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113-604: 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 Operation Halberd was a British naval operation that took place on 27 September 1941, during the Second World War . The British were attempting to deliver a convoy from Gibraltar to Malta . The convoy was escorted by several battleships and an aircraft carrier, to deter interference from the Italian surface fleet, while a close escort of cruisers and destroyers provided an anti-aircraft screen. The Italian fleet sortied after

226-659: A Neutrality Pact in April 1941, and Japan adopted the doctrine of Nanshin-ron , promoted by the Navy, which took its focus southward and eventually led to war with the United States and the Western Allies. In Europe, Germany and Italy were becoming more aggressive. In March 1938, Germany annexed Austria , again provoking little response from other European powers. Encouraged, Hitler began pressing German claims on

339-578: A cautious French probe into the Saarland . The Western Allies also began a naval blockade of Germany , which aimed to damage the country's economy and war effort. Germany responded by ordering U-boat warfare against Allied merchant and warships, which would later escalate into the Battle of the Atlantic . On 8 September, German troops reached the suburbs of Warsaw . The Polish counter-offensive to

452-474: A bombardment raid against the Italian coast. A CANT Z.506 seaplane observing Force H at 09:32 on 26 September reported a battleship with an aircraft carrier incorrectly identified as HMS  Furious . Since Ark Royal had been seen leaving Gibraltar, the Italians assumed Furious might be flying off aircraft to reinforce Malta while Ark Royal attacked Genoa . The Italian fleet sailed from Naples to take

565-539: A defensive position with the 8th cruiser division off northern Sardinia, but was ordered not to engage the British fleet unless the Italians held a decisive superiority of forces. Force H rejoined the convoy at 07:10 27 September. Sixteen destroyers formed a bent line screen ahead of two columns of merchant ships. The port column was led by the cruiser Kenya , followed by Ajax , Clan MacDonald , Imperial Star , Rowallan Castle and City of Calcutta . The starboard column

678-609: A knight at your age". Second World War Asia-Pacific Mediterranean and Middle East Other campaigns Coups World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies and the Axis powers . Nearly all the world's countries —including all the great powers —participated, with many investing all available economic, industrial, and scientific capabilities in pursuit of total war , blurring

791-524: A pretext to initiate the invasion. The first German attack of the war came against the Polish defences at Westerplatte . The United Kingdom responded with an ultimatum for Germany to cease military operations, and on 3 September, after the ultimatum was ignored, Britain and France declared war on Germany. During the Phoney War period, the alliance provided no direct military support to Poland, outside of

904-726: A pretext to worsen relations. On 29 August, Hitler demanded that a Polish plenipotentiary immediately travel to Berlin to negotiate the handover of Danzig , and to allow a plebiscite in the Polish Corridor in which the German minority would vote on secession. The Poles refused to comply with the German demands, and on the night of 30–31 August in a confrontational meeting with the British ambassador Nevile Henderson , Ribbentrop declared that Germany considered its claims rejected. On 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland after having staged several false flag border incidents as

1017-852: A second patrol to the Caribbean Sea , Morosini was lost to unknown causes after 8 August 1942. Cappellini (pennant number CL) was launched 14 May 1939 as the first boat of the "improved Marcello class". After an unsuccessful war patrol in the Mediterranean, Cappellini sailed on 29 September 1940 and passed the Strait of Gibraltar on 5 October for an Atlantic patrol to Bordeaux on 5 November. Cappellini sank one ship en route to Bordeaux and two ships on its first BETASOM patrol. After unsuccessful patrols from 16 April to 20 May, 29 June to 6 July, and 17 November to 29 December 1941, Cappellini sank two ships on its fifth BETASOM patrol. During

1130-475: A secret protocol that defined German and Soviet "spheres of influence" (western Poland and Lithuania for Germany; eastern Poland , Finland, Estonia , Latvia and Bessarabia for the Soviet Union), and raised the question of continuing Polish independence. The pact neutralised the possibility of Soviet opposition to a campaign against Poland and assured that Germany would not have to face the prospect of

