A charitable organization or charity is an organization whose primary objectives are philanthropy and social well-being (e.g. educational , religious or other activities serving the public interest or common good ).
136-899: The Odessa Committee , officially known as the Society for the Support of Jewish Farmers and Artisans in Syria and Palestine , was a charitable , pre- Zionist organization in the Russian Empire , which supported immigration to the Biblical Land of Israel , then a part of the Ottoman Empire . The pogroms of 1881-1884 and the May Laws of 1882 gave impetus to political activism among Russian Jews and mass emigration. More than two million Jews fled Russia between 1881 and 1920,
272-627: A Board of Taxation inquiry to consult with charities on the bill. However, due to widespread criticism from charities, the government abandoned the bill. Subsequently, the government introduced the Extension of Charitable Purpose Act 2004 . This act did not attempt to codify the definition of a charitable purpose but rather aimed to clarify that certain purposes were charitable, resolving legal doubts surrounding their charitable status. Among these purposes were childcare, self-help groups, and closed/contemplative religious orders. To publicly raise funds,
408-573: A Breton. Israel and "a certain Frank" drew a board game called " Gospel Dice " for an Irish bishop, Dub Innse, who took it home to Bangor . Æthelstan's court played a crucial role in the origins of the English monastic reform movement. Few prose narrative sources survive from Æthelstan's reign, but it produced an abundance of poetry, much of it Norse-influenced praise of the King in grandiose terms, such as
544-714: A CHY number from the Revenue Commissioners, a CRO number from the Companies Registration Office , and a charity number from the Charities Regulator. The Irish Nonprofits Database was created by Irish Nonprofits Knowledge Exchange (INKEx) to serve as a repository for regulatory and voluntarily disclosed information about Irish public benefit nonprofits. Charitable organizations in Nigeria are registerable under "Part C" of
680-641: A Welsh poet foresaw the day when the British would rise up against their Saxon oppressors and drive them into the sea. According to William of Malmesbury, after the Hereford meeting Æthelstan went on to expel the Cornish from Exeter , fortify its walls, and fix the Cornish boundary at the River Tamar . This account is regarded sceptically by historians, however, as Cornwall had been under English rule since
816-403: A charitable organization (and of charity) varies between countries and in some instances regions of the country. The regulation , the tax treatment, and the way in which charity law affects charitable organizations also vary. Charitable organizations may not use any of their funds to profit individual persons or entities. However, some charitable organizations have come under scrutiny for spending
952-628: A charity in Australia must register in each Australian jurisdiction in which it intends to raise funds. For example, in Queensland, charities must register with the Queensland Office of Fair Trading . Additionally, any charity fundraising online must obtain approval from every Australian jurisdiction that mandates such approval. Currently, these jurisdictions include New South Wales, Queensland, Victoria, Tasmania, Western Australia, and
1088-657: A charity in various European countries and the United States that provided most of the funding. After arduous negotiations, the Russian government approved the establishment of the "Society for the Support of Jewish Farmers and Artisans in Syria and Palestine" early in 1890. It was based in Odessa (now in Ukraine ), headed by Leon Pinsker , and dedicated to practical aspects of establishing Jewish agricultural settlements in
1224-575: A complex set of reliefs and exemptions from taxation in the UK. These include reliefs and exemptions in relation to income tax , capital gains tax , inheritance tax , stamp duty land tax , and value added tax . These tax exemptions have led to criticisms that private schools are able to use charitable status as a tax avoidance technique rather than offering a genuine charitable good. The Transparency of Lobbying, Non-party Campaigning and Trade Union Administration Act 2014 subjects charities to regulation by
1360-409: A disproportionate amount of their income to pay the salaries of their leadership. Financial figures (e.g. tax refund, revenue from fundraising, revenue from the sale of goods and services or revenue from investment) are indicators to assess the financial sustainability of a charity, especially to charity evaluators . This information can impact a charity's reputation with donors and societies, and thus
1496-577: A division that gave the Anglo-Saxons western Mercia, and eastern Mercia to the Vikings. In the 890s, renewed Viking attacks were successfully fought off by Alfred, assisted by his son (and Æthelstan's father) Edward and Æthelred, Lord of the Mercians . Æthelred ruled English Mercia under Alfred and was married to his daughter Æthelflæd . Alfred died in 899 and was succeeded by Edward. Æthelwold ,
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#17327726347101632-495: A gift, and in his covering letter he wrote: "we know you value relics more than earthly treasure". Æthelstan was also a generous donor of manuscripts and relics to churches and monasteries. His reputation was so great that some monastic scribes later falsely claimed that their institutions had been beneficiaries of his largesse. He was especially devoted to the cult of St. Cuthbert in Chester-le-Street, and his gifts to
1768-476: A great victory. A generation later, the chronicler Æthelweard reported that it was popularly remembered as "the great battle", and it sealed Æthelstan's posthumous reputation as "victorious because of God" (in the words of the homilist Ælfric of Eynsham ). The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle abandoned its usual terse style in favour of a heroic poem vaunting the great victory , employing imperial language to present Æthelstan as ruler of an empire of Britain. The site of
1904-516: A growing philosophical debate between those advocating for state intervention and those believing that private charities should provide welfare. The political economist, Reverend Thomas Malthus (1766–1834), criticized poor relief for paupers on economic and moral grounds and proposed leaving charity entirely to the private sector. His views became highly influential and informed the Victorian laissez-faire attitude toward state intervention for
2040-463: A large scale so late in the year. He seems to have been slow to react, and an old Latin poem preserved by William of Malmesbury accused him of having "languished in sluggish leisure". The allies plundered English territory while Æthelstan took his time gathering a West Saxon and Mercian army. However, Michael Wood praises his caution, arguing that unlike Harold in 1066, he did not allow himself to be provoked into precipitate action. When he marched north,
2176-618: A list of charitable purposes in the Charitable Uses Act 1601 (also known as the Statute of Elizabeth), which had been interpreted and expanded into a considerable body of case law. In Commissioners for Special Purposes of Income Tax v. Pemsel (1891), Lord McNaughten identified four categories of charity which could be extracted from the Charitable Uses Act and which were the accepted definition of charity prior to
2312-572: A long tradition in Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, and Sikhism. Charities provided education, health, housing, and even prisons. Almshouses were established throughout Europe in the Early Middle Ages to provide a place of residence for the poor, old, and distressed people; King Athelstan of England (reigned 924–939) founded the first recorded almshouse in York in the 10th century. During
