political manipulation. Additionally, extra capital from resources can dilute government accountability to both citizens and businesses by abandoning taxation completely, which leads to lack of government incentive to support economic growth through innovation. At the same time, citizens may lack the motives to advocate for better governance and transparency. Because of environmental pollution , cities whose economies rely on natural resources face difficulties in attracting technology-driven businesses and skilled labor , posing significant challenges to their economic transformation and advancement. These resource-centric cities face disadvantages in

520-640: A global network contribute to achieving the three objectives of the Convention and the 2010 target to significantly reduce the current rate of biodiversity loss ." In 2010, protected areas were included in Target 11 of the CBD's Strategic Plan for Biodiversity , known as the Aichi Biodiversity Targets. Target 11 states: In 2018, to complement protected areas across landscapes and seascapes,

624-422: A global scale. The interconnectedness of economies and the proliferation of multinational corporations have led to increased competition for access to natural resources, such as minerals, fossil fuels, timber, and agricultural products, in diverse regions around the world. This heightened demand for resources has driven intensified extraction activities, often in environmentally sensitive areas, and has contributed to

728-537: A large number of the Congolese population vulnerable to internal displacement , lacking resources to adapt to climate change. Beyond climate impacts, mineral mining has also been linked with adverse health impacts, such as high levels of cobalt in urine and blood samples in populations located on or near industrial mines. Mining ores pose health risks long after mining has ceased, as wastelands generate toxic metal-rich dust. The injustice perpetrated by unsafe mining ores

832-420: A mode of production that hinders many aspects of the natural environment , for example the degradation of forests in a terrestrial ecosystem and water pollution in an aquatic ecosystem . As the world population rises and economic growth occurs, the depletion of natural resources influenced by the unsustainable extraction of raw materials becomes an increasing concern. The continuous alteration of

936-650: A more just and sustainable future in the Global South and beyond. Anti-mining protests in Peru have emerged as a significant expression of resistance against large-scale mining projects that pose environmental and social threats to local communities. One notable instance is the resistance against the Conga mining project in the Cajamarca region. José Manuyama Ahuit, a native Peruvian activist working against local mining,

1040-482: A nationwide survey that compares the biodiversity of Bhutan's protected areas versus that of intervening non-protected areas. The study indicated that Bhutan's protected areas "are effectively conserving medium and large mammal species, as demonstrated through the significant difference in mammal diversity between protected areas, biological corridors, and non-protected areas with the strongest difference between protected areas and non-protected areas". Protected areas had

1144-708: A protected area or an entire network of protected areas may lie within a larger geographic zone that is recognised as a terrestrial or marine ecoregions (see Global 200 ), or a Crisis Ecoregions for example. As a result, Protected Areas can encompass a broad range of governance types. A wide variety of rights-holders and stakeholders are involved in the governance and management of protected areas, including forest protected areas, such as government agencies and ministries at various levels, elected and traditional authorities, indigenous peoples and local communities, private individuals and non-profit trusts, among others. Most protected-area and forest management institutions acknowledge

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1248-662: A protected area. Scientific publications have identified 3,749 enacted PADDD events in 73 countries since 1892 which have collectively impacted an area approximately the size of Mexico. PADDD is a historical and contemporary phenomenon. 78% of PADDD events worldwide were enacted since 2000 and governments in at least 14 countries are currently considering at least 46 PADDD proposals. Proximate causes of PADDD vary widely but most PADDD events globally (62%) are related to industrial scale resource extraction and development – infrastructure, industrial agriculture, mining, oil and gas, forestry, fisheries, and industrialization. PADDD challenges

1352-540: A result of globalization.” Globalization has spurred the development of complex supply chains and trade networks that connect resource-rich regions with centers of production and consumption across the globe. While this interconnectedness has fueled economic growth and development in some regions, it has also led to the commodification and commercialization of natural resources, where resources are valued primarily for their economic potential rather than their intrinsic ecological or cultural value. Globalization has contributed to

1456-484: A result, these cities tend to rely heavily on a singular economic development model centered around resource exploitation, making them ill-equipped to address environmental crises effectively. Economic gains from natural resources are mostly beneficial when directed towards initiatives such as job creation, skill enhancement, capacity building, and pursuit of long-term developmental objectives. Thus, reliance on one or more natural resources holds financial risk when aiming for

1560-445: A scenario is evidently unsustainable in the long run. To ensure sustainability, the consumption rate must remain equal to or less than the supply rate. There has been an ongoing debate among scholars and researchers on the economic implications of dependence on natural resources. Natural resources yield economic rents that can be allocated towards public welfare initiatives and other projects beneficial to local communities. However, in