1243-774: A similar pact and rejected ceding part of its territory to the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union invaded Finland in November 1939, and was subsequently expelled from the League of Nations for this crime of aggression. Despite overwhelming numerical superiority, Soviet military success during the Winter War was modest, and the Finno-Soviet war ended in March 1940 with some Finnish concessions of territory . In June 1940,

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1356-459: A single British battleship, the Italian fleet received authorisation at noon to engage the British formation. The Regia Aeronautica was requested to provide increased air cover for the Italian fleet by 14:00. The Regia Aeronautica launched a strike of 28 SM.79 and SM.84 torpedo planes with 20 Cr.42 fighters. The convoy came under air attack at 13:00. The strike was met by defending Fulmars and heavy anti-aircraft fire. Three bombers pressed through

1469-531: A two-front war, as it had in World War   I. Immediately afterwards, Hitler ordered the attack to proceed on 26 August, but upon hearing that the United Kingdom had concluded a formal mutual assistance pact with Poland and that Italy would maintain neutrality, he decided to delay it. In response to British requests for direct negotiations to avoid war, Germany made demands on Poland, which served as

1582-604: The Anglo-German Naval Agreement and the German–Polish declaration of non-aggression . The situation became a crisis in late August as German troops continued to mobilise against the Polish border. On 23 August the Soviet Union signed a non-aggression pact with Germany, after tripartite negotiations for a military alliance between France, the United Kingdom, and Soviet Union had stalled. This pact had

1695-463: The Clyde on 17 September as part of convoy WS ( W inston S pecials) 11X, passing Gibraltar on 24 September 1941, with a close escort under the command of Rear-Admiral Harold Burrough . The nine ships were (Data from Llewellyn-Jones (2007) unless indicated.) Force H , under the command of Admiral James Somerville , accompanied the convoy as defence against Italian surface ships. Force H consisted of

1808-600: The Flower-class corvette HMS Petunia was reported as the sinking of another battleship. Barbarigo sank two Allied ships and another neutral Spanish freighter Monte Igueldo on its ninth BETASOM patrol. After conversion to a transport submarine, Barbarigo sailed from Bordeaux on 17 June 1943 and was sunk by aircraft in the Bay of Biscay. Angelo Emo (pennant number EO) was launched 29 June 1938 and completed on 10 October. After an unsuccessful first war patrol in

1921-581: The German Revolution of 1918–1919 , and a democratic government, later known as the Weimar Republic , was created. The interwar period saw strife between supporters of the new republic and hardline opponents on both the political right and left. Italy, as an Entente ally, had made some post-war territorial gains; however, Italian nationalists were angered that the promises made by the United Kingdom and France to secure Italian entrance into

2034-710: The Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War   II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939. Others view the Spanish Civil War as the start or prelude to World War II. The exact date of the war's end also is not universally agreed upon. It

2147-640: The League of Nations as a force to preserve peace. Both Italy and Ethiopia were member nations, but the League did little when the former clearly violated Article X of the League's Covenant . The United Kingdom and France supported imposing sanctions on Italy for the invasion, but the sanctions were not fully enforced and failed to end the Italian invasion. Italy subsequently dropped its objections to Germany's goal of absorbing Austria . When civil war broke out in Spain, Hitler and Mussolini lent military support to

2260-731: The Nationalist rebels , led by General Francisco Franco . Italy supported the Nationalists to a greater extent than the Nazis: Mussolini sent more than 70,000 ground troops, 6,000 aviation personnel, and 720 aircraft to Spain. The Soviet Union supported the existing government of the Spanish Republic . More than 30,000 foreign volunteers, known as the International Brigades , also fought against

2373-589: The Paris Peace Conference . The organisation's primary goals were to prevent armed conflict through collective security, military, and naval disarmament , as well as settling international disputes through peaceful negotiations and arbitration. Despite strong pacifist sentiment after World War   I , irredentist and revanchist nationalism had emerged in several European states. These sentiments were especially marked in Germany because of