2448-459: A monarchy invigorated by success and adopting the trappings of a new political order. The style influenced architects of the late tenth-century monastic reformers educated at Æthelstan's court such as Æthelwold and Dunstan, and became a hallmark of the movement. After "Æthelstan A", charters became more simple, but the hermeneutic style returned in the charters of Eadwig and Edgar. The historian W. H. Stevenson commented in 1898: The object of
2584-431: A much wider area, a change probably introduced by Æthelstan to deal with the problems of governing his extended realm. One of the ealdormen, who was also called Æthelstan , governed the eastern Danelaw territory of East Anglia, the largest and wealthiest province of England. He became so powerful that he was later known as Æthelstan Half King. Several of the ealdormen who witnessed charters had Scandinavian names, and while
2720-425: A register of charities that have completed formal registration (see below). Organizations applying must meet the specific legal requirements summarized below, have filing requirements with their regulator, and are subject to inspection or other forms of review. The oldest charity in the UK is The King's School, Canterbury , established in 597 AD. Charitable organizations, including charitable trusts, are eligible for
2856-521: A role in European politics as Æthelstan, and he arranged the marriages of several of his sisters to continental rulers. By the ninth century the many kingdoms of the early Anglo-Saxon period had been consolidated into four: Wessex, Mercia, Northumbria and East Anglia . In the eighth century, Mercia had been the most powerful kingdom in southern England, but in the early ninth, Wessex became dominant under Æthelstan's great-great-grandfather, Egbert . In
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#17327726347102992-451: A scarlet cloak, a belt set with gems, and a sword with a gilded scabbard. Medieval Latin scholar Michael Lapidge and historian Michael Wood see this as designating Æthelstan as a potential heir at a time when the claim of Alfred's nephew, Æthelwold, to the throne represented a threat to the succession of Alfred's direct line, but historian Janet Nelson suggests that it should be seen in the context of conflict between Alfred and Edward in
3128-416: A scribe known to historians as " Æthelstan A ", showing an unprecedented degree of royal control over an important activity. Unlike earlier and later charters, "Æthelstan A" provides full details of the date and place of adoption and an unusually long witness list, providing crucial information for historians. After "Æthelstan A" retired or died, charters reverted to a simpler form, suggesting that they had been
3264-533: A third wife, Eadgifu , probably after putting Ælfflæd aside. Eadgifu also had two sons, the future kings Edmund and Eadred . Edward had several daughters, perhaps as many as nine. Æthelstan's later education was probably at the Mercian court of his aunt and uncle, Æthelflæd and Æthelred, and it is likely the young prince gained his military training in the Mercian campaigns to conquer the Danelaw . According to
3400-513: A time in 925 when his authority had not yet been recognised outside Mercia, was witnessed only by Mercian bishops. In the view of historians David Dumville and Janet Nelson he may have agreed not to marry or have heirs in order to gain acceptance. However, Sarah Foot ascribes his decision to remain unmarried to "a religiously motivated determination on chastity as a way of life". Æthelstan's coronation took place on 4 September 925 at Kingston upon Thames , perhaps due to its symbolic location on
3536-476: A transcript dating from 1304, in 925 Æthelstan gave a charter of privileges to St Oswald's Priory, Gloucester , where his aunt and uncle were buried, "according to a pact of paternal piety which he formerly pledged with Æthelred, ealdorman of the people of the Mercians". When Edward took direct control of Mercia after Æthelflæd's death in 918, Æthelstan may have represented his father's interests there. Edward died at Farndon in northern Mercia on 17 July 924, and
3672-613: Is a specific type of charity with its primary purpose being to alleviate suffering in the community, whether due to poverty, sickness, or disability. Examples of institutions that might qualify include hospices, providers of subsidized housing, and certain not-for-profit aged care services. Charities in Canada need to be registered with the Charities Directorate of the Canada Revenue Agency . According to
3808-597: Is dismissed by most historians. Edwin might have fled England after an unsuccessful rebellion against his brother's rule, and his death may have put an end to Winchester's opposition. Edward the Elder had conquered the Danish territories in east Mercia and East Anglia with the assistance of Æthelflæd and her husband Æthelred, but when Edward died the Danish king Sihtric still ruled the Viking Kingdom of York (formerly
3944-502: Is known about Ecgwynn, and she is not named in any contemporary source. Medieval chroniclers gave varying descriptions of her rank: one described her as an ignoble consort of inferior birth, while others described her birth as noble. Modern historians also disagree about her status. Simon Keynes and Richard Abels believe that leading figures in Wessex were unwilling to accept Æthelstan as king in 924 partly because his mother had been Edward
4080-511: Is operated by the Ministry of Social and Family Development . The legislation governing charitable activities and the process of obtaining charitable organization status is regulated by Ukraine's Civil Code and the Law of Ukraine on Charitable Activities and Charitable Organizations. According to Ukrainian law, there are three forms of charitable organizations: The Ministry of Justice of Ukraine
4216-461: Is the gulf dividing its exalted aspirations from his spasmodic impact." In his view, "The legislative activity of Æthelstan's reign has rightly been dubbed 'feverish' ... But the extant results are, frankly, a mess. In the view of Simon Keynes, however, "Without any doubt the most impressive aspect of King Æthelstan's government is the vitality of his law-making", which shows him driving his officials to do their duties and insisting on respect for
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4352-551: Is the main registration authority for charitable organization registration and constitution. Individuals and legal entities, except for public authorities and local governments , can be the founders of charitable organizations. Charitable societies and charitable foundations may have, in addition to founders, other participants who have joined them as prescribed by the charters of such charitable associations or charitable foundations. Aliens (non-Ukrainian citizens and legal entities, corporations, or non-governmental organizations) can be
4488-476: Is the most common form of organization within the voluntary sector in England and Wales. This is essentially a contractual arrangement between individuals who have agreed to come together to form an organization for a particular purpose. An unincorporated association will normally have a constitution or set of rules as its governing document, which will deal with matters such as the appointment of office bearers and
4624-536: Is very easy to set up and requires very little documentation. However, for an organization under the statute of loi 1901 to be considered a charity, it has to file with the authorities to come under the label of "association d'utilité publique", which means "NGO acting for the public interest". This label gives the NGO some tax exemptions. In Hungary , charitable organizations are referred to as "public-benefit organizations" ( Hungarian : közhasznú szervezet ). The term