1664-520: A source of aesthetic and cultural value for tourism and heritage. Such services are often overlooked by humanity, due to the ecosystem from which they originate being far from urbanized areas. The contamination of ecosystem services within a designated area ultimately degrades their use for society. For example, the protection of a water body inherently protects that water body's microorganisms and their ability to adequately filter pollutants and pathogens, ultimately protecting water quality itself. Therefore,

1768-482: A specific class of protected area. China, a megadiverse country , has begun implementing various protected areas in recent years. As of the year 2017, China has nearly 10,000 to 12,000 protected areas , 80% of which are nature reserves aiming to foster biodiversity conservation. These newly implemented reserves safeguard a range of ecosystems, from tropical forests to marine habitats. These protected areas encompass nearly 20% of China's land area. Natura 2000

1872-563: A stable economic growth. Multiple scholars have explained how Settler colonialism has had profound influence on the dynamics of resource exploitation throughout history, especially in regions where settler populations have previously asserted dominance over indigenous peoples and their territories. Among these scholars Dina Gilio-Whitaker, an expert in Native American Studies from California State University explains that, “Indigenous peoples fighting for political autonomy from

1976-647: A variety of tactics, including protests, legal challenges, direct actions, and advocacy campaigns to assert indigenous control over natural resources and resist exploitative practices. The Dakota Access Pipeline resistance, also known as the Standing Rock movement, emerged as a significant indigenous-led protest against the construction of the Dakota Access Pipeline in the United States. The pipeline, proposed by Energy Transfer Partners,

2080-546: Is a private protected area , also known as a 'Private Reserve' predominantly managed for biodiversity conservation, protected without formal government recognition and is owned and stewarded by the O corporation International. O parks plays a particularly important role in conserving critical biodiversity in a section of the Mesoamerican Biological Corridor known as the Paso del Istmo , located along

2184-399: Is a heritage register, a list of national heritage places deemed to be of outstanding heritage significance to Australia, established in 2003. The list includes natural and historic places, including those of cultural significance to Indigenous Australians . Indigenous Protected Areas (IPAs) are formed by agreement with Indigenous Australians, and declared by Indigenous Australians, and form

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2288-532: Is a network of protected areas established by the EU across all member states. It is made up of Special Areas of Conservation (SACs) and Special Protection Areas (SPAs) designated respectively under the Habitats Directive and Birds Directive . 787,767 km (304,159 sq mi) are designated as terrestrial sites and 251,564 km (97,129 sq mi) as marine sites. Overall, 18 percent of

2392-662: Is animated by our ancestors' refusal to be forgotten, and it is our resolute refusal to forget our ancestors and our history that animates our visions for liberation. The Dakota Access Pipeline resistance garnered widespread attention and support, drawing thousands of people to the Standing Rock Indian Reservation in North Dakota to stand in solidarity with the Standing Rock Sioux Tribe and protect their lands and water. Among

2496-411: Is currently a developing country that is undergoing infrastructure development and resource collection. The country's economic progression has brought about human-wildlife conflict and increased pressure on the existence of its protected areas. In light of ongoing disputes on the topic of optimal land usage, Dorji (et al.), in a study using camera traps to detect wildlife activity, summarize the results of

2600-478: Is facilitated by legal frameworks that prioritize settler property rights over indigenous land tenure systems, resulting in the dispossession and displacement of indigenous communities from their ancestral lands. Moreover, settler colonialism often entails the imposition of Western concepts of land ownership and resource management that marginalize indigenous knowledge and practices, further exacerbating environmental degradation and social injustice. Industrialization,

2704-538: Is not exclusive to the adult and child laborers. Instead, it impacts the whole country as low wages for high-risk mining worsen poverty rates, exacerbating negative social impacts such as conflict, higher crime rates, and child mortality . The effects of the exploitation of natural resources in the local community of a developing country are also exhibited in the impacts from the Ok Tedi Mine . After BHP entered into Papua New Guinea to exploit copper and gold,

2808-425: Is often why many Wildlife Reserves and National Parks face the human threat of poaching for the illegal bushmeat or trophy trades, which are resorted to as an alternative form of substinence. Poaching has thus increased in recent years as areas with certain species are no longer easily and legally accessible. This increasing threat has often led governments to enforce laws and implement new policies to adhere to

2912-488: Is recognised not only ecologically, but culturally through further development in the arena of Indigenous and Community Conserved Areas (ICCAs). ICCAs are "natural and/or modified ecosystems containing significant bio - diversity values and ecological services, voluntarily conserved by (sedentary and mobile) indigenous and local communities, through customary laws or other effective means". As of December 2022, 17% of land territory and 10% of ocean territory were protected. At

