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155-536: The New School derived from the reinterpretation of Calvinism by New England Congregationalist theologians Jonathan Edwards , Samuel Hopkins and Joseph Bellamy , and wholly embraced revivalism. Though there was much diversity among them, the Edwardsian Calvinists commonly rejected what they called "Old Calvinism" in light of their understandings of God, the human person, and the Bible. Later, both

310-590: A means of grace with Christ actually present, though spiritually rather than bodily as in Catholic doctrine. The document demonstrates the diversity as well as unity in early Reformed theology, giving it a stability that enabled it to spread rapidly throughout Europe. This stands in marked contrast to the bitter controversy experienced by Lutherans prior to the 1579 Formula of Concord . Due to Calvin's missionary work in France , his program of reform eventually reached

465-620: A traditionalist form of Arminianism which includes a belief in eternal security , though many see Calvinism as growing in acceptance. Certain proponents of Arminianism may be found within the Restoration movement in the Christian Churches and Churches of Christ . Additionally, it is found in the Seventh-day Adventist Church . Arminianism (specifically Wesleyan–Arminian theology ) is taught in

620-566: A believer to fall, especially sin motivated by malice. In 1605 Arminius wrote: “But it is possible for a believer to fall into a mortal sin, as is seen in David. Therefore, he can fall at that moment in which if he were to die, he would be condemned". Scholars observe that Arminius clearly identifies two paths to apostasy 1. "rejection", or 2. "malicious sinning". He suggested that, strictly speaking, believers could not directly lose their faith but could cease to believe and thus fall away. After

775-523: A closely related variation shaped primarily by John Wesley. Classical Arminianism is a protestant theological view, that asserts God's prevenient grace for regeneration is universal and that the grace allowing regeneration and ongoing sanctification is resistible. This theological system was presented by Jacobus Arminius and maintained by some of the Remonstrants, such as Simon Episcopius and Hugo Grotius . Arminian theology incorporates

930-578: A difference in doctrinal commitment and views among churches in close fellowship, leading to suspicion and controversy. Collectively, the growth of Unitarianism , the revival movement, and abolitionism introduced tensions among Presbyterian leaders. They questioned the continued intermingling with Congregationalist influence. Throughout the 18th century, Enlightenment ideas of the power of reason and free will became widespread among Congregationalist ministers. Those ministers and their congregations disagreed with more traditionalist, Calvinist parties. When

1085-564: A distinct tradition from the Reformed. This dispute produced the Canons of Dort , the basis for the "doctrines of grace" also known as the "five points" of Calvinism . Christianity • Protestantism Reformed Christianity is often called Calvinism after John Calvin , influential reformer of Geneva. The term was first used by opposing Lutherans in the 1550s. Calvin did not approve of the use of this term, and scholars have argued that use of

1240-526: A key paradigm for understanding the theological and historical legacy of Arminianism. Before Augustine (354–430), the synergistic view of salvation was almost universally endorsed. Pelagius (c. 354–418), however, argued that humans could perfectly obey God by their own will. The Pelagian view is therefore referred to as "humanistic monergism ". This view was condemned at the Council of Carthage (418) and Ephesus (431). In response, Augustine proposed

1395-501: A lack of voluntary sin . This state involves embodying the love of God and neighbor. It does not mean freedom from all mistakes or temptations, as perfected Christians still need to seek forgiveness and strive for holiness . Ultimately, perfection in this context is about love, not absolute perfection. Wesley believed that genuine Christians could apostatize . He emphasized that sin alone does not lead to this loss; instead, prolonged unconfessed sin and deliberate apostasy can result in

1550-556: A level of openness to Arminian theology. Anabaptist denominations, such as the Mennonites , Hutterites , Amish and Schwarzenau Brethren , adhere to Anabaptist theology , which espouses a soteriology that is similar to Arminianism "in some respects". Arminianism is found within the General Baptists , including the subset of General Baptists known as Free Will Baptists . The majority of Southern Baptists embrace

1705-785: A more mainstream position, and both shifts wound up moving the Old School and New Schoolers closer to union. Eventually, in 1867, the Plan of Union was presented to the General Synods of both the Old School and New School Presbyterians in the North. With some Presbyterians on the border states having left the PC-USA in favor of the PCUS, opposition was reduced to a small faction of Old School holdovers such as Charles Hodge (raising concerns over

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1860-487: A permanent fall from grace. However, he believed that such apostasy was not irremediable. The majority Arminian view is that election is individual and based on God's foreknowledge of faith. In the corporate election view, God chose the believing church collectively for salvation, rather than selecting individuals. Jesus is seen as the only person elected, and individuals join the elect through faith "in Christ". This view

2015-497: A person's nature, including their will. This view, that sin so dominates people that they are unable to avoid sin, has been called total depravity . As a consequence, every one of their descendants inherited a stain of corruption and depravity. This condition, innate to all humans, is known in Christian theology as original sin . Calvin thought original sin was "a hereditary corruption and depravity of our nature, extending to all

2170-528: A priest in that he intercedes to the Father on believers' behalf and offered himself as a sacrifice for sin, and a king in that he rules the church and fights on believers' behalf. The threefold office links the work of Christ to God's work in ancient Israel . Many, but not all, Reformed theologians continue to make use of the threefold office as a framework because of its emphasis on the connection of Christ's work to Israel. They have, however, often reinterpreted

2325-791: A result of the Plan of Union of 1801 with the Congregationalist General Association of Connecticut, Presbyterian missionaries began to work with Congregationalist missionaries in western New York and the Northwest Territory to advance Christian evangelism. Many Presbyterians and Congregationalists took up the cause of foreign missions through the 1810 formation of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (ABCFM). Similarly, ecumenical "home missions" efforts became more formal under

2480-446: A sacrificial payment for sin. Christ is believed to have died in place of the believer, who is accounted righteous as a result of this sacrificial payment. In Christian theology, people are created good and in the image of God but have become corrupted by sin , which causes them to be imperfect and overly self-interested. Reformed Christians, following the tradition of Augustine of Hippo , believe that this corruption of human nature

2635-510: A view in which God is the ultimate cause of all human actions, a stance that aligns with soft determinism . The Augustinian view is therefore referred to as "divine monergism". However, Augustinian soteriology implied double predestination , which was condemned by the Council of Arles (475). During this period, a moderate form of Pelagianism emerged, later termed Semi-Pelagianism . This view asserted that human will initiates salvation, rather than divine grace . The Semi-Pelagian view

2790-412: Is omnipresent , omnipotent , and omniscient . In that view, God's power, knowledge, and presence have no external limitations, that is, outside of his divine nature and character. Besides, Arminianism view on God's sovereignty is based on postulates stemming from God's character. On the first hand, divine election must be defined in such a way that God is not in any case, and even in a secondary way,

2945-596: Is redemption , which is the gospel of salvation from condemnation which is punishment for sin. In Reformed theology, the Word of God takes several forms. Jesus Christ himself is the Word Incarnate. The prophecies about him said to be found in the Old Testament and the ministry of the apostles who saw him and communicated his message are also the Word of God. Further, the preaching of ministers about God

3100-457: Is "naturally hateful to God." In colloquial English, the term "total depravity" can be easily misunderstood to mean that people are absent of any goodness or unable to do any good. However the Reformed teaching is actually that while people continue to bear God's image and may do things that appear outwardly good, their sinful intentions affect all of their nature and actions so that they are not pleasing to God. Some contemporary theologians in