4760-462: The Battle of Tettenhall . Æthelred died in 911 and was succeeded as ruler of Mercia by his widow Æthelflæd. Over the next decade, Edward and Æthelflæd conquered Viking Mercia and East Anglia. Æthelflæd died in 918 and was briefly succeeded by her daughter Ælfwynn , but in the same year Edward deposed her and took direct control of Mercia. When Edward died in 924, he controlled all of England south of
4896-686: The Charities Act 2006 : Charities in England and Wales—such as Age UK, the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds ( RSPB ) and the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals ( RSPCA ) – must comply with the 2011 Act regulating matters such as charity reports and accounts and fundraising. As of 2011 , there are several types of legal structures for a charity in England and Wales: The unincorporated association
5032-768: The Companies and Allied Matters Act, 2020 . Under the law, the Corporate Affairs Commission, Nigeria , being the official Nigerian Corporate Registry, is empowered to maintain and regulate the formation, operation, and dissolution of charitable organizations in Nigeria. Charitable organizations in Nigeria are exempted under §25(c) of the Companies Income Tax Act (CITA) Cap. C21 LFN 2004 (as amended) , which exempts from income tax corporate organizations engaged wholly in ecclesiastical, charitable, or educational activities. Similarly, §3 of
5168-485: The Electoral Commission in the run-up to a general election. Section 1 of the Charities Act 2011 provides the definition in England and Wales: The Charities Act 2011 provides the following list of charitable purposes: A charity must also provide a public benefit. Before the Charities Act 2006 , which introduced the definition now contained in the 2011 Act, the definition of charity arose from
5304-576: The Enlightenment era , charitable and philanthropic activity among voluntary associations and affluent benefactors became a widespread cultural practice. Societies, gentlemen's clubs , and mutual associations began to flourish in England , with the upper classes increasingly adopting a philanthropic attitude toward the disadvantaged. In England, this new social activism led to the establishment of charitable organizations, which proliferated from
5440-651: The Humber . The Viking king Sihtric ruled the Kingdom of York in southern Northumbria, but Ealdred maintained Anglo-Saxon rule in at least part of the former kingdom of Bernicia from his base in Bamburgh in northern Northumbria. Constantine II ruled Scotland, apart from the southwest, which was the British Kingdom of Strathclyde . Wales was divided into a number of small kingdoms, including Deheubarth in
5576-500: The Magdalen Hospital to rehabilitate prostitutes . These organizations were funded by subscriptions and operated as voluntary associations. They raised public awareness about their activities through the emerging popular press and generally enjoyed high social regard. Some charities received state recognition in the form of a royal charter . Charities also began to take on campaigning roles, championing causes and lobbying
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5712-533: The Old English meaning of his name, "noble stone". Lapidge and Wood see the poem as a commemoration of Alfred's ceremony by one of his leading scholars, John the Old Saxon . In Michael Wood's view, the poem confirms the truth of William of Malmesbury's account of the ceremony. Wood also suggests that Æthelstan may have been the first English king to be groomed from childhood as an intellectual, and that John
5848-893: The Polish Historical Society , and the Polish chapter of the Wikimedia Foundation . The legal framework in Singapore is regulated by the Singapore Charities Act (Chapter 37). Charities in Singapore must be registered with the Charities Directorate of the Ministry of Community Development, Youth and Sports . One can also find specific organizations that are members of the National Council of Social Service (NCSS), which
5984-595: The Value Added Tax Act (VATA) Cap. V1 LFN 2004 (as amended) , and the 1st Schedule to the VATA on exempted Goods and Services goods zero-rates goods and services purchased by any ecclesiastical, charitable, or educational institutions in furtherance of their charitable mandates. A public benefit organization ( Polish : organizacja pożytku publicznego , often abbreviated as OPP) is a term used in Polish law . It
6120-481: The local government . Charities at the time, including the Charity Organization Society (established in 1869), tended to discriminate between the "deserving poor", who would be provided with suitable relief, and the "underserving" or "improvident poor", who was regarded as the cause of their woes due to their idleness. Charities tended to oppose the provision of welfare by the state, due to
6256-477: The 890s, and might reflect an intention to divide the realm between his son and his grandson after his death. Historian Martin Ryan goes further, suggesting that at the end of his life Alfred may have favoured Æthelstan rather than Edward as his successor. An acrostic poem praising prince "Adalstan", and prophesying a great future for him, has been interpreted by Lapidge as referring to the young Æthelstan, punning on
6392-593: The Anglo-Saxon peoples, and in effect overlord of Britain. His successes inaugurated what John Maddicott , in his history of the origins of the English Parliament, calls the imperial phase of English kingship between about 925 and 975, when rulers from Wales and Scotland attended the assemblies of English kings and witnessed their charters. Æthelstan tried to reconcile the aristocracy in his new territory of Northumbria to his rule. He lavished gifts on
6528-471: The Anglo-Saxon period, both socially and politically. Churchmen attended royal feasts as well as meetings of the Royal Council. During Æthelstan's reign these relations became even closer, especially as the archbishopric of Canterbury had come under West Saxon jurisdiction since Edward the Elder annexed Mercia, and Æthelstan's conquests brought the northern church under the control of a southern king for
6664-741: The Australian Capital Territory. Numerous Australian charities have appealed to federal, state, and territory governments to establish uniform legislation enabling charities registered in one state or territory to raise funds in all other Australian jurisdictions. The Australian Charities and Not-For-Profits Commission (ACNC) commenced operations in December 2012. It regulates approximately 56,000 non-profit organizations with tax-exempt status, along with around 600,000 other NPOs in total, seeking to standardize state-based fund-raising laws. A Public Benevolent Institution (PBI)
6800-528: The Brunanburh poem. Sarah Foot even makes a case that Beowulf may have been composed in Æthelstan's circle. Æthelstan's court was the centre of a revival of the elaborate hermeneutic style of later Latin writers, influenced by the West Saxon scholar Aldhelm ( c. 639 – 709), and by early tenth-century French monasticism. Foreign scholars at Æthelstan's court such as Israel
6936-477: The Canada Revenue Agency: A registered charity is an organization established and operated for charitable purposes. It must devote its resources to charitable activities. The charity must be a resident in Canada and cannot use its income to benefit its members. A charity also has to meet a public benefit test. To qualify under this test, an organization must show that: To register as a charity,