3016-687: Is the Main Ridge Forest Reserve, established by an ordinance dated 13 April 1776. Other sources mention the 1778 approval of a protected area on then- Khan Uul , a mountain previous protected by local nomads for centuries in Mongolia, by then-ruling Qing China Tenger Tetgegch Khaan . However, the mass protected areas movement did not begin until late nineteenth-century in North America, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa, when other countries were quick to follow suit. While

3120-523: Is to protect 30% of the terrestrial and marine territory of the United States by the year 2030. In the United Kingdom, the term conservation area almost always applies to an area (usually urban or the core of a village) of special architectural or historic interest, the character of which is considered worthy of preservation or enhancement. It creates a precautionary approach to the loss or alteration of buildings and/or trees, thus it has some of

3224-546: Is usually the main reason for constructing protected areas, the protection of biodiversity also protects the ecosystem services society enjoys. Some ecosystem services include those that provide and regulate resources, support natural processes, or represent culture. Provisioning services provide resources to humanity, such as fuel and water, while regulating services include carbon sequestration , climate regulation, and protection against disease. Supporting ecosystem services include nutrient cycling , while cultural services are

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3328-476: The 2022 United Nations Biodiversity Conference almost 200 countries, signed onto the agreement which includes protecting 30% of land and oceans by 2030 ( 30 by 30 ). In 1992, a protected area was defined in paragraph 2 of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) as "a geographically defined area which is designated or regulated and managed to achieve specific conservation objectives." Under Article 8 of

3432-997: The European Union in its Biodiversity Strategy for 2030 , Campaign for Nature which promoted the goal during the Convention on Biodiversity 's COP15 Summit and the G7 . In December 2022, Nations have reached an agreement with the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework at the COP15, which includes the 30 by 30 initiative. Protected areas are implemented for biodiversity conservation , often providing habitat and protection from hunting for threatened and endangered species . Protection helps maintain ecological processes that cannot survive in most intensely managed landscapes and seascapes. Indigenous peoples and local communities frequently criticize this method of fortress conservation for

3536-535: The Millennium Development Goals and several other fields of analysis are expected to be introduced in the monitoring of protected areas management effectiveness, such as freshwater and marine or coastal studies which are currently underway, and islands and drylands which are currently in planning. The effectiveness of protected areas to protect biodiversity can be estimated by comparing population changes over time. Such an analysis found that

3640-549: The United Nations Environment Programme , the United States had a total of 6770 terrestrial nationally designated (federal) protected areas. These protected areas cover 2,607,131 km (1,006,619 sq mi), or 27.08 percent of the land area of the United States. This is also one-tenth of the protected land area of the world. According to a report from the Center for American Progress ,

3744-668: The World Charter for Nature in 1982, the Rio Declaration at the Earth Summit in 1992, and the Johannesburg Declaration 2002. Recently, the importance of protected areas has been brought to the fore at the threat of human-induced global heating and the understanding of the necessity to consume natural resources in a sustainable manner. The spectrum of benefits and values of protected areas

3848-534: The 12-mile-wide isthmus between Lake Nicaragua and the Pacific Ocean. On 21 May 2019, The Moscow Times cited a World Wildlife Fund report indicating that Russia now ranks first in the world for its amount of protected natural areas with 63.3 million hectares of specially protected natural areas. However, the article did not contain a link to WWF's report and it may be based on previously gathered data. As of 31 January 2008 , according to

3952-457: The 17th and 18th centuries, protected areas were mostly hunting grounds of rulers and thus, on the one hand, an expression of the absolute personal authority of a monarch, and on the other hand, they were concentrated in certain places and diminished with increasing spatial distance from the seat of power. In the late 19th century, modern territorial states emerged which, thanks to the transport and communication technologies of industrialisation and

4056-402: The 20th century, energy consumption rapidly increased. Today, about 80% of the world's energy consumption is sustained by the extraction of fossil fuels , which consists of oil , coal and natural gas . Another non-renewable resource humans exploit is subsoil minerals , such as precious metals , mainly used to produce industrial commodities . Intensive agriculture is an example of

4160-654: The Belair District Office first. Protected area Protected areas or conservation areas are locations which receive protection because of their recognized natural or cultural values. Protected areas are those areas in which human presence or the exploitation of natural resources (e.g. firewood, non-timber forest products , water, ...) is limited. The term "protected area" also includes marine protected areas and transboundary protected areas across multiple borders. As of 2016, there are over 161,000 protected areas representing about 17 percent of

4264-646: The CBD, parties who entered the treaty agreed to, among other things, "establish a system of protected areas." In 2004, the CBD's Conference of the Parties (COP) adopted the Program of Work on Protected Areas (PoWPA) to further develop and promote protected areas. PoWPA's objective was the "establishment and maintenance by 2010 for terrestrial and by 2012 for marine areas of comprehensive, effectively managed, and ecologically representative national and regional systems of protected areas that collectively, inter alia through