3255-754: Is God who unconditionally elects some for salvation . Instead Arminius proposed that the election of God was of believers , thereby making it conditional on faith . Arminius's views were challenged by the Dutch Calvinists, especially Franciscus Gomarus . In his Declaration of Sentiments (1608) Arminius presented his theology to magistrates of the States General of the Netherlands in The Hague. After his death, Arminius's followers continued to advance his theological vision, crafting

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3410-472: Is a merger of classical Arminianism and Wesleyan perfectionism . Wesley’s view of atonement is either understood as a hybrid of penal substitution and the governmental theory, or it is viewed solely as penal substitution. Historically, Wesleyan Arminians adopted either the penal or governmental theory of atonement. In Wesleyan theology, justification is understood as the forgiveness of sins rather than being made inherently righteous. Righteousness

3565-531: Is achieved through sanctification , which involves the pursuit of holiness in one's life. Wesley taught that imputed righteousness , which refers to the righteousness credited to a believer through faith, must transform into imparted righteousness , where this righteousness becomes evident in the believer’s life. Wesley taught that through the Holy Spirit , Christians can achieve a state of practical perfection, or " entire sanctification ", characterized by

3720-453: Is administered in different ways throughout the Old and New Testaments, but retains the substance of being free of a requirement of perfect obedience. Through the influence of Karl Barth, many contemporary Reformed theologians have discarded the covenant of works, along with other concepts of federal theology. Barth saw the covenant of works as disconnected from Christ and the gospel, and rejected

3875-682: Is another conservative association. Church of Tuvalu is an officially established state church in the Calvinist tradition. Reformed theologians believe that God communicates knowledge of himself to people through the Word of God. People are not able to know anything about God except through this self-revelation. (With the exception of general revelation of God; "His invisible attributes, His eternal power and divine nature, have been clearly seen, being understood through what has been made, so that they are without excuse" (Romans 1:20).) Speculation about anything which God has not revealed through his Word

4030-424: Is conditional or based on his foreknowledge of who would respond positively to God. Karl Barth reinterpreted the doctrine of predestination to apply only to Christ. Individual people are only said to be elected through their being in Christ. Reformed theologians who followed Barth, including Jürgen Moltmann , David Migliore, and Shirley Guthrie , have argued that the traditional Reformed concept of predestination

4185-428: Is conditional : Arminius defined election as "the decree of God by which, of Himself, from eternity, He decreed to justify in Christ, believers, and to accept them unto eternal life." God alone determines who will be saved and his determination is that all who believe Jesus through faith will be justified. According to Arminius, "God regards no one in Christ unless they are engrafted in him by faith." God predestines

4340-507: Is found in the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) 's Confession of 1967 . Those who take this view believe the Bible to be the primary source of our knowledge of God, but also that some parts of the Bible may be false, not witnesses to Christ, and not normative for the church. In this view, Christ is the revelation of God, and the scriptures witness to this revelation rather than being the revelation itself. Reformed theologians use

4495-406: Is incapable of choosing the spiritual good. Humans are therefore in a state of total depravity , possessing a corrupted spiritual nature inherited from original sin . Like Augustine , Luther , and Calvin , Arminius agreed that human free will is spiritually captive and enslaved. However, through the action of prevenient grace , human free will can be "freed", meaning it can be restored with

4650-591: Is known to have influenced both the Mennonites and certain theologians within Arminius’s circle. Early critics of Arminians even cited Castellio as a primary inspiration behind the Arminian movement. Jacobus Arminius (1560-1609) was a Dutch pastor and theologian. He was taught by Theodore Beza , Calvin's hand-picked successor, but after examination of the scriptures, he rejected his teacher's theology that it

4805-414: Is not warranted. The knowledge people have of God is different from that which they have of anything else because God is infinite , and finite people are incapable of comprehending an infinite being. While the knowledge revealed by God to people is never incorrect, it is also never comprehensive. According to Reformed theologians, God's self-revelation is always through his son Jesus Christ, because Christ

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4960-409: Is seen by some as a return to early church theological consensus. Moreover, Arminianism can also be seen as a soteriological diversification of Calvinism or more specifically, as a theological middle ground between Calvinism and semi-Pelagianism. Arminian theology generally divides into two main variations: Classical Arminianism, based on the teachings of Jacobus Arminius, and Wesleyan Arminianism,

5115-513: Is sometimes given less importance out of ecumenical concerns. People are not on their own able to fully repent of their sin or prepare themselves to repent because of their sinfulness. Therefore, justification is held to arise solely from God's free and gracious act. Sanctification is the part of salvation in which God makes believers holy, by enabling them to exercise greater love for God and for other people. The good works accomplished by believers as they are sanctified are considered to be

5270-436: Is speculative and have proposed alternative models. These theologians claim that a properly trinitarian doctrine emphasizes God's freedom to love all people, rather than choosing some for salvation and others for damnation. God's justice towards and condemnation of sinful people is spoken of by these theologians as out of his love for them and a desire to reconcile them to himself. Much attention surrounding Calvinism focuses on

5425-556: Is supported by Old Testament and Jewish concepts, where identity is rooted more in group membership than individuality. Pelagianism is a doctrine denying original sin and total depravity . No system of Arminianism founded on Arminius or Wesley denies original sin or total depravity; both Arminius and Wesley strongly affirmed that man's basic condition is one in which he cannot be righteous, understand God, or seek God. Arminius referred to Pelagianism as "the grand falsehood" and stated that he "must confess that I detest, from my heart,

5580-808: Is the fourth largest Christian communion in the world, after the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Churches, and the Anglican Communion. Many conservative Reformed churches which are strongly Calvinistic formed the World Reformed Fellowship which has about 70 member denominations. Most are not part of the World Communion of Reformed Churches because of its ecumenical attire. The International Conference of Reformed Churches

5735-580: Is the largest Christian denomination. A 2011 report of the Pew Forum on Religious and Public Life estimated that members of Presbyterian or Reformed churches make up 7% of the estimated 801 million Protestants globally, or approximately 56 million people. Though the broadly defined Reformed faith is much larger, as it constitutes Congregationalist (0.5%), most of the United and uniting churches (unions of different denominations) (7.2%) and most likely some of

5890-444: Is the only mediator between God and people. Revelation of God through Christ comes through two basic channels. The first is creation and providence , which is God's creating and continuing to work in the world. This action of God gives everyone knowledge about God, but this knowledge is only sufficient to make people culpable for their sin; it does not include knowledge of the gospel. The second channel through which God reveals himself

6045-480: Is the very Word of God because God is considered to be speaking through them. God also speaks through human writers in the Bible , which is composed of texts set apart by God for self-revelation. Reformed theologians emphasize the Bible as a uniquely important means by which God communicates with people. People gain knowledge of God from the Bible which cannot be gained in any other way. Reformed theologians affirm that

6200-554: Is therefore described as "human-initiated synergism". In 529, the Second Council of Orange addressed Semi-Pelagianism and declared that even the inception of faith is a result of God’s grace. This highlights the role of prevenient grace enabling human belief. This view, often referred to as "Semi-Augustinian," is therefore described as "God-initiated synergism". The Council also rejected predestination to evil . As Arminianism aligns with key aspects of this view, it