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#17327726347107072-716: The Charities Act (2009) legislated the establishment of a "Charities Regulatory Authority", and the Charities Regulator was subsequently created via a ministerial order in 2014. This was the first legal framework for charity registration in Ireland. The Charities Regulator maintains a database of organizations that have been granted charitable tax exemption—a list previously maintained by the Revenue Commissioners . Such organizations would have
7208-461: The Elder's concubine. However, Barbara Yorke and Sarah Foot argue that allegations that Æthelstan was illegitimate were a product of the dispute over the succession, and that there is no reason to doubt that she was Edward's legitimate wife. She may have been related to St Dunstan . William of Malmesbury wrote that Alfred the Great honoured his young grandson with a ceremony in which he gave him
7344-573: The Elder's younger brother, Æthelweard . The battle was reported in the Annals of Ulster : A great, lamentable and horrible battle was cruelly fought between the Saxons and the Northmen, in which several thousands of Northmen, who are uncounted, fell, but their king Amlaib [Olaf], escaped with a few followers. A large number of Saxons fell on the other side, but Æthelstan, king of the Saxons, enjoyed
7480-477: The Grammarian were practitioners. The style was characterised by long, convoluted sentences and a predilection for rare words and neologisms. The "Æthelstan A" charters were written in hermeneutic Latin. In the view of Simon Keynes it is no coincidence that they first appear immediately after the king had for the first time united England under his rule, and they show a high level of intellectual attainment and
7616-770: The Palestine. It helped to establish Rehovot and Hadera and rehabilitate Mishmar HaYarden in early 1890s. Before the First Zionist Congress in 1897, the Odessa Committee counted over 4,000 members. When the Zionist Organization was founded (1897), most of the Hovevei Zion societies joined it. The Odessa Committee continued to function until it was closed in 1913. Charitable organization The legal definition of
7752-438: The Viking part of Ireland, and he promptly launched a bid for the former Norse kingdom of York. Individually Olaf and Constantine were too weak to oppose Æthelstan, but together they could hope to challenge the dominance of Wessex. In the autumn they joined with the Strathclyde Britons under Owain to invade England. Medieval campaigning was normally conducted in the summer, and Æthelstan could hardly have expected an invasion on such
7888-417: The Vikings in 919. He made a confraternity agreement with the clergy of Dol Cathedral in Brittany, who were then in exile in central France, and they sent him the relics of Breton saints, apparently hoping for his patronage. The contacts resulted in a surge in interest in England for commemorating Breton saints. One of the most notable scholars at Æthelstan's court was Israel the Grammarian , who may have been
8024-414: The Welsh did not join him, and they did not fight on either side. The two sides met at the Battle of Brunanburh , resulting in an overwhelming victory for Æthelstan, supported by his young half-brother, the future King Edmund. Olaf escaped back to Dublin with the remnant of his forces, while Constantine lost a son. The English also suffered heavy losses, including two of Æthelstan's cousins, sons of Edward
8160-499: The abbey's annalist, Folcuin—who wrongly believed that Edwin had been king — thought he had fled England "driven by some disturbance in his kingdom". Folcuin stated that Æthelstan sent alms to the abbey for his dead brother and received monks from the abbey graciously when they came to England, although Folcuin did not realise that Æthelstan died before the monks made the journey in 944. The twelfth century chronicler Symeon of Durham said that Æthelstan ordered Edwin to be drowned, but this
8296-419: The advent of the Internet, charitable organizations established a presence on online social media platforms and began initiatives such as cyber-based humanitarian crowdfunding , exemplified by platforms like GoFundMe . The definition of charity in Australia is derived from English common law, originally from the Charitable Uses Act 1601 , and then through several centuries of case law based upon it. In 2002,
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#17327726347108432-456: The advice of Wulfhelm and his bishops. The first asserts the importance of paying tithes to the church. The second enforces the duty of charity on Æthelstan's reeves, specifying the amount to be given to the poor and requiring reeves to free one penal slave annually. His religious outlook is shown in a wider sacralisation of the law in his reign. The later codes show his concern with threats to social order, especially robbery, which he regarded as
8568-454: The approval of the king, but they were treated as guidelines which could be adapted and added to at the local level, rather than a fixed canon of regulations, and customary oral law was also important in the Anglo-Saxon period. More legal texts survive from Æthelstan's reign than from any other tenth-century English king. The earliest appear to be his tithe edict and the "Ordinance on Charities". Four legal codes were adopted at Royal Councils in
8704-609: The battle is uncertain, however, and over thirty sites have been suggested, with Bromborough on the Wirral the most favoured among historians. Historians disagree over the significance of the battle. Alex Woolf describes it as a " pyrrhic victory " for Æthelstan: the campaign seems to have ended in a stalemate, his power appears to have declined, and after he died Olaf acceded to the kingdom of Northumbria without resistance. Alfred Smyth describes it as "the greatest battle in Anglo-Saxon history", but he also states that its consequences beyond Æthelstan's reign have been overstated. In
8840-421: The border between Wessex and Mercia. He was crowned by the Archbishop of Canterbury , Athelm , who probably designed or organised a new ordo (religious order of service) in which the king wore a crown for the first time instead of a helmet. The new ordo was influenced by West Frankish liturgy and in turn became one of the sources of the medieval French ordo . Opposition seems to have continued even after
8976-453: The charity's financial gains. Charitable organizations often depend partly on donations from businesses. Such donations to charitable organizations represent a major form of corporate philanthropy. To meet the exempt organizational test requirements, a charity has to be exclusively organized and operated, and to receive and pass the exemption test, a charitable organization must follow the public interest and all exempt income should be for
9112-442: The circulation and production of books, of the shattered ecclesiastical culture". He was renowned in his own day for his piety and promotion of sacred learning. His interest in education, and his reputation as a collector of books and relics, attracted a cosmopolitan group of ecclesiastical scholars to his court, particularly Bretons and Irish. Æthelstan gave extensive aid to Breton clergy who had fled Brittany following its conquest by
9248-400: The community there included Bede 's Lives of Cuthbert. He commissioned it especially to present to Chester-le Street, and out of all manuscripts he gave to a religious foundation which survive, it is the only one which was wholly written in England during his reign. It has a portrait of Æthelstan presenting the book to Cuthbert, the earliest surviving manuscript portrait of an English king. In
9384-424: The compilers of these charters was to express their meaning by the use of the greatest possible number of words and by the choice of the most grandiloquent, bombastic words they could find. Every sentence is so overloaded by the heaping up of unnecessary words that the meaning is almost buried out of sight. The invocation with its appended clauses, opening with pompous and partly alliterative words, will proceed amongst