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4368-521: The EU land mass is designated. Protected areas of India include National parks , Wildlife sanctuaries , biosphere reserves , reserved and protected forests , conservation and community reserves , communal forests , private protected areas and conservation areas . Lebanon, home to one of the highest densities of floral diversity in the Mediterranean basin , hosts tree species with critical biogeographical locations (southernmost limit) on

4472-520: The United Nations. The categories provide international standards for defining protected areas and encourage conservation planning according to their management aims. IUCN Protected Area Management Categories : Protected areas are cultural artifacts, and their story is entwined with that of human civilization. Protecting places and natural resources is by no means a modern concept, whether it be indigenous communities guarding sacred sites or

4576-455: The abundance of 2,239 terrestrial vertebrate populations changed at slower rate in protected areas. On average, vertebrate populations declined five times more slowly within protected areas (−0.4% per year) than at similar sites lacking protection (−1.8% per year). Along with providing important stocks of natural resources, protected areas are often major sources of vital ecosystem services , unbeknownst to human society. Although biodiversity

4680-401: The administration of Joe Biden reached a record in conservation. In 3 years of ruling it conserved or in the process of conserving more than 24 millions acres of public land and in 2023 alone more than 12.5 million acres of public land became protected area. It is doing it together with the indigenous people as 200 agreements of co-stewardship with them were signed in 2023 alone. The goal of Biden

4784-473: The closely meshed and well-connected administrative apparatus that came with it, could actually assert claims to power over large contiguous territories. The establishment of nature reserves in mostly peripheral regions thus became possible and at the same time underpinned the new state claim to power. Initially, protected areas were recognised on a national scale, differing from country to country until 1933, when an effort to reach an international consensus on

4888-502: The commodification of natural resources, where resources are valued primarily for their economic potential rather than their intrinsic ecological or cultural value. This commodification mindset often leads to unsustainable exploitation practices, as resources are overexploited for short-term economic gain without consideration for long-term environmental sustainability. Globalization has significantly impacted resource exploitation by reshaping patterns of production, consumption, and trade on

4992-659: The competition among local governments striving for environmental quality . Analyzing panel data spanning from 2005 to 2017 for 30 coal-mining cities, it's been discovered that environmental regulations offer a new approach to potentially reversing the adverse effects of resource dependence, and thus fueling greener sustainable development in coal-mining regions. Despite the inevitability of environmental contamination associated with resource extraction because of current mining technologies, this pollution delays residents' engagement in agricultural and aqua cultural activities, which are negatively influenced by environmental conditions. As

5096-677: The conflict have been disrupted by deep-seated mistrust and differing interests among the stakeholders involved. Resistance to natural resource exploitation in native communities has been a recurring theme throughout history, as indigenous people  have sought to protect their lands, cultures, and ways of life from the adverse impacts of extractive industries. In many cases, indigenous resistance movements have emerged as powerful forces advocating for environmental justice, indigenous rights, and sovereignty over ancestral territories. These movements often mobilize around issues such as land rights, resource extraction, and environmental protection, employing

5200-409: The consumption rate and the supply rate of resources holds significant implications for long-term economic growth, as sustained high consumption rates of certain resources ultimately jeopardize economic sustainability. For instance, in the case of extracting soil minerals, supply rate is exceedingly slow over geological time spans, inevitably leading to a consumption rate surpassing the supply rate. Such

5304-543: The convention of European hunting reserves. Over 2000 years ago, royal decrees in India protected certain areas. In Europe, rich and powerful people protected hunting grounds for a thousand years. Moreover, the idea of protection of special places is universal: for example, it occurs among the communities in the Pacific ("tapu" areas) and in parts of Africa (sacred groves). The oldest legally protected reserve recorded in history

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5408-525: The country and around the world in a unified effort to oppose the pipeline's construction. Nick Estes, a scholar of American Indian studies who has followed the Dakota Access Pipeline protests closely, points out that the tactics being used in protest of the Dakota Access Pipeline have been used for generations. In his piece  “Our History is The Future”  he writes, “Our history and long traditions of Indigenous resistance provide possibilities for futures premised on justice. After all, Indigenous resistance

5512-408: The detrimental impacts of resource extraction. In response to the anti-mining protests, Peruvian authorities have often deployed security forces to quell dissent, leading to clashes and instances of violence. These clashes have resulted in injuries and fatalities on both sides, escalating tensions between mining companies, local communities, and the government. Efforts to find a peaceful resolution to