6355-514: Is to be given to all those who have faith in Christ. Faith is not purely intellectual, but involves trust in God's promise to save. Protestants do not hold there to be any other requirement for salvation, but that faith alone is sufficient. Justification is the part of salvation where God pardons the sin of those who believe in Christ. It is historically held by Protestants to be the most important article of Christian faith, though more recently it

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6510-852: Is universal, and that God's justifying grace allowing regeneration is resistible. Many Christian denominations have been influenced by Arminian views, notably the Baptists in the 17th century, the Methodists in the 18th century, and the Pentecostals in the 20th century. Arminius' beliefs, i.e. Arminianism, did not begin with him. Before the Reformation , groups like the Waldensians similarly affirmed individual freedom over any predetermined predestination . Anabaptist theologian Balthasar Hubmaier (1480–1528) also promoted much

6665-463: Is untenable because it abandons the essential unity of God in favor of a community of separate beings. Reformed theologians affirm the historic Christian belief that Christ is eternally one person with a divine and a human nature . Reformed Christians have especially emphasized that Christ truly became human so that people could be saved. Christ's human nature has been a point of contention between Reformed and Lutheran Christology . In accord with

6820-552: The Five articles of Remonstrance (1610), in which they express their points of divergence from the stricter Calvinism of the Belgic Confession . This is how Arminius's followers were called Remonstrants , and following a Counter Remonstrance in 1611, Gomarus' followers were called Counter-Remonstrants. After some political maneuvering, the Dutch Calvinists were able to convince Prince Maurice of Nassau to deal with

6975-557: The Remonstrance (1610), a theological statement submitted to the States General of the Netherlands . This expressed an attempt to moderate the doctrines of Calvinism related to its interpretation of predestination . Classical Arminianism , to which Arminius is the main contributor, and Wesleyan Arminianism , to which John Wesley is the main contributor, are the two main schools of thought. Central Arminian beliefs are that God's preparing ( prevenient ) grace for regeneration

7130-564: The Anglican (known as "Episcopal" in some regions) and Baptist traditions. Reformed theology emphasizes the authority of the Bible and the sovereignty of God , as well as covenant theology , a framework for understanding the Bible based on God's covenants with people. Reformed churches have emphasized simplicity in worship. Several forms of ecclesiastical polity are exercised by Reformed churches, including presbyterian , congregational , and some episcopal . Articulated by John Calvin ,

7285-720: The Barmen Confession and Brief Statement of Faith of the Presbyterian Church (USA) have avoided language about the attributes of God and have emphasized his work of reconciliation and empowerment of people. Feminist theologian Letty Russell used the image of partnership for the persons of the Trinity. According to Russell, thinking this way encourages Christians to interact in terms of fellowship rather than reciprocity. Conservative Reformed theologian Michael Horton, however, has argued that social trinitarianism

7440-467: The Five points of Calvinism . Arminians across Holland were removed from office, imprisoned, banished, and sworn to silence. Twelve years later, Holland officially granted Arminianism protection as a religion, although animosity between Arminians and Calvinists continued. Most of the early Remonstrants followed a classical version of Arminianism. However, some of them such as Philipp van Limborch , moved in

7595-593: The Harvard Divinity School Hollis Professor of Divinity David Tappan died in 1803 and the president of Harvard Joseph Willard died a year later, in 1804, acting president Eliphalet Pearson and overseer of the college Jedidiah Morse demanded that orthodox men be elected. But, the Unitarian Henry Ware was elected in 1805. This marked the shift at Harvard from the dominance of traditional, Calvinist ideas to

7750-1355: The Methodist churches, inclusive of those denominations aligned with the holiness movement such as the Evangelical Methodist Church , Church of the Nazarene , the Free Methodist Church , the Wesleyan Church , and the Salvation Army . It is also found in a part of the Charismatics , including the Pentecostals . Arminian theology has found support among theologians, Bible scholars, and apologists spanning various historical periods and theological circles. Noteworthy historical figures include Jacobus Arminius , Simon Episcopius , Hugo Grotius , John Goodwin , Thomas Grantham , John Wesley , Richard Watson , Thomas Osmond Summers , John Miley , William Burt Pope and Henry Orton Wiley . In contemporary Baptist traditions, advocates of Arminian theology include Roger E. Olson , F. Leroy Forlines, Robert Picirilli and J. Matthew Pinson. Within

7905-774: The New England Emigrant Aid Company to address the pro-slavery violence in Kansas . While Harriet Beecher Stowe 's Uncle Tom's Cabin made the case against slavery, her husband continued to teach at Andover Theological Seminary . In 1857, the New School Presbyterians divided over slavery, with the Southern New School Presbyterians forming the United Synod of the Presbyterian Church. Despite

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8060-665: The Presbyterian Church in the United States of America (P.C.U.S.A.). The first General Assembly of the P.C.U.S.A. met in Philadelphia in 1789. The new church was organized into four synods: New York and New Jersey, Philadelphia, Virginia, and the Carolinas. These synods included 16 presbyteries and an estimated membership of 18,000, and used the Westminster Standards as the main doctrinal standards. As

8215-753: The Stone-Campbell Restoration Movement . It also introduced into America a new form of religious expression—the Scottish camp meeting . In the 1820s, Nathaniel William Taylor , (appointed Professor of Didactic Theology at Yale Divinity School in 1822), was the leading figure behind a smaller strand of Edwardsian Calvinism which came to be called "the New Haven theology" . Taylor developed Edwardsian Calvinism further, interpreting regeneration in ways he thought consistent with Edwards and his New England followers and appropriate for

8370-551: The fundamentalist–modernist controversy of the 1920s. Calvinism Reformed Christianity , also called Calvinism , is a major branch of Protestantism that began during the sixteenth-century Protestant Reformation , a schism in the Western Church . In the modern day, it is largely represented by the Continental Reformed , Presbyterian , and Congregational traditions, as well as parts of

8525-682: The real presence of Christ in the Lord's Supper , Reformed Protestants were defined by their opposition to Lutherans . The Reformed also opposed Anabaptist radicals thus remaining within the Magisterial Reformation . During the seventeenth-century Arminian Controversy , followers of Jacobus Arminius were forcibly removed from the Dutch Reformed Church for their views regarding predestination and salvation , and thenceforth Arminians would be considered outside

8680-459: The wicked are thrown by God at judgment day . Preservation is conditional : All believers have full assurance of salvation with the condition that they remain in Christ. Salvation is conditioned on faith, therefore perseverance is also conditioned. Arminius believed the Scriptures taught that believers are graciously empowered by Christ and the Holy Spirit "to fight against Satan, sin,

8835-490: The "Five Points of Calvinism" (also called the doctrines of grace ). The five points have been summarized under the acrostic TULIP. The five points are popularly said to summarize the Canons of Dort ; however, there is no historical relationship between them, and some scholars argue that their language distorts the meaning of the Canons, Calvin's theology, and the theology of 17th-century Calvinistic orthodoxy, particularly in

8990-418: The "old covenant" whom God chose, beginning with Abraham and Sarah . The church is conceived of as both invisible and visible . The invisible church is the body of all believers, known only to God. The visible church is the institutional body which contains both members of the invisible church as well as those who appear to have faith in Christ, but are not truly part of God's elect. In order to identify