9520-407: The coronation or witness any of Æthelstan's known charters until 928. After that, he witnessed fairly regularly until his resignation in 931 but was listed in a lower position than he was entitled to by his seniority. In 933 Edwin was drowned in a shipwreck in the North Sea. His cousin, Adelolf, Count of Boulogne , took his body for burial at the Abbey of Saint Bertin in Saint-Omer . According to
9656-566: The coronation. According to William of Malmesbury, an otherwise unknown nobleman called Alfred plotted to blind Æthelstan on account of his supposed illegitimacy, although it is unknown whether he aimed to make himself king or was acting on behalf of Edwin, Ælfweard's younger brother. Blinding would have been a sufficient disability to render Æthelstan ineligible for kingship without incurring the odium attached to murder. Tensions between Æthelstan and Winchester seem to have continued for some years. The Bishop of Winchester , Frithestan , did not attend
9792-520: The development of social housing , and Andrew Carnegie (1835–1919) exemplified the large-scale philanthropy of the newly rich in industrialized America. In Gospel of Wealth (1889), Carnegie wrote about the responsibilities of great wealth and the importance of social justice. He established public libraries throughout English-speaking countries and contributed large sums to schools and universities. A little over ten years after his retirement, Carnegie had given away over 90% of his fortune. Towards
9928-691: The early 930s at Grateley in Hampshire, Exeter, Faversham in Kent, and Thunderfield in Surrey. Local legal texts survive from London and Kent, and one concerning the 'Dunsæte' on the Welsh border probably also dates to Æthelstan's reign. In the view of the historian of English law Patrick Wormald , the laws must have been written by Wulfhelm , who succeeded Athelm as Archbishop of Canterbury in 926. Other historians see Wulfhelm's role as less important, giving
10064-699: The end of the 19th century, with the advent of the New Liberalism and the innovative work of Charles Booth in documenting working-class life in London , attitudes towards poverty began to change. This led to the first social liberal welfare reforms , including the provision of old age pensions and free school-meals. During the 20th century, charitable organizations such as Oxfam (established in 1947), Care International , and Amnesty International expanded greatly, becoming large, multinational non-governmental organizations with very large budgets. With
10200-415: The end of the ninth century, was also written in the vernacular, and he expected his ealdormen to learn it. His code was strongly influenced by Carolingian law going back to Charlemagne in such areas as treason, peace-keeping, organisation of the hundreds and judicial ordeal . It remained in force throughout the tenth century, and Æthelstan's codes were built on this foundation. Legal codes required
10336-417: The enlargement of the kingdom under Edward the Elder gave way to large bodies attended by bishops, ealdormen, thegns , magnates from distant areas, and independent rulers who had submitted to his authority. Frank Stenton sees Æthelstan's councils as "national assemblies", which did much to break down the provincialism that was a barrier to the unification of England. John Maddicott goes further, seeing them as
10472-524: The ensuing events are unclear. Ælfweard, Edward's eldest son by Ælfflæd, had ranked above Æthelstan in attesting a charter in 901, and Edward may have intended Ælfweard to be his successor as king, either of Wessex only or of the whole kingdom. If Edward had intended his realms to be divided after his death, his deposition of Ælfwynn in Mercia in 918 may have been intended to prepare the way for Æthelstan's succession as king of Mercia. When Edward died, Æthelstan
10608-523: The extent, either of my wishes, or of the provisions laid down at Grateley, and my councillors say that I have suffered this too long." In desperation the Council tried a different strategy, offering an amnesty to thieves if they paid compensation to their victims. The problem of powerful families protecting criminal relatives was to be solved by expelling them to other parts of the realm. This strategy did not last long, and at Thunderfield Æthelstan returned to
10744-472: The federal government initiated an inquiry into the definition of a charity. The inquiry proposed a statutory definition of a charity, based on the principles developed through case law. This led to the Charities Bill 2003 , which included limitations on the involvement of charities in political campaigning, an unwelcome departure from the case law as perceived by many charities. The government appointed
10880-401: The first Model Dwellings Company – one of a group of organizations that sought to improve the housing conditions of the working classes by building new homes for them, all the while receiving a competitive rate of return on any investment. This was one of the first housing associations , a philanthropic endeavor that flourished in the second half of the nineteenth century, brought about by
11016-453: The first time. Æthelstan appointed members of his own circle to bishoprics in Wessex, possibly to counter the influence of the Bishop of Winchester, Frithestan. One of the king's mass-priests (priests employed to say Mass in his household), Ælfheah , became Bishop of Wells , while another, Beornstan , succeeded Frithestan as Bishop of Winchester. Beornstan was succeeded by another member of
11152-526: The fleet raided Caithness , then probably part of the Norse kingdom of Orkney. No battles are recorded during the campaign, and chronicles do not record its outcome. By September, however, he was back in the south of England at Buckingham , where Constantine witnessed a charter as subregulus , thus acknowledging Æthelstan's overlordship. In 935 a charter was attested by Constantine, Owain of Strathclyde, Hywel Dda, Idwal Foel, and Morgan ap Owain. At Christmas of
11288-500: The founders and members of philanthropic organizations in Ukraine. All funds received by a charitable organization and used for charitable purposes are exempt from taxation, but obtaining non-profit status from the tax authority is necessary. Legalization is required for international charitable funds to operate in Ukraine. Charity law in the UK varies among (i) England and Wales , (ii) Scotland and (iii) Northern Ireland , but
11424-693: The fundamental principles are the same. Most organizations that are charities are required to be registered with the appropriate regulator for their jurisdiction, but significant exceptions apply so that many organizations are bona fide charities but do not appear on a public register. The registers are maintained by the Charity Commission for England and Wales and by the Office of the Scottish Charity Regulator for Scotland. The Charity Commission for Northern Ireland maintains
11560-560: The government for legislative changes. This included organized campaigns against the mistreatment of animals and children, as well as the successful campaign in the early 19th century to end the slave trade throughout the British Empire and its extensive sphere of influence. (However, this process was quite lengthy, concluding when slavery in Saudi Arabia was abolished slavery in 1962.) The Enlightenment era also witnessed
11696-696: The growth of the middle class . Later associations included the Peabody Trust (originating in 1862) and the Guinness Trust (founded in 1890). The principle of philanthropic intention with capitalist return was given the label "five percent philanthropy". There was strong growth in municipal charities. The Brougham Commission led to the Municipal Corporations Act 1835 , which reorganized multiple local charities by incorporating them into single entities under supervision from