5616-518: The developing country. In addition to unequal distribution , the adaption of consumerist values also results in conflict over resources within local communities . Despite being rich in natural resources , the Democratic Republic of Congo is one country in the global south suffering from the effects of the resource curse . Its valuable copper and cobalt mineral deposits make Congo vulnerable to local and international conflict over

5720-526: The direct seeding method where seed of native species is ploughed into a scraped trench. Insect activity includes butterflies (Lepidoptera) and dragonflies (Anisoptera). Kangaroos are common among the open hillsides with abundant grasses. 2 hr loop, 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) loop (Gate 11). This patch of native vegetation is a very important conservation area, despite a history of timber cutting, quarrying and grazing. 2 hr loop, 3.5 kilometres (2.2 mi) loop (Gate 6). The Nature Hike includes good views of

5824-537: The distribution of resources. These conflicts, along with the environmental degradation effects of mining, exacerbate high poverty rates, which approximately 64% of the Congolese population live under. Natural resource extraction and climate change are intertwined in Congo, as mining for copper and cobalt creates a biodiversity loss as green covers are cleared for constructing artisanal mines and roadways. Conflict over resources, poverty, and environmental degradation leaves

5928-531: The draft Global Biodiversity Framework, which is due to be agreed at the 15th Conference of the Parties to the UN Convention on Biological Diversity, which will be held 5 to 17 December in Montreal , Canada. How to manage areas protected for conservation brings up a range of challenges – whether it be regarding the local population, specific ecosystems or the design of the reserve itself – and because of

6032-491: The economy of the indigenous peoples boomed. Although their quality of life has improved, initially disputes were common among the locals in terms of land rights and who should be getting the benefits from the mining project. The consequences of the Ok Tedi environmental disaster illustrate the potential negative effects from the exploitation of natural resources. The resulting mining pollution includes toxic contamination of

6136-498: The effectiveness of most of them remains unclear. Scientists advocate that 50% of global land and seas be converted to inter-connected protected areas to sustain these benefits. The Asian country Bhutan achieved this high-reaching target by reserving 51.4% of the country's area as protected areas interconnected through biological corridors . Although these networks are well regulated (local communities are aware of their importance and actively contribute to their maintenance), Bhutan

6240-469: The environment through water, mineral, and forest exploitation poses increased risks of climate-based displacement and conflict stemming from scarcity, which threaten to perpetuate social inequities. Natural resources are not limitless, and the following consequences can arise from the careless and excessive consumption of these resources: Natural resources are vital for human survival, however, if their consumption surpasses their natural replenishment rate,

6344-598: The exploitation of natural wealth to fuel economic growth, infrastructure development, and territorial expansion. One of the key way which settler colonialism drives resource exploitation is through the appropriation of indigenous lands and natural resources. Kyle Powys Whyte, an expert in natural resources and the environment highlights how the continued legacy of settler colonialism continues to harm indigenous communities. In his piece “The Dakota Access Pipeline, Environmental Injustice, and US Settler Colonialism” he writes, “as climate change becomes more apparent in its homelands,

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6448-533: The generally violent processes by which the regulations of the areas are enforced. The definition that has been widely accepted across regional and global frameworks has been provided by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) in its categorisation guidelines for protected areas. The definition is as follows: A clearly defined geographical space, recognized, dedicated and managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve

6552-418: The gorge, while trails provide an opportunity to view many species of birds and the occasional lizard. 2.5 hr loop, 3.5 kilometres (2.2 mi) loop (Gate 7). The Echidna Trail winds its way amongst some of the best remnant vegetation and visits six heritage sites, including huts and houses built in the 1880s. The dominant overstorey species is peppermint box, with river red gum in the gullies and pink gum on

6656-498: The hegemony of the State are fighting the forces of colonialism while simultaneously fighting capitalism—all aimed at control of land and resources" This encompasses the establishment of permanent settler communities, typically accompanied by the displacement, marginalization, or even extermination of indigenous populations. Settler Colonial exploration is most often driven by the pursuit of land and resources which has historically created

6760-578: The higher slopes. Other plant species include sheoak, golden wattle, a small stand of native pine and various herbaceous ground covers. Twenty-seven native orchid species have been recorded in the area. 2 hr loop, 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) loop (Gate 6). A relatively short hike to view the rocky outcrops and meandering Onkaparinga River from the Sundews Lookout. 4 hr return, 3.5 kilometres (2.2 mi) return (Gate 18). This hard trail takes you to gorge vantage points before descending steeply to

6864-446: The highest levels of mammal biodiversity. This is made possible by the restriction of commercial activity and regulation of consumptive uses (firewood, timber, etc.). The regulation of such practices has allowed Bhutan's protected areas to thrive with high carnivore diversity and other rare mammals such as Chinese pangolin , Indian pangolin , mountain weasel ( Mustela altaica ) , small-toothed ferret badger , Asian small clawed otter ,