9145-544: The 17th century such as William Laud fought Calvinist Puritans. They actually saw Arminianism in terms of a state church , an idea that was alien to the views of Arminius. This position became particularly evident under the reign (1625–1649) of Charles I of England . Following the English Civil War (1642–1651) Charles II of England , who tolerated the Presbyterians , re-instituted Arminian thought in

9300-963: The 17th century, who became known as Boers or Afrikaners . Sierra Leone was largely colonized by Calvinist settlers from Nova Scotia , many of whom were Black Loyalists who fought for the British Empire during the American War of Independence . John Marrant had organized a congregation there under the auspices of the Huntingdon Connection . Some of the largest Calvinist communions were started by 19th- and 20th-century missionaries . Especially large are those in Indonesia , Korea and Nigeria . In South Korea there are 20,000 Presbyterian congregations with about 9–10 million church members, scattered in more than 100 Presbyterian denominations. In South Korea, Presbyterianism

9455-557: The 1830s, during the Second Great Awakening , traces of Pelagian influence surfaced in the American Holiness Movement . Consequently, critics of Wesleyan theology have occasionally unfairly perceived or labeled its broader thought. However, its core is recognized to be Arminianism. Pentecostalism has its background in the activity of Charles Parham (1873–1929). Its origin as a movement

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9610-413: The 18th century, New England and Mid-Atlantic churchmen formed the first presbyteries in American colonies that would later become the United States. Many Presbyterians were ethnic Scots or Scots-Irish. After resolving the Old Side–New Side controversy in 1758, many reformed presbyterians reconciled into the Synod of New York and Philadelphia . This reorganized after the American Revolution to become

9765-410: The Anabaptist point of view, and Anabaptists were commonly in attendance on his preaching." Similarly, Arminius mentions Danish Lutheran theologian Niels Hemmingsen (1513–1600) as holding the basic view of soteriology he held and he may have been influenced by Hemmingsen. Another key figure, Sebastian Castellio (1515–1563), who opposed Calvin's views on predestination and religious intolerance ,

9920-430: The Bible is true, but differences emerge among them over the meaning and extent of its truthfulness. Conservative followers of the Princeton theologians take the view that the Bible is true and inerrant , or incapable of error or falsehood, in every place. This view is similar to that of Catholic orthodoxy as well as modern Evangelicalism . Another view, influenced by the teaching of Karl Barth and neo-orthodoxy ,

10075-428: The Christian Religion was one of the most influential works of the era. Toward the middle of the 16th century, these beliefs were formed into one consistent creed , which would shape the future definition of the Reformed faith. The 1549 Consensus Tigurinus unified Zwingli and Bullinger's memorialist theology of the Eucharist, which taught that it was simply a reminder of Christ's death, with Calvin's view of it as

10230-535: The Church of England retained elements of Catholicism such as bishops and vestments , unlike continental Reformed churches , and thus was sometimes called "but halfly Reformed." Beginning in the seventeenth century, Anglicanism broadened to the extent that Reformed theology is no longer dominant in Anglicanism. Some scholars argue that Reformed Baptists , who hold many of the same beliefs as Reformed Christians but not infant baptism , should be considered part of Reformed Christianity, though this would not have been

10385-439: The Church of England. It was dominant there after the Restoration (1660) for some fifty years. The Baptist movement emerged in 17th-century in England. The first Baptists—called " General Baptists " because of their confession of a "general" or unlimited atonement—were Arminians. The Baptist movement originated with Thomas Helwys , who left his mentor John Smyth (who had moved into shared belief and other distinctives of

10540-569: The Congregationalists and their New Divinity "methods." They sat on boards such as the American Home Missions Society and the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions . Prominent members of the New School included Nathaniel William Taylor , Eleazar T. Fitch , Chauncey Goodrich , Albert Barnes , Lyman Beecher (the father of Harriet Beecher Stowe and Henry Ward Beecher ), Henry Boynton Smith , Erskine Mason, George Duffield , Nathan Beman , Charles Finney , George Cheever, Samuel Fisher , and Thomas McAuley. Schools associated with

10695-402: The Dutch Waterlander Mennonites of Amsterdam) and returned to London to start the first English Baptist Church in 1611. Later General Baptists such as John Griffith , Samuel Loveday, and Thomas Grantham defended a Reformed Arminian theology that reflected the Arminianism of Arminius. The General Baptists encapsulated their Arminian views in numerous confessions , the most influential of which

10850-417: The Father and the Holy Spirit eternally proceeding from the Father and Son. However, contemporary theologians have been critical of aspects of Western views here as well. Drawing on the Eastern tradition, these Reformed theologians have proposed a " social trinitarianism " where the persons of the Trinity only exist in their life together as persons-in-relationship. Contemporary Reformed confessions such as

11005-404: The French-speaking provinces of the Netherlands. Calvinism was adopted in the Electorate of the Palatinate under Frederick III , which led to the formulation of the Heidelberg Catechism in 1563. This and the Belgic Confession were adopted as confessional standards in the first synod of the Dutch Reformed Church in 1571. In 1573, William the Silent joined the Calvinist Church. Calvinism

11160-491: The Methodist tradition, prominent supporters encompass Thomas Oden , Ben Witherington III , David Pawson , B. J. Oropeza , Thomas H. McCall and Fred Sanders. The Holiness movement boasts theologians like Carl O. Bangs and J. Kenneth Grider . Furthermore, scholars such as Keith D. Stanglin, Craig S. Keener and Grant R. Osborne also support Arminian perspectives. The Pelagian-Augustinian framework can serve as

11315-582: The New School included Lane Theological Seminary in Cincinnati and Yale Divinity School . As the debate over slavery and abolition ratcheted up in the 1840s and 1850s, both the New School and the Old School began to experience internal tensions, largely along North-South (abolitionism vs. pro-slavery) lines. As the ABCFM and AHMS refused to take positions on slavery, some Presbyterian churches joined

11470-519: The New School's fairly loose stance regarding confessional subscription ), who, while preventing as much of a decisive victory in favor of reunion at the 1868 General Assembly, nevertheless failed to prevent the Old School General Assembly from approving the motion that the Plan of Union be sent to the presbyteries for their approval. The Plan of Union was eventually approved, and in 1869, the Old and New Schools reunited. Amongst

11625-552: The North had shared similar convictions regarding support of the Federal Government, although support of the Federal Government was not as unanimous amongst Northern Old School Presbyterians. The major issue was slavery, and while the Old School Presbyterians had been reluctant to debate the issue (which had preserved the unity of Old School Presbyterians until 1861) by 1864, the Old School had adopted

11780-409: The Old School Presbyterians, and the New School Presbyterians. Generally speaking, the Old School was attractive to the more recent Scotch Irish element, while the New School appealed to more established Yankees (who by agreement became Presbyterians instead of Congregationalists when they left New England). Theologically, The Old School , led by Charles Hodge of Princeton Theological Seminary ,

11935-459: The Old School and New School branches split further over the issue of slavery, into Southern and Northern churches. The latter supported the abolition of slavery. After three decades of separate operation, the two sides of the controversy merged, in 1865 in the South and in 1870 in the North. Two Presbyterian denominations were formed ( PCUS and PC-USA , in the South and North, respectively). During