11832-455: The hard line, softened by raising the minimum age for the death penalty to fifteen "because he thought it too cruel to kill so many young people and for such small crimes as he understood to be the case everywhere". His reign saw the first introduction of the system of tithing , sworn groups of ten or more men who were jointly responsible for peacekeeping (later known as frankpledge ). Sarah Foot commented that tithing and oath-taking to deal with
11968-573: The head of the list of laity (apart from the kings of Scotland and Strathclyde), showing that their position was regarded as superior to that of the other great men present. The alliance produced peace between Wales and England, and within Wales, lasting throughout Æthelstan's reign, though some Welsh resented the status of their rulers as under-kings, as well as the high level of tribute imposed upon them. In Armes Prydein Vawr (The Great Prophecy of Britain),
12104-509: The king's wise men that was useful and profitable to him". Oda , a future Archbishop of Canterbury, was also close to Æthelstan, who appointed him Bishop of Ramsbury . Oda may have been present at the battle of Brunanburh. Æthelstan was a noted collector of relics, and while this was a common practice at the time, he was marked out by the scale of his collection and the refinement of its contents. The abbot of Saint Samson in Dol sent him some as
12240-514: The law, but also demonstrates the difficulty he had in controlling a troublesome people. Keynes sees the Grateley code as "an impressive piece of legislation" showing the king's determination to maintain social order. In the 970s, Æthelstan's nephew, King Edgar , reformed the monetary system to give Anglo-Saxon England the most advanced currency in Europe, with a good quality silver coinage, which
12376-520: The lay officials worked closely with their diocesan bishop and local abbots, who also attended the king's royal councils. As the first king of all the Anglo-Saxon peoples, Æthelstan needed effective means to govern his extended realm. Building on the foundations of his predecessors, he created the most centralised government that England had yet seen. Previously, some charters had been produced by royal priests and others by members of religious houses, but between 928 and 935 they were produced exclusively by
12512-448: The localities they came from cannot be identified, they were almost certainly the successors of the earls who led Danish armies in the time of Edward the Elder, and who were retained by Æthelstan as his representatives in local government. Beneath the ealdormen, reeves—royal officials who were noble local landowners—were in charge of a town or royal estate. The authority of church and state was not separated in early medieval societies, and
12648-418: The main credit to Æthelstan himself, although the significance placed on the ordeal as an ecclesiastical ritual shows the increased influence of the church. Nicholas Brooks sees the role of the bishops as marking an important stage in the increasing involvement of the church in the making and enforcement of law. The two earliest codes were concerned with clerical matters, and Æthelstan stated that he acted on
12784-509: The marriage alliance, and German names start to appear in English documents, while Cenwald kept up the contacts he had made by subsequent correspondence, helping the transmission of continental ideas about reformed monasticism to England. Æthelstan built on his grandfather's efforts to revive ecclesiastical scholarship, which had fallen to a low state in the second half of the ninth century. John Blair described Æthelstan's achievement as "a determined reconstruction, visible to us especially through
12920-556: The meeting at Eamont Æthelstan summoned the Welsh kings to Hereford, where he imposed a heavy annual tribute and fixed the border between England and Wales in the Hereford area at the River Wye. The dominant figure in Wales was Hywel Dda of Deheubarth, described by the historian of early medieval Wales Thomas Charles-Edwards as "the firmest ally of the 'emperors of Britain' among all the kings of his day". Welsh kings attended Æthelstan's court between 928 and 935 and witnessed charters at
13056-465: The mid-ninth century. Thomas Charles-Edwards describes it as "an improbable story", while historian John Reuben Davies sees it as the suppression of a British revolt and the confinement of the Cornish beyond the Tamar. Æthelstan emphasised his control by establishing a new Cornish see and appointing its first bishop , but Cornwall kept its own culture and language. Æthelstan became the first king of all
13192-609: The middle of the 18th century. This emerging upper-class trend for benevolence resulted in the incorporation of the first charitable organizations. Appalled by the number of abandoned children living on the streets of London , Captain Thomas Coram set up the Foundling Hospital in 1741 to care for these unwanted orphans in Lamb's Conduit Fields, Bloomsbury . This institution, the world's first of its kind, served as
13328-527: The middle of the century, England came under increasing attack from Viking raids, culminating in invasion by the Great Heathen Army in 865. By 878, the Vikings had overrun East Anglia, Northumbria, and Mercia, and nearly conquered Wessex. The West Saxons fought back under Alfred the Great, and achieved a decisive victory at the Battle of Edington . Alfred and the Viking leader Guthrum agreed on
13464-557: The minsters of Beverley , Chester-le-Street and York , emphasising his Christianity. He also purchased the vast territory of Amounderness in Lancashire, and gave it to the Archbishop of York , his most important lieutenant in the region. But he remained a resented outsider, and the northern British kingdoms preferred to ally with the pagan Norse of Dublin. In contrast to his strong control over southern Britain, his position in
13600-479: The most important manifestation of social breakdown. The first of these later codes, issued at Grateley, prescribed harsh penalties, including the death penalty for anyone over twelve years old caught in the act of stealing goods worth more than eight pence. This apparently had little effect, as Æthelstan admitted in the Exeter code: "I King Æthelstan, declare that I have learned that the public peace has not been kept to
13736-495: The north was far more tenuous. In 934 Æthelstan invaded Scotland. His reasons are unclear, and historians give alternative explanations. The death of his half-brother Edwin in 933 might have finally removed factions in Wessex opposed to his rule. Guthfrith, the Norse king of Dublin who had briefly ruled Northumbria, died in 934; any resulting insecurity among the Danes would have given Æthelstan an opportunity to stamp his authority on
13872-408: The north. Whereas Æthelstan was the first English king to achieve lordship over northern Britain, he inherited his authority over the Welsh kings from his father and aunt. In the 910s Gwent acknowledged the lordship of Wessex, and Deheubarth and Gwynedd accepted that of Æthelflæd; following Edward's takeover of Mercia, they transferred their allegiance to him. According to William of Malmesbury, after