6968-509: The idea of protected areas spread around the world in the twentieth century, the driving force was different in different regions. Thus, in North America, protected areas were about safeguarding dramatic and sublime scenery; in Africa, the concern was with game parks; in Europe, landscape protection was more common. The designation of protected areas often also contained a political statement. In

7072-541: The implementation of protected areas is vital to maintaining the quality and consistency of ecosystem services, ultimately allowing human society to function without the interference of human infrastructure or policies. Through its World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA), the IUCN has developed six Protected Area Management Categories that define protected areas according to their management objectives, which are internationally recognised by various national governments and

7176-447: The importance of indigenous knowledge, traditional ecological practices, and community-based approaches in addressing the root causes of resource exploitation and advancing sustainable development goals. Resistance to natural resource exploitation in the developing countries is often intertwined with broader social and economic struggles. Many communities facing exploitation are marginalized and economically disadvantaged which exacerbates

7280-453: The importance of recognizing the rights of indigenous peoples and local communities, sharing the costs and benefits of protected areas and actively involving them in their governance and management. This has led to the recognition of four main types of governance, defined on the basis of who holds authority, responsibility, and who can be held accountable for the key decisions for protected areas. Indeed, governance of protected areas has emerged

7384-585: The infrastructure and networking needed to substitute consumable resources and substantively protect the area from development or misuse. The soliciting of protected areas may require regulation to the level of meeting demands for food, feed, livestock and fuel, and the legal enforcement of not only the protected area itself but also 'buffer zones' surrounding it, which may help to resist destabilisation. Protected area downgrading, downsizing, and degazettement (PADDD) Protected area downgrading, downsizing, and degazettement (PADDD) events are processes that change

7488-713: The initial goal of protected areas, though many illegal activities are often overlooked. There is increasing pressure to take proper account of human needs when setting up protected areas and these sometimes have to be "traded off" against conservation needs. Whereas in the past governments often made decisions about protected areas and informed local people afterwards, today the emphasis is shifting towards greater discussions with stakeholders and joint decisions about how such lands should be set aside and managed. Such negotiations are never easy but usually produce stronger and longer-lasting results for both conservation and people. In some countries, protected areas can be assigned without

7592-399: The land acquisition which included land along the full length of Onkaparinga River was threefold. Firstly, it was ‘to provide open space for recreational purposes’, secondly, ‘to preserve the natural character of the landscape, including the native flora and fauna’ and thirdly, ‘to function as a buffer between areas of urban and rural land.’ In 1982, the majority of the land was transferred to

7696-545: The large scale growth of industry, has had profound impacts on natural resource exploitation. As societies undergo industrialization, there is an increased demand for raw materials to fuel manufacturing, construction, and energy production. As outlined by Farhan Ahmed, professor of economics and finance, industrialization can bring a myriad of challenges for natural resources. In his piece “The environmental impact of industrialization and foreign direct investment: empirical evidence from Asia-Pacific region” Ahmed writes “In addition to

7800-528: The legal status of national parks and other protected areas in both terrestrial and marine environments. Downgrading is a decrease in legal restrictions on human activities within a protected area, downsizing is a decrease in protected area size through a legal boundary change, and degazettement is the loss of legal protection for an entire protected area. Collectively, PADDD represents legal processes that temper regulations, shrink boundaries, or eliminate legal protections originally associated with establishment of

7904-564: The legislative and policy characteristics of listed buildings and tree preservation orders . The concept was introduced in 1967, and by 2017 almost 9,800 had been designated in England. Exploitation of natural resources The exploitation of natural resources started to emerge on an industrial scale in the 19th century as the extraction and processing of raw materials (such as in mining , steam power , and machinery ) expanded much further than it had in pre-industrial areas. During

8008-403: The long term, uncertainties linked to potentially unstable terms of trade for commodities might lead to decline in public finances and deter investment. For instance, if oil prices decline, it may lead to fiscal unease in significant petroleum-producing countries such as Russia, Qatar, and Saudi Arabia. Resource abundance challenges the progress of political and governance institutions by nurturing

8112-686: The long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values. Protected Areas alleviate climate change effects in a variety of ways: The objective of protected areas is to conserve biodiversity and to provide a way for measuring the progress of such conservation. Protected areas will usually encompass several other zones that have been deemed important for particular conservation uses, such as Important Bird Areas (IBA) and Endemic Bird Areas (EBA), Centres of Plant Diversity (CPD), Indigenous and Community Conserved Areas (ICCA), Alliance for Zero Extinction Sites (AZE) and Key Biodiversity Areas (KBA) among others. Likewise,