12090-540: The Old School party found themselves in the majority and voted to annul the Plan of Union as unconstitutionally adopted. They then voted to expel the synods of Western Reserve (which included Oberlin as a part of Lorain County, Ohio ), Utica, Geneva, and Genesee, because they were formed on the basis of the Plan of Union. At the General Assembly of 1837, these synods were refused recognition as lawfully part of

12245-742: The Philadelphia Baptist Confession), whereas the Standard Confession of 1660 was used by the American heirs of the English General Baptists, who soon came to be known as Free Will Baptists . In the Methodist -Calvinist controversy of the early 1770s involving Anglican ministers John Wesley and George Whitefield , Wesley responded to accusations of semi-Pelagianism by embracing an Arminian identity. Wesley had limited familiarity with

12400-713: The Reformed faith holds to a spiritual (pneumatic) presence of Christ in the Lord's Supper . Emerging in the 16th century, the Reformed tradition developed over several generations, especially in Switzerland , Scotland and the Netherlands . In the seventeenth century, Jacobus Arminius and the Remonstrants were expelled from the Dutch Reformed Church over disputes regarding predestination and salvation , and from that time Arminians are usually considered to be

12555-487: The Reformed to identify the church based on its conformity to the Bible rather than the magisterium or church tradition. Arminianism Arminianism is a movement of Protestantism initiated in the early 17th century, based on the theological ideas of the Dutch Reformed theologian Jacobus Arminius and his historic supporters known as Remonstrants . Dutch Arminianism was originally articulated in

12710-424: The Reformed tradition, such as those associated with the Presbyterian Church (USA)'s Confession of 1967, have emphasized the social character of human sinfulness. These theologians have sought to bring attention to issues of environmental, economic, and political justice as areas of human life that have been affected by sin. Reformed theologians, along with other Protestants, believe salvation from punishment for sin

12865-536: The Scriptures taught that a true believer was capable of falling away from faith and perishing eternally as an unbeliever. They formalized their views in "The Opinion of the Remonstrants" (1618) which was their official stand during the Synod of Dort. They later expressed this same view in the Remonstrant Confession (1621). Arminius maintained that if the apostasy came from "malicious" sin, then it

13020-588: The Southern Presbyterians, the reunion of the Old School and New School factions failed to create a major effect. The New School Presbyterians of the South simply wound up being absorbed into the larger Old School Presbyterian faction. Shifts in theological attitudes in the PCUS would not begin until the 1920s and 1930s. Amongst Northern Presbyterians, the effect of the reunion was felt soon after. The PC-USA eventually found itself becoming increasingly ecumenical and supporting various social causes. At

13175-431: The ability to choose the spiritual good, particularly the capacity to accept God's call to salvation . Atonement is intended universally : Jesus's death was for all people, Jesus draws all people to himself, with the opportunity for salvation through faith . Jesus's death satisfies God's justice : The penalty for the sins of the elect is paid in full through the crucifixion of Christ . Thus Christ's death atones for

13330-564: The abolitionist American Missionary Association instead, and even became Congregationalists or Free Presbyterians . African-American Presbyterian pastor Theodore S. Wright helped to form anti-slavery societies, such as the American Anti-Slavery Society and the American and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society . New School Presbyterian Rev. Henry Ward Beecher advocated for rifles (" Beecher's Bibles ") to be sent through

13485-511: The auspices of the American Home Missionary Society , founded in 1826. This missions emphasis resulted in new churches being formed with either Congregational or Presbyterian forms of government, or a mixture of the two, supported by older established churches with a different form of government. Often clergy came into conflict with their own congregations over issues of ecclesiology and polity . It also resulted in

13640-560: The author of evil . It would not correspond to the character of God, especially as fully revealed in Jesus Christ. On the other hand, man's responsibility for evil must be preserved. Those two postulates require a specific way by which God chooses to manifest his sovereignty when interacting with his creatures. On one hand, it requires for God to operate according to a limited mode of providence . This means that God deliberately exercises sovereignty without determining every event. On

13795-782: The beginning of the Civil War there were four related branches of American Presbyterians: The Northern New School, the Northern Old School, the Southern New School, and the Southern Old School. During the 1860s, the Old School and New School factions reunited to become Northern Presbyterians (PC-USA) and Southern Presbyterians (PCUS). In the South, the issue of the merger of Old School and New School Presbyterians had come up as early as 1861. Some old schoolers such as James Henley Thornwell opposed

13950-518: The belief that finite humans cannot comprehend infinite divinity, Reformed theologians hold that Christ's human body cannot be in multiple locations at the same time. Because Lutherans believe that Christ is bodily present in the Eucharist , they hold that Christ is bodily present in many locations simultaneously. For Reformed Christians, such a belief denies that Christ actually became human. Some contemporary Reformed theologians have moved away from

14105-595: The beliefs of Arminius and largely formulated his views without direct reliance on Arminius' teachings. Wesley was notably influenced by 17th-century English Arminianism and by some Remonstrant spokesmen. However, he is recognized as a faithful representative of Arminius' beliefs. Wesley defended his soteriology through the publication of a periodical titled The Arminian (1778) and in articles such as Predestination Calmly Considered . To support his stance, he strongly maintained belief in total depravity while clarifying other doctrines notably prevenient grace . At

14260-517: The concept of covenant to describe the way God enters into fellowship with people in history. The concept of covenant is so prominent in Reformed theology that Reformed theology as a whole is sometimes called "covenant theology". However, sixteenth- and seventeenth-century theologians developed a particular theological system called " covenant theology " or "federal theology" which many conservative Reformed churches continue to affirm. This framework orders God's life with people primarily in two covenants:

14415-496: The concepts of divine predestination and election. While some perceive these differences as fundamental, others regard them as relatively minor distinctions within the broader spectrum of Christian theology. The doctrine of open theism states that God is omnipresent, omnipotent, and omniscient, but differs on the nature of the future. Open theists claim that the future is not completely determined (or "settled") because people have not made their free decisions yet. God therefore knows

14570-597: The confessional standard for Presbyterians in the English-speaking world. Having established itself in Europe, the movement continued to spread to areas including North America , South Africa and Korea . While Calvin did not live to see the foundation of his work grow into an international movement, his death allowed his ideas to spread far beyond their city of origin and their borders and to establish their own distinct character. Although much of Calvin's work

14725-468: The consequences [of that theology]." This association is considered as libelous when attributed to Arminius' or Wesley's doctrine, and Arminians reject all accusations of Pelagianism. Semi-Pelagianism holds that faith begins with human will, while its continuation and fulfillment depend on God's grace, giving it the label "human-initiated synergism ". In contrast, both Classical and Wesleyan Arminianism affirm that prevenient grace from God initiates

14880-462: The corruption of their nature due to original sin. Reformed Christians believe that God predestined some people to be saved and others were predestined to eternal damnation. This choice by God to save some is held to be unconditional and not based on any characteristic or action on the part of the person chosen. The Calvinist view is opposed to the Arminian view that God's choice of whom to save

15035-458: The covenant of works and the covenant of grace. The covenant of works is made with Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden . The terms of the covenant are that God provides a blessed life in the garden on condition that Adam and Eve obey God's law perfectly. Because Adam and Eve broke the covenant by eating the forbidden fruit , they became subject to death and were banished from the garden. This sin