14008-889: The north. An entry in the Annals of Clonmacnoise , recording the death in 934 of a ruler who was possibly Ealdred of Bamburgh , suggests another possible explanation, a dispute between Æthelstan and Constantine over control of Bamburgh. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle briefly recorded the expedition without explanation, but the twelfth-century chronicler John of Worcester stated that Constantine had broken his treaty with Æthelstan. Æthelstan set out on his campaign in May 934, accompanied by four Welsh kings: Hywel Dda of Deheubarth, Idwal Foel of Gwynedd, Morgan ap Owain of Gwent, and Tewdwr ap Griffri of Brycheiniog. His retinue also included eighteen bishops and thirteen earls, six of whom were Danes from eastern England. By late June or early July he had reached Chester-le-Street , where he made generous gifts to
14144-523: The organization has to be either incorporated or governed by a legal document called a trust or a constitution. This document has to explain the organization's purposes and structure. Most French charities are registered under the statute of loi d'association de 1901, a type of legal entity for non-profit NGOs. This statute is extremely common in France for any type of group that wants to be institutionalized (sports clubs, book clubs, support groups...), as it
14280-480: The perceived demoralizing effect . Although minimal state involvement was the dominant philosophy of the period, there was still significant government involvement in the form of statutory regulation and even limited funding. Philanthropy became a very fashionable activity among the expanding middle classes in Britain and America. Octavia Hill (1838–1912) and John Ruskin (1819–1900) were important forces behind
14416-507: The poor. During the 19th century, a profusion of charitable organizations emerged to alleviate the awful conditions of the working class in the slums . The Labourer's Friend Society , chaired by Lord Shaftesbury in the United Kingdom in 1830, aimed to improve working-class conditions. It promoted, for example, the allotment of land to laborers for "cottage husbandry", which later became the allotment movement. In 1844, it became
14552-534: The precedent for incorporated associational charities in general. Another notable philanthropist of the Enlightenment era, Jonas Hanway , established The Marine Society in 1756 as the first seafarers' charity, aiming to aid the recruitment of men into the navy . By 1763, the Society had enlisted over 10,000 men, and an Act of Parliament incorporated it in 1772. Hanway also played a key role in founding
14688-455: The problem of theft had its origin in Frankia: "But the equation of theft with disloyalty to Æthelstan's person appears peculiar to him. His preoccupation with theft—tough on theft, tough on the causes of theft—finds no direct parallel in other kings' codes." Historians differ widely regarding Æthelstan's legislation. Patrick Wormald's verdict was harsh: "The hallmark of Æthelstan's law-making
14824-613: The public good as described by the law, and it should demonstrate sufficient transparency in its activities, governance, and finances. Moreover, data has shown that this evidence is pertinent and sensible. Polish charitable organizations with this status include Związek Harcerstwa Polskiego , the Great Orchestra of Christmas Charity , KARTA Center , the Institute of Public Affairs , the Silesian Fantasy Club ,
14960-594: The public interest. For example, in many countries of the Commonwealth , charitable organizations must demonstrate that they provide a public benefit . Until the mid-18th century, charity was mainly distributed through religious structures (such as the English Poor Laws of 1601 ), almshouses , and bequests from the rich. Christianity, Judaism, and Islam incorporated significant charitable elements from their very beginnings, and dāna (alms-giving) has
15096-505: The royal household, also called Ælfheah . Two of the leading figures in the later tenth-century Benedictine monastic reform in Edgar's reign, Dunstan and Æthelwold , served in early life at Æthelstan's court and were ordained as priests by Ælfheah of Winchester at the king's request. According to Æthelwold's biographer, Wulfstan , "Æthelwold spent a long period in the royal palace in the king's inseparable companionship and learned much from
15232-514: The rules governing membership. The organization is not, however, a separate legal entity, so it cannot initiate legal action, borrow money, or enter into contracts in its own name. Its officers can be personally liable if the charity is sued or has debts. Athelstan of England Æthelstan or Athelstan ( / ˈ æ θ əl s t æ n / ; Old English : Æðelstān [ˈæðelstɑːn] ; Old Norse : Aðalsteinn ; lit. ' noble stone ' ; c. 894 – 27 October 939)
15368-580: The same year Owain of Strathclyde was once more at Æthelstan's court along with the Welsh kings, but Constantine was not. His return to England less than two years later would be in very different circumstances. In 934 Olaf Guthfrithson succeeded his father Guthfrith as the Norse King of Dublin. The alliance between the Norse and the Scots was cemented by the marriage of Olaf to Constantine's daughter. By August 937 Olaf had defeated his rivals for control of
15504-582: The son of Æthelred , King Alfred's older brother and predecessor as king, made a bid for power, but was killed at the Battle of the Holme in 902. Little is known of warfare between the English and the Danes over the next few years, but in 909, Edward sent a West Saxon and Mercian army to ravage Northumbria. The following year the Northumbrian Danes attacked Mercia, but suffered a decisive defeat at
15640-476: The south, including London and Kent, but not northern Wessex or other regions. Early in Æthelstan's reign, different styles of coin were issued in each region, but after he conquered York and received the submission of the other British kings, he issued a new coinage, known as the "circumscription cross" type. This advertised his newly exalted status with the inscription, "Rex Totius Britanniae". Examples were minted in Wessex, York, and English Mercia (in Mercia bearing
15776-446: The southern Northumbrian kingdom of Deira ). In January 926, Æthelstan arranged for his only full sister to marry Sihtric. The two kings agreed not to invade each other's territories or to support each other's enemies. The following year Sihtric died, and Æthelstan seized the chance to invade. Guthfrith , a cousin of Sihtric, led a fleet from Dublin to try to take the throne, but Æthelstan easily prevailed. He captured York and received
15912-464: The southwest, Gwent in the southeast, Brycheiniog immediately north of Gwent, and Gwynedd in the north. According to the Anglo-Norman historian William of Malmesbury , Æthelstan was thirty years old when he came to the throne in 924, which would mean that he was born around 894. He was the oldest son of Edward the Elder. He was Edward's only son by his first consort, Ecgwynn . Very little
16048-473: The start of centralised assemblies that had a defined role in English government, and Æthelstan as "the true if unwitting founder of the English parliament". The Anglo-Saxons were the first people in northern Europe to write administrative documents in the vernacular, and law codes in Old English go back to Æthelberht of Kent at the beginning of the seventh century. The law code of Alfred the Great, from
16184-668: The submission of the Danish people. According to a southern chronicler, he "succeeded to the kingdom of the Northumbrians", and it is uncertain whether he had to fight Guthfrith. Southern kings had never ruled the north, and his usurpation was met with outrage by the Northumbrians, who had always resisted southern control. However, at Eamont , near Penrith , on 12 July 927, King Constantine II of Alba , King Hywel Dda of Deheubarth, Ealdred of Bamburgh, and King Owain of Strathclyde (or Morgan ap Owain of Gwent) accepted Æthelstan's overlordship. His triumph led to seven years of peace in