8216-430: The longstanding assumption that protected areas are permanent fixtures and highlights the need for decision-makers to consider protected area characteristics and the socioeconomic context in which they are situated to better ensure their permanence. A main goal of protected areas is to prevent loss of biodiversity . However, their effectiveness is limited by their small size and isolation from each other (which influence

8320-475: The main vegetation type. Remnant eucalypts are the most noticeable native species in the reserve. Eucalyptus microcarpa (grey box), Eucalyptus fasciculosa (pink gum), Eucalyptus porosa (mallee box), Eucalyptus camaldulensis (red gum), and Eucalyptus leucoxylon (blue gum) all occur in the reserve. The European olive ( Olea europaea ) is a noxious weed in South Australia and has invaded

8424-424: The maintenance of species), their restricted role in preventing climate change , invasive species , and pollution, their high costs, and their increasing conflict with human demands for nature's resources. In addition, the type of habitat, species composition, legal issues and governance, play important roles. One major problem is that only 18% of the area covered by protected areas have been assessed, hence

8528-666: The many benefits of foreign direct investment and industrialization that have affected economic growth, both have significant potential for environmental degradation because most of their activities are related to the production and exploitation of natural resources." This demand often leads to intensified extraction activities, such as mining, logging, and drilling, which can result in extensive habitat destruction, deforestation, and ecosystem degradation. Additionally, industrial processes often generate pollution and waste, further exacerbating environmental impacts and threatening ecosystems and biodiversity. industrialization has been associated with

8632-479: The many unpredicatable elements in ecology issues, each protected area requires a case-specific set of guidelines. Enforcing protected area boundaries is a costly and labour-heavy endeavour, particularly if the allocation of a new protected region places new restrictions on the use of resources by the native people which may lead to their subsequent displacement. This has troubled relationships between conservationists and rural communities in many protected regions and

8736-484: The natural water supply for communities along the Ok Tedi River , causing widespread killing of aquatic life. When a mining company ends a project after extracting the raw materials from an area of a developing country , the local people are left to manage with the environmental damage done to their community and the long run sustainability of the economic benefits stimulated by the mining company's presence becomes

8840-710: The networks that hold regular revisions for the succinct categorisations that have been developed to regulate and record protected areas. In 1972, the Stockholm Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment endorsed the protection of representative examples of all major ecosystem types as a fundamental requirement of national conservation programmes. This has become a core principle of conservation biology and has remained so in recent resolutions – including

8944-473: The overexploitation and depletion of finite resources. Haiying Liu, professor of economics, explains how globalization results in more environmental stress in her piece “Impact of governance and globalization on natural resources volatility”. In this piece she writes, “In addition to natural resources exported from the region, the technical capability required to explore natural resources is also dependent on economic globalization. Environmental pressure increases as

9048-506: The park, although generally individuals are not as large as in older parks in the Mount Lofty Ranges like Belair National Park but will continue to be a problem unless managed. Over the last twenty years accessible areas of the gorge have been revegetated by contractors working for National Parks SA. The oldest area of revegetation in the park was conducted with tubestock, predominantly of eucalypts. Recent efforts have focused on

9152-427: The potential negative effects gain the cooperation of the local people. Advantageous factors are primarily in economic development establishments, such as health centers, police departments, and schools, that the government may not provide. However, these advantages are not always distributed evenly among local populations, and the income generated from extracting natural resources can result in internal conflict within

9256-584: The resources can become depleted. According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization , around 33% of the Earth's soils are presently classified as moderately to highly degraded, with projections indicating that more than 90% could face degradation by the year 2050 and thus cause significant economic consequences. With such rate of erosion of fertile soil, agricultural commodity prices tend to increase significantly. The connection between

9360-444: The river. 4 hr loop, 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) loop (Gate 6). This rocky trail descends steeply from the Sundews Lookout to the bottom of the gorge, and then follows the river downstream for a short distance before returning up the steep slopes of the gorge to the ridge and then the car park. Climbing is permitted on the designated cliff area near Gate 10. Specific skills and equipment are required. Climbers are required to contact

9464-442: The shifting plant and animal habitats tied to agriculture, wildlife, and ceremonial species, as well as the loss of territory and resources as a result of US settler colonialism, will make it harder to adjust.” Settler societies often view the land as a commodity to be exploited for economic gain, leading to the establishment of extractive industries such as mining, logging, and agriculture on indigenous territories. This exploitation

9568-821: The standards and terminology of protected areas took place at the International Conference for the Protection of Fauna and Flora in London. At the 1962 First World Conference on National Parks in Seattle the effect the Industrial Revolution had had on the world's natural environment was acknowledged, and the need to preserve it for future generations was established. Since then, it has been an international commitment on behalf of both governments and non-government organisations to maintain