15190-499: The death of Arminius in 1609, his followers wrote a Remonstrance (1610) based quite literally on his Declaration of Sentiments (1607) which expressed prudence on the possibility of apostasy. In particular, its fifth article expressed the necessity of further study on the possibility of apostasy. Sometime between 1610 and the official proceeding of the Synod of Dort (1618), the Remonstrants became fully persuaded in their minds that

15345-562: The direction of semi-Pelagianism and rationalism . In England, the so-labelled Arminian doctrines were held, in substance, before and in parallel with those of Arminius. The Thirty-nine Articles of Religion (finalised in 1571), were sufficiently ambiguous that they were compatible with either Arminian or Calvinistic interpretations. Arminianism in the Church of England was fundamentally an expression of negation of Calvinism, and only some theologians held to classical Arminianism , but for

15500-488: The doctrine of God is to be based on God's work in history and his freedom to live with and empower people. Reformed theologians have also traditionally followed the medieval tradition going back to before the early church councils of Nicaea and Chalcedon on the doctrine of the Trinity . God is affirmed to be one God in three persons: Father , Son , and Holy Spirit . The Son (Christ) is held to be eternally begotten by

15655-589: The dominance of liberal, Arminian ideas (defined by traditionalists as Unitarian ideas). After the appointment of Ware, and the election of the liberal Samuel Webber to the presidency of Harvard two years later, Eliphalet Pearson and other conservatives founded the Andover Theological Seminary as an orthodox, trinitarian alternative to the Harvard Divinity School. In the U.S. the Second Great Awakening (1800–1830s)

15810-430: The elect to a glorious future: Predestination is not the predetermination of who will believe, but rather the predetermination of the believer's future inheritance. The elect are therefore predestined to sonship through adoption , glorification , and eternal life . Related to eschatological considerations, Jacobus Arminius and the first Remonstrants, including Simon Episcopius believed in everlasting fire where

15965-437: The faith, and perish; yet I will not conceal, that there are passages of scripture which seem to me to wear this aspect." However, elsewhere Arminius expressed certainty about the possibility of falling away: In c. 1602, he noted that a person integrated into the church might resist God's work and that a believer's security rested solely in their choice not to abandon their faith. He argued that God's covenant did not eliminate

16120-523: The idea of covenants based on law rather than grace. Michael Horton , however, has defended the covenant of works as combining principles of law and love. For the most part, the Reformed tradition did not modify the medieval consensus on the doctrine of God . God's character is described primarily using three adjectives: eternal, infinite, and unchangeable. Reformed theologians such as Shirley Guthrie have proposed that rather than conceiving of God in terms of his attributes and freedom to do as he pleases,

16275-447: The idea that God works with people in this way. Instead, Barth argued that God always interacts with people under the covenant of grace, and that the covenant of grace is free of all conditions whatsoever. Barth's theology and that which follows him has been called "mono covenantal" as opposed to the "bi-covenantal" scheme of classical federal theology. Conservative contemporary Reformed theologians, such as John Murray , have also rejected

16430-589: The language and framework of covenant theology . Its core teachings are summarized in the Five Articles of Remonstrance , reflecting Arminius’s views, with some sections directly from his Declaration of Sentiments . Some theologians have referred to this system as "classical Arminianism". Others prefer "Reformation Arminianism" or "Reformed Arminianism", as Arminius upheld the principles of Reformation such as Sola fide and Sola gratia . Arminianism accepts classical theism , which states that God

16585-539: The language of total depravity and limited atonement. The five points were more recently popularized in the 1963 booklet The Five Points of Calvinism Defined, Defended, Documented by David N. Steele and Curtis C. Thomas. The origins of the five points and the acrostic are uncertain, but they appear to be outlined in the Counter Remonstrance of 1611 , a lesser-known Reformed reply to the Arminians, which

16740-545: The local nobility, Calvinism became a significant religion in Eastern Hungary and Hungarian-speaking areas of Transylvania . As of 2007 there are about 3.5 million Hungarian Reformed people worldwide. Calvinism was influential in France , Lithuania , and Poland before being mostly erased during the Counter Reformation . One of the most important Polish reformed theologists was John a Lasco , who

16895-479: The meaning of each of the offices. For example, Karl Barth interpreted Christ's prophetic office in terms of political engagement on behalf of the poor. Christians believe Jesus' death and resurrection make it possible for believers to receive forgiveness for sin and reconciliation with God through the atonement . Reformed Protestants generally subscribe to a particular view of the atonement called penal substitutionary atonement , which explains Christ's death as

17050-623: The meeting. These and others who sympathized with them departed and formed their own general assembly meeting in another church building nearby, setting the stage for a court dispute about which of the two general assemblies constituted the true continuing Presbyterian church. The Supreme Court of Pennsylvania decided that the Old School Assembly was the true representative of the Presbyterian church and their decisions would govern. This 1837 event left two separate organizations,

17205-516: The merger, but Thornwell's death in 1862 removed a significant amount of opposition to merger, and at the 1863 General Assembly of the PCCS, a committee, headed by Robert Lewis Dabney , was formed to confer with a committee formed by the United Synod. While some conservatives felt that union with United Synod would be a repudiation of Old School convictions, others, such as Dabney feared that should

17360-522: The necessary outworking of the believer's salvation, though they do not cause the believer to be saved. Sanctification, like justification, is by faith, because doing good works is simply living as the child of God one has become. Stemming from the theology of John Calvin , Reformed theologians teach that sin so affects human nature that they are unable even to exercise faith in Christ by their own will. While people are said to retain free will, in that they willfully sin, they are unable not to sin because of

17515-556: The other Protestant denominations (38.2%). All three are distinct categories from Presbyterian or Reformed (7%) in this report. The Reformed family of churches is one of the largest Christian denominations. According to adherents.com the Reformed/Presbyterian/Congregational/United churches represent 75 million believers worldwide. The World Communion of Reformed Churches , which includes some United Churches , has 80 million believers. WCRC

17670-502: The other hand, it requires for God's election to be a " predestination by foreknowledge". Therefore, God's foreknowledge is exhaustive and complete, aligning his certainty with human freedom of action. Arminianism is aligned with classical free-will theism, adopting an incompatibilist position. It asserts that the free will essential for moral responsibility is inherently incompatible with determinism . In Arminian theology, human beings possess libertarian free will , making them

17825-561: The pale of Reformed orthodoxy, though some use the term Reformed to include Arminians, while using the term Calvinist to exclude Arminians. Reformed Christianity also has a complicated relationship with Anglicanism , the branch of Christianity originating in the Church of England . The Anglican confessions are considered Protestant, and more specifically, Reformed, and leaders of the English Reformation were influenced by Calvinist, rather than Lutheran theologians. Still

17980-465: The parts of the soul." Calvin asserted people were so warped by original sin that "everything which our mind conceives, meditates, plans, and resolves, is always evil." The depraved condition of every human being is not the result of sins people commit during their lives. Instead, before we are born, while we are in our mother's womb, "we are in God's sight defiled and polluted." Calvin thought people were justly condemned to hell because their corrupted state