16320-484: The threat they posed to social order. His legal reforms built on those of his grandfather, Alfred the Great . Æthelstan was one of the most pious West Saxon kings, and was known for collecting relics and founding churches. His household was the centre of English learning during his reign, and it laid the foundation for the Benedictine monastic reform later in the century. No other West Saxon king played as important
16456-663: The title "Rex Saxorum"), but not in East Anglia or the Danelaw. In the early 930s a new coinage was issued, the "crowned bust" type, with the king shown for the first time wearing a crown with three stalks. This was eventually issued in all regions apart from Mercia, which issued coins without a ruler portrait, suggesting, in Sarah Foot's view, that any Mercian affection for a West Saxon king brought up among them quickly declined. Church and state maintained close relations in
16592-431: The tomb of St Cuthbert, including a stole and maniple (ecclesiastical garments) originally commissioned by his step-mother Ælfflæd as a gift to Bishop Frithestan of Winchester. The invasion was launched by land and sea. According to Symeon of Durham, his land forces ravaged as far as Dunnottar in north-east Scotland, the furthest north that any English army had reached since Ecgfrith 's disastrous invasion in 685, while
16728-598: The vast majority emigrating to the United States . The Tsarist government sporadically encouraged Jewish emigration. In 1882, members of Bilu and Hovevei Zion made what came to be known the First Aliyah to Palestine , then a part of the Ottoman Empire. Initially, these organizations were not official, and in order to attain a legally recognized framework, a Jewish organization had to be registered as
16864-511: The view of Janet Nelson, his "rituals of largesse and devotion at sites of supernatural power ... enhanced royal authority and underpinned a newly united imperial realm". Æthelstan had a reputation for founding churches, although it is unclear how justified this is. According to late and dubious sources, these churches included minsters at Milton Abbas in Dorset and Muchelney in Somerset. In
17000-424: The view of Sarah Foot, on the other hand, it would be difficult to exaggerate the battle's importance: if the Anglo-Saxons had been defeated, their hegemony over the whole mainland of Britain would have disintegrated. Anglo-Saxon kings ruled through ealdormen , who had the highest lay status under the king. In ninth-century Wessex they each ruled a single shire, but by the middle of the tenth they had authority over
17136-456: The view of historian John Blair, the reputation is probably well-founded, but "these waters are muddied by Æthelstan's almost folkloric reputation as a founder, which made him a favourite hero of later origin-myths". However, while he was a generous donor to monasteries, he did not give land for new ones or attempt to revive the ones in the north and east destroyed by Viking attacks. He also sought to build ties with continental churches. Cenwald
17272-563: The work of an individual, rather than the development of a formal writing office. A key mechanism of government was the king's council ( witan in Old English). Anglo-Saxon kings did not have a fixed capital city. Their courts were peripatetic, and their councils were held at varying locations around their realms. Æthelstan stayed mainly in Wessex, however, and controlled outlying areas by summoning leading figures to his councils. The small and intimate meetings that had been adequate until
17408-461: Was King of the Anglo-Saxons from 924 to 927 and King of the English from 927 to his death in 939. He was the son of King Edward the Elder and his first wife, Ecgwynn . Modern historians regard him as the first King of England and one of the "greatest Anglo-Saxon kings". He never married and had no children; he was succeeded by his half-brother, Edmund I . When Edward died in July 924, Æthelstan
17544-530: Was a royal priest before his appointment as Bishop of Worcester , and in 929 he accompanied two of Æthelstan's half-sisters to the Saxon court so that the future Holy Roman Emperor , Otto , could choose one of them as his wife. Cenwald went on to make a tour of German monasteries, giving lavish gifts on Æthelstan's behalf and receiving in return promises that the monks would pray for the king and others close to him in perpetuity. England and Saxony became closer after
17680-600: Was accepted by the Mercians as king. His half-brother Ælfweard may have been recognised as king in Wessex , but died within three weeks of their father's death. Æthelstan encountered resistance in Wessex for several months, and was not crowned until September 925. In 927, he conquered the last remaining Viking kingdom, York , making him the first Anglo-Saxon ruler of the whole of England. In 934, he invaded Scotland and forced Constantine II to submit to him. Æthelstan's rule
17816-589: Was apparently with him in Mercia, while Ælfweard was in Wessex. Mercia acknowledged Æthelstan as king, and Wessex may have chosen Ælfweard. However, Ælfweard outlived his father by only sixteen days. Even after Ælfweard's death there seems to have been opposition to Æthelstan in Wessex, particularly in Winchester, where Ælfweard was buried. At first Æthelstan behaved as a Mercian king. A charter relating to land in Derbyshire, which appears to have been issued at
17952-480: Was introduced on 1 January 1997 through the Act on Public Benefit Organizations. Under Indian law, legal entities such as charitable organizations, corporations, and managing bodies have been given the status of " legal persons " with legal rights, such as the right to sue and be sued, and the right to own and transfer property. Indian charitable organizations with this status include Sir Ratan Tata Trust . In Ireland,
18088-453: Was introduced on 1 January 2004 by the statute on public good activity and volunteering . Charitable organizations of public good are allowed to receive 1.5% of income tax from individuals, making them "tax-deductible organizations". To receive such status, an organization has to be a non-governmental organization , with political parties and trade unions not qualifying. The organization must also be involved in specific activities related to
18224-471: Was probably his tutor. However, Sarah Foot argues that the acrostic poem makes better sense if it is dated to the beginning of Æthelstan's reign. Edward married his second wife, Ælfflæd , at about the time of his father's death, probably because Ecgwynn had died, although she may have been put aside. The new marriage weakened Æthelstan's position, as his step-mother naturally favoured the interests of her own sons, Ælfweard and Edwin . By 920 Edward had taken
18360-877: Was resented by the Scots and Vikings, and in 937 they invaded England. Æthelstan defeated them at the Battle of Brunanburh , a victory that gave him great prestige both in the British Isles and on the Continent. After his death in 939, the Vikings seized back control of York, and it was not finally reconquered until 954. Æthelstan centralised government; he increased control over the production of charters and summoned leading figures from distant areas to his councils. These meetings were also attended by rulers from outside his territory, especially Welsh kings, who thus acknowledged his overlordship. More legal texts survive from his reign than from any other tenth-century English king. They show his concern about widespread robberies and
18496-407: Was uniform and abundant. In Æthelstan's time, however, it was far less developed, and minting was still organised regionally long after Æthelstan unified the country. The Grately code included a provision that there was to be only one coinage across the king's dominion. However, this is in a section that appears to be copied from a code of his father, and the list of towns with mints is confined to
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