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2486-690: The Rome–Berlin Axis . A month later, Germany and Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact , which Italy joined the following year. The Kuomintang (KMT) party in China launched a unification campaign against regional warlords and nominally unified China in the mid-1920s, but was soon embroiled in a civil war against its former Chinese Communist Party (CCP) allies and new regional warlords . In 1931, an increasingly militaristic Empire of Japan , which had long sought influence in China as

2599-590: The Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact in April 1941. By contrast, the Germans were steadily making preparations for an attack on the Soviet Union, massing forces on the Soviet border. Hitler believed that the United Kingdom's refusal to end the war was based on the hope that the United States and the Soviet Union would enter the war against Germany sooner or later. On 31 July 1940, Hitler decided that

2712-601: The Strait of Messina while HMS  Upright and Utmost patrolled north of the Strait. The Polish submarine ORP  Sokół patrolled north of Sicily with HMS  Urge and Upholder while the Dutch submarine HNLMS  O 21 patrolled south of Sardinia . Malta had recently received 27 long-range fighters (22 Bristol Beaufighters and 5 Bristol Blenheims ), which had been bombing and strafing Italian airfields on Sicily and Sardinia, and would provide air cover for

2825-543: The Stresa Front in April 1935 in order to contain Germany, a key step towards military globalisation ; however, that June, the United Kingdom made an independent naval agreement with Germany, easing prior restrictions. The Soviet Union, concerned by Germany's goals of capturing vast areas of Eastern Europe , drafted a treaty of mutual assistance with France. Before taking effect, though, the Franco-Soviet pact

2938-709: The Sudetenland , an area of Czechoslovakia with a predominantly ethnic German population. Soon the United Kingdom and France followed the appeasement policy of British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain and conceded this territory to Germany in the Munich Agreement , which was made against the wishes of the Czechoslovak government, in exchange for a promise of no further territorial demands. Soon afterwards, Germany and Italy forced Czechoslovakia to cede additional territory to Hungary, and Poland annexed

3051-707: The Tanggu Truce was signed in 1933. Thereafter, Chinese volunteer forces continued the resistance to Japanese aggression in Manchuria , and Chahar and Suiyuan . After the 1936 Xi'an Incident , the Kuomintang and CCP forces agreed on a ceasefire to present a united front to oppose Japan. The Second Italo-Ethiopian War was a brief colonial war that began in October 1935 and ended in May 1936. The war began with

3164-579: The Trans-Olza region of Czechoslovakia. Although all of Germany's stated demands had been satisfied by the agreement, privately Hitler was furious that British interference had prevented him from seizing all of Czechoslovakia in one operation. In subsequent speeches Hitler attacked British and Jewish "war-mongers" and in January 1939 secretly ordered a major build-up of the German navy to challenge British naval supremacy. In March 1939, Germany invaded

3277-609: The Treaty of Craiova . The loss of one-third of Romania's 1939 territory caused a coup against King Carol II, turning Romania into a fascist dictatorship under Marshal Ion Antonescu , with a course set towards the Axis in the hopes of a German guarantee. Meanwhile, German-Soviet political relations and economic co-operation gradually stalled, and both states began preparations for war. In April 1940, Germany invaded Denmark and Norway to protect shipments of iron ore from Sweden , which

3390-709: The Wehrmacht rapidly advanced to the Channel and cut off the Allied forces in Belgium, trapping the bulk of the Allied armies in a cauldron on the Franco-Belgian border near Lille. The United Kingdom was able to evacuate a significant number of Allied troops from the continent by early June, although they had to abandon almost all their equipment. On 10 June, Italy invaded France , declaring war on both France and

3503-703: The battleships HMS  Nelson , Rodney and Prince of Wales with the aircraft carrier HMS  Ark Royal operating 12 Fairey Swordfish and 27 Fairey Fulmars of 807 and 808 Naval Air Squadrons . Force H included cruisers HMS  Kenya , Edinburgh , Sheffield , Euryalus and Hermione , and was screened by destroyers HNLMS  Isaac Sweers , ORP Garland and ORP  Piorun , and HMS  Duncan , Farndale , Foresight , Forester , Fury , Heythrop , Laforey , Lance , Legion , Lightning , Lively , Oribi , Cossack , Gurkha and Zulu . Submarines HMS  Ursula and Unbeaten patrolled south of