18135-698: The peculiar opinions of any particular party," but to "the central administration....appointed and inaugurated according to the forms prescribed in the Constitution of the United States..." Inevitably, though, the Southern Old School Presbyterians still departed, and on December 4, 1861, the first General Assembly of the new Presbyterian Church in the Confederate States of America was held in Augusta, Georgia. Thus at

18290-410: The possibility of apostasy . However, over the period of time he wrote on this question, he sometimes expressed himself more cautiously out of consideration for the faith of his readers. In 1599, he stated that the question required more scriptural examination. In his "Declaration of Sentiments" (1607), Arminius said, "I never taught that a true believer can, either totally or finally fall away from

18445-414: The possibility of falling away but provided a gift of fear to keep individuals from defecting, as long as it thrived in their hearts. He then taught that had David died in sin, he would have been lost. In 1602, Arminius also wrote: "A believing member of Christ may become slothful, give place to sin, and gradually die altogether, ceasing to be a member". For Arminius, a certain class of sin would cause

18600-485: The priority of scripture as a source of authority. Scripture was also viewed as a unified whole, which led to a covenantal theology of the sacraments of baptism and the Lord's Supper as visible signs of the covenant of grace . Another shared perspective was their denial of the Real presence of Christ in the Eucharist . Each understood salvation to be by grace alone and affirmed a doctrine of unconditional election ,

18755-487: The process of salvation by extending his grace, commonly referred to as prevenient grace , to all people. This grace works within each individual, drawing them toward the Gospel and enabling sincere faith, leading to regeneration . It functions through a dynamic influence-and-response relationship, allowing individuals to freely accept or reject it. Thus, conversion is described as a "God-initiated synergism." Election

18910-464: The process of salvation, a view sometimes referred to as "Semi-Augustinian", or "God-initiated synergism". Following the Reformation , Reformed theologians often categorized both "human-initiated synergism" and "God-initiated synergism" as "Semi-Pelagianism", often leading to mistaken belief that Arminianism aligned with Semi-Pelagianism. Calvinism and Arminianism, while sharing historical roots and many theological doctrines, diverge notably on

19065-419: The reconstructions of Calvinism by New England Puritans Jonathan Edwards , Samuel Hopkins and Joseph Bellamy and wholly embraced revivalism. Though there was much diversity among them, the Edwardsian Calvinists commonly rejected what they called "Old Calvinism" in light of their understandings of God, the human person and the Bible. The New School Presbyterians continued to participate in partnerships with

19220-448: The rest they were either semi-Pelagian or Pelagian . In this specific context, contemporary historians prefer to use the term "proto-Arminians" rather than "Arminians" to designate the leanings of those divines who generally didn't follow classical Arminianism. English Arminianism was represented by Arminian Puritans such as John Goodwin or High Anglican Arminians such as Jeremy Taylor and Henry Hammond . Anglican Arminians of

19375-478: The righteousness of Christ is attributed to believers, emphasizing that union with Christ (conditioned on faith) transfers his righteousness to them. Christ's atonement has a substitutionary effect which is limited only to the elect. Arminius held that God's justice was satisfied by penal substitution . Hugo Grotius taught that it was satisfied governmentally . Historical and contemporary Arminians have held to one of these views. In Arminianism, God initiates

19530-473: The same time, Wesley attacked the determinism that he claimed characterized Calvinist doctrines of predestination. He typically preached the notion of Christian perfection (fully mature, not "sinlessness"). His system of thought has become known as Wesleyan Arminianism , the foundations of which were laid by him and his fellow preacher John William Fletcher . Methodism also navigated its own theological intricacies concerning salvation and human agency. In

19685-618: The same time, the PC-USA also became increasingly lax in doctrinal subscription, and New School attempts to modify Calvinism would become embodied in the 1903 revision of the Westminster Standards. In time, the PC-USA would eventually welcome the Arminian Cumberland Presbyterians into their fold (1906), and incidents such as the Charles A. Briggs trial of 1893 would become simply a precursor of

19840-406: The same view as Arminius nearly a century before him. The soteriological doctrines of Arminianism and Anabaptism are roughly equivalent. In particular, Mennonites have been historically Arminian whether they distinctly espoused the Arminian viewpoint or not, and rejected Calvinist soteriology . Anabaptist theology seems to have influenced Jacobus Arminius. At least, he was "sympathetic to

19995-532: The seminary's board and then its president Lyman Beecher , many theological students (known as the Lane Rebels ) left Lane to join Oberlin College , a Congregationalist institution in northern Ohio founded in 1833, which accepted their abolitionist principles and became an Underground Railroad stop. The controversy reached a climax at a meeting of the general assembly in Philadelphia in 1836 when

20150-434: The sins of all, but requires faith to be effected. Arminius states that "Justification, when used for the act of a Judge, is either purely the imputation of righteousness through mercy [...] or that man is justified before God [...] according to the rigor of justice without any forgiveness." Justification , therefore, is seen through mercy by the imputation of righteousness . While not rigidly defined, this view suggests that

20305-524: The situation. Maurice systematically removed Arminian magistrates from office and called a national synod at Dordrecht . This Synod of Dort was open primarily to Dutch Calvinists (102 people), while the Arminians were excluded (13 people banned from voting), with Calvinist representatives from other countries (28 people), and in 1618 published a condemnation of Arminius and his followers as heretics. The Canons of Dort responded, among other topics, to Arminian doctrines, anticipating their later articulation as

20460-694: The teaching that some people are chosen by God to be saved. Martin Luther and his successor, Philipp Melanchthon were significant influences on these theologians, and to a larger extent, those who followed. The doctrine of justification by faith alone , also known as sola fide , was a direct inheritance from Luther. The second generation featured John Calvin (1509–1564), Heinrich Bullinger (1504–1575), Thomas Cranmer (1489–1556), Wolfgang Musculus (1497–1563), Peter Martyr Vermigli (1500–1562), Andreas Hyperius (1511–1564) and John à Lasco (1499–1560). Written between 1536 and 1539, Calvin's Institutes of

20615-614: The tensions, the Old School Presbyterians managed to stay united for several more years. However, in the summer of 1861, the Old School General Assembly, in a vote of 156 to 66, passed the Gardiner Spring Resolutions which called for the Old School Presbyterians to support the Federal Government. In order to attempt to alleviate the situation, the Assembly added language which clarified that the term "Federal Government" referred to "not any particular administration, or

20770-640: The term is misleading, inaccurate, unhelpful, and "inherently distortive." The definitions and boundaries of the terms Reformed Christianity and Calvinism are contested by scholars. As a historical movement, Reformed Christianity began during the Reformation with Huldrych Zwingli in Zürich , Switzerland. Following the failure of the Marburg Colloquy between Zwingli's followers and those of Martin Luther in 1529 to mediate disputes regarding

20925-433: The traditional language of one person in two natures, viewing it as unintelligible to contemporary people. Instead, theologians tend to emphasize Jesus's context and particularity as a first-century Jew. John Calvin and many Reformed theologians who followed him describe Christ's work of redemption in terms of three offices : prophet , priest , and king . Christ is said to be a prophet in that he teaches perfect doctrine,

21080-443: The ultimate source of their choices and granting them the ability to choose otherwise. This philosophical framework upholds the concept of divine providence , allowing God's influence and supervision over creation . However, it permits the idea of God's absolute control over human actions, as long as such control does not involve human responsibility. Arminianism holds that without the assistance of divine grace , human free will