9672-538: The supporters was activist and performing artists Dallas Goldtooth of the Dakota tribe. Goldtooth highlighted the importance of social media in modern protests saying, “social media allowed immediate direct one-on-one access and kind of this perception of unfiltered access – unfiltered access to what was happening on the ground" The movement was characterized by nonviolent protests, prayer ceremonies, and acts of civil disobedience, as well as legal challenges aimed at halting

9776-653: The term ' other effective area-based conservation measures ' was defined as "a geographically defined area other than a Protected Area, which is governed and managed in ways that achieve positive and sustained long-term outcomes for the in situ conservation of biodiversity, with associated ecosystem functions and services and where applicable, cultural, spiritual, socio-economic, and other locally relevant values." Other effective area-based conservation measures complement protected areas across landscapes, seascapes, and river basins. Protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures are referenced together in Target 3 of

9880-578: The then Department for Environment and Heritage which established the Onkaparinga River Recreation Park in 1985. In 1993, all of the land east of Main South Road (known as the gorge section’) was removed from the recreation park and constituted as the Onkaparinga River National Park. For managerial and administrative purposes, the recreation park and the national park are known collectively as

9984-506: The tiger, dhole ( Cuon alpinus ), Binturong , clouded leopard and Tibetan fox ( Vulpes ferrilata ) . Also found to be prevalent were the large herbivore species: Asiatic water buffalo Bubalus arnee , golden langur , musk deer , and Asian elephant . The maintenance of these charismatic megafauna and other threatened species can be attributed to the intensity of Bhutan's management of its protected areas and its local communities' commitment to preserving them. The National Heritage List

10088-429: The unequal distribution of benefits and burdens associated with resource exploitation, with marginalized communities often bearing the environmental and social costs of resource extraction while multinational corporations and rich nations reap the profits When a mining company enters a developing country in the global south to extract raw materials, advocating the advantages of the industry's presence and minimizing

10192-515: The unequal power dynamics at play. Resistance movements often demand not only environmental justice but also fair compensation, employment opportunities, and community development initiatives. Solidarity networks, both within countries and internationally, have been crucial in amplifying the voices of affected communities and exerting pressure on governments and corporations to adopt more sustainable and equitable practices. Despite facing significant challenges, these movements continue to inspire hope for

10296-527: The western slopes of Mount Lebanon’s mountain range and has passed laws to protect environmental sites at the national level, including nature reserves, forests, and Hima (local community-based conservation), with some of these sites having acquired one or more international designations: There are three biosphere reserves in Lebanon that have been designated by the UNESCO : O Parks, Wildlife, and Recreation

10400-520: The world's land surface area (excluding Antarctica). For waters under national jurisdiction beyond inland waters, there are 14,688 Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), covering approximately 10.2% of coastal and marine areas and 4.12% of global ocean areas. In contrast, only 0.25% of the world's oceans beyond national jurisdiction are covered by MPAs. In recent years, the 30 by 30 initiative has targeted to protect 30% of ocean territory and 30% of land territory worldwide by 2030; this has been adopted by

10504-657: The ‘Onkaparinga River Reserve’. The lower reaches of the Onkaparinga River were inhabited by the Kaurna Aboriginal people, and the name of the river is taken from the Kaurna name meaning chief. European settlement and farming in the district began about 1840 leading to the rapid displacement of the Aboriginal inhabitants. Kaurna people still have strong ties to the area through cultural practices and religious beliefs. The town of Noarlunga (renamed Old Noarlunga )

10608-505: Was intended to transport crude oil from North Dakota to Illinois, traversing ancestral lands and sacred sites of the Standing Rock Sioux Tribe, as well as posing potential threats to water sources, including the Missouri River, which serves as a vital water supply for the tribe and millions of others downstream. The resistance movement, which began in 2016, brought together indigenous activists, environmentalists, and allies from across

10712-777: Was quoted saying, “The river forms part of our spirit and culture. If the river dies, so does our human dignity, now this river is doomed. The colour of the water is changing, and the same devastation in other mining areas is beginning to be reproduced here in the Nanay. Local communities, including farmers and indigenous groups, have vehemently opposed the project due to concerns of water contamination and depletion. The proposed mining operation, led by multinational corporations, has been met with widespread demonstrations, blockades, and legal challenges. These protests underscore broader issues of environmental protection and indigenous rights, as communities seek to safeguard their lands and livelihoods from

10816-501: Was the service centre with farm produce being transported 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) down river to Port Noarlunga. The vegetation of the park has been greatly perturbed by human activity, but remnant patches remain. The most intact area is the Hardy's Scrub section of the reserve. 160 years of livestock grazing, timber harvesting and cropping has cleared most of the reserve of native understorey species and in many areas invasive grasses are

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