21235-435: The union fail, the United Synod would most likely establish its own seminary, propagating New School Presbyterian theology. Ultimately, in 1864, the United Synod of the South merged with the PCCS, which would be renamed the Presbyterian Church in the United States following the end of the Civil War in 1865. In the North, Presbyterians wound up following a similar path to reunion. Both Old School and New School Presbyterians in

21390-524: The view of early modern Reformed theologians. Others disagree, asserting that Baptists should be considered a separate religious tradition. The first wave of Reformed theologians included Huldrych Zwingli (1484–1531), Martin Bucer (1491–1551), Wolfgang Capito (1478–1541), John Oecolampadius (1482–1531), and Guillaume Farel (1489–1565). While from diverse academic backgrounds, their work already contained key themes within Reformed theology, especially

21545-560: The visible church, Reformed theologians have spoken of certain marks of the Church . For some, the only mark is the pure preaching of the gospel of Christ. Others, including John Calvin, also include the right administration of the sacraments . Others, such as those following the Scots Confession , include a third mark of rightly administered church discipline , or exercise of censure against unrepentant sinners. These marks allowed

21700-601: The work of revivalism, and used his influence to publicly support the revivalist movement and defend its beliefs and practices against opponents. The Old School rejected this idea as heresy, suspicious as they were of all New School revivalism. In New England , the renewed interest in religion inspired a wave of social activism, including abolitionism . In 1834, students at Cincinnati's Lane Theological Seminary (a Presbyterian institution) famously debated "abolition versus colonialization " and voted overwhelmingly for immediate, rather than gradual, abolition. After being censored by

21855-468: The world and their own flesh, and to gain the victory over these enemies." Furthermore, Christ and the Spirit are ever present to aid and assist believers through various temptations. But this security was not unconditional but conditional—"provided they [believers] stand prepared for the battle, implore his help, and be not wanting to themselves, Christ preserves them from falling ." Arminius believed in

22010-683: Was also involved into organising churches in East Frisia and Stranger's Church in London. Later, a faction called the Polish Brethren broke away from Calvinism on January 22, 1556, when Piotr of Goniądz , a Polish student, spoke out against the doctrine of the Trinity during the general synod of the Reformed churches of Poland held in the village of Secemin . Calvinism gained some popularity in Scandinavia , especially Sweden, but

22165-474: Was brought on by Adam and Eve's first sin, a doctrine called original sin . Although earlier Christian authors taught the elements of physical death, moral weakness, and a sin propensity within original sin, Augustine was the first Christian to add the concept of inherited guilt ( reatus ) from Adam whereby every infant is born eternally damned and humans lack any residual ability to respond to God. Reformed theologians emphasize that this sinfulness affects all of

22320-751: Was declared the official religion of the Kingdom of Navarre by the queen regnant Jeanne d'Albret after her conversion in 1560. Leading divines, either Calvinist or those sympathetic to Calvinism, settled in England, including Martin Bucer, Peter Martyr , and John Łaski , as did John Knox in Scotland . During the First English Civil War , English and Scots Presbyterians produced the Westminster Confession , which became

22475-467: Was forgivable. If it came from "rejection" it was not. Following Arminius, the Remonstrants believed that, though possible, apostasy was not in general irremediable. However, other classical Arminians, including the Free Will Baptists , have taught that apostasy is irremediable. John Wesley thoroughly agreed with the vast majority of what Arminius himself taught. Wesleyan Arminianism

22630-617: Was fully Arminian. Today, Pentecostal denominations such as the Assemblies of God hold to Arminian views such as resistible grace , conditional election , and conditional security of the believer . Advocates of Arminianism find a home in many Protestant denominations, and sometimes other beliefs such as Calvinism exist within the same denomination. The Lutheran theological tradition bears certain similarities to Arminianism and there may be some Lutheran churches that are open to it. Newer Evangelical Anglican denominations also show

22785-720: Was in Geneva , his publications spread his ideas of a correctly Reformed church to many parts of Europe. In Switzerland, some cantons are still Reformed, and some are Catholic. Calvinism became the dominant doctrine within the Church of Scotland , the Dutch Republic , some communities in Flanders , and parts of Germany , especially those adjacent to the Netherlands in the Palatinate , Kassel , and Lippe , spread by Olevianus and Zacharias Ursinus among others. Protected by

22940-701: Was in the Azusa Street Revival in Los Angeles in 1906. This revival was led by William J. Seymour (1870–1922). Due to the Methodist and Holiness background of many early Pentecostal preachers, the Pentecostal churches usually possessed practices that arose from the Wesleyan Arminianism. During the 20th century, as Pentecostal churches began to settle and incorporate more standard forms, they started to formulate theology that

23095-545: Was much more conservative and was not supportive of revivals . It called for traditional Calvinist orthodoxy as outlined in the Westminster standards . Prominent members of the Old School included Ashbel Green , George Junkin , William Latta, Charles Hodge , William Buell Sprague , and Samuel Stanhope Smith . Schools associated with the Old School included Princeton Theological Seminary and Andover Theological Seminary . Theologically, The New School derived from

23250-481: Was passed down to all mankind because all people are said to be in Adam as a covenantal or "federal" head. Federal theologians usually imply that Adam and Eve would have gained immortality had they obeyed perfectly. A second covenant, called the covenant of grace, is said to have been made immediately following Adam and Eve's sin. In it, God graciously offers salvation from death on condition of faith in God. This covenant

23405-712: Was rejected in favor of Lutheranism after the Synod of Uppsala in 1593. Many 17th century European settlers in the Thirteen Colonies in British America were Calvinists, who emigrated because of arguments over church structure, including the Pilgrim Fathers . Others were forced into exile, including the French Huguenots . Dutch and French Calvinist settlers were also among the first European colonizers of South Africa , beginning in

23560-843: Was the Standard Confession of 1660. In the 1640s the Particular Baptists were formed, diverging from Arminian doctrine and embracing the strong Calvinism of the Presbyterians and Independents . Their robust Calvinism was publicized in such confessions as the London Baptist Confession of 1644 and the Second London Confession of 1689. The London Confession of 1689 was later used by Calvinistic Baptists in America (called

23715-422: Was the second great religious revival in United States history and consisted of renewed personal salvation experienced in revival meetings. Presbyterian Rev. Charles Finney (1792–1875) was a key leader of the evangelical revival movement in America. From 1821 onwards he conducted revival meetings across many north-eastern states and won many converts. For him, a revival was not a miracle but a change of mindset that

23870-467: Was ultimately a matter for the individual's free will. His revival meetings created anxiety in a penitent's mind that one could only save his or her soul by submission to the will of God, as illustrated by Finney's quotations from the Bible. In the West (now Upper South) especially—at Cane Ridge, Kentucky and in Tennessee —the revival strengthened the Methodists and Baptists . The Churches of Christ and Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) arose from

24025-450: Was written prior to the Canons of Dort. The acrostic was used by Cleland Boyd McAfee as early as circa 1905. An early printed appearance of the acrostic can be found in Loraine Boettner's 1932 book, The Reformed Doctrine of Predestination . Reformed Christians see the Christian Church as the community with which God has made the covenant of grace, a promise of eternal life and relationship with God. This covenant extends to those under

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