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3616-436: The 13th flotilla, and Nicoloso da Recco , Emanuele Pessagno and Folgore of the 16th flotilla while cruisers Trieste , Trento and Gorizia from Taranto with Corazziere , Carabiniere , Ascari and Lanciere of the 12th flotilla prepared to join them. Sardinia deployed thirty Macchi C.200 , twenty Fiat CR.42 Falco fighters and twenty-six Savoia-Marchetti SM.79 and SM.84 torpedo bombers against

3729-538: The 1917 Bolshevik seizure of power in Russia , which led to the founding of the Soviet Union. Meanwhile, the victorious Allies of World War I , such as France, Belgium, Italy, Romania, and Greece, gained territory, and new nation-states were created out of the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian Empires. To prevent a future world war, the League of Nations was established in 1920 by

3842-400: The 8th cruiser division at 11:48. The Italian fleet was faster than the battleships of Force H, but was inferior to the British force in firepower. The Regia Aeronautica gave priority to fighter defence of bomber strikes, and the six fighters providing air cover over the Italian fleet could not travel more than 62 mi (100 km) from their base. Since Italian aircraft had reported only

3955-519: The Allies were attempting to cut off . Denmark capitulated after six hours , and despite Allied support , Norway was conquered within two months. British discontent over the Norwegian campaign led to the resignation of Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain , who was replaced by Winston Churchill on 10   May 1940. On the same day, Germany launched an offensive against France . To circumvent

4068-867: The Asia-Pacific , and by 1937 was at war with the Republic of China . In December 1941, Japan attacked American and British territories in Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific , including Pearl Harbor in Hawaii , which resulted in the US and the UK declaring war against Japan, and the European Axis declaring war on the US. Japan conquered much of coastal China and Southeast Asia , but its advances in

4181-534: The Axis war against the Soviet Union, in Romania's case partially to recapture territory ceded to the Soviet Union . In early June 1940, the Italian Regia Aeronautica attacked and besieged Malta , a British possession. From late summer to early autumn, Italy conquered British Somaliland and made an incursion into British-held Egypt . In October, Italy attacked Greece , but the attack

4294-533: The Blitz , but largely ended in May 1941 after failing to significantly disrupt the British war effort. Using newly captured French ports, the German Navy enjoyed success against an over-extended Royal Navy , using U-boats against British shipping in the Atlantic . The British Home Fleet scored a significant victory on 27   May 1941 by sinking the German battleship Bismarck . In November 1939,

4407-649: The Daily Telegraph obituary of Cpt Humphrey Boyes-Smith RN who died 24/6/99, Nani was sunk by depth charges from the Flower-class corvette HMS Anemone on 7/1/41. Sebastiano Veniero (pennant number VN) was launched 14 February 1938 and completed on 6 June. After an unsuccessful Mediterranean patrol, Veniero passed the Strait of Gibraltar on 7 July 1940 for an Atlantic patrol near the Canary Islands and returned past Gibraltar on 27 July. This

4520-810: The French possessions of Syria and Lebanon , assisted by the Free French . With the situation in Europe and Asia relatively stable, Germany, Japan, and the Soviet Union made preparations for war. With the Soviets wary of mounting tensions with Germany, and the Japanese planning to take advantage of the European War by seizing resource-rich European possessions in Southeast Asia , the two powers signed

4633-426: The Fulmars. Six more torpedo planes and 1 fighter failed to return from the strike. Friendly fire from Rodney and Prince of Wales shot down two Fulmars, and a patrolling Swordfish had been shot down by the Italian fighters before the strike ended at 13:30. The Italian fleet was shadowed by British aircraft from Malta beginning at 13:07. At 14:30 the Italian fleet was about 40 nmi (74 km; 46 mi) from

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4746-426: The Germans, and the last large operational unit of the Polish Army surrendered on 6   October . Despite the military defeat, Poland never surrendered; instead, it formed the Polish government-in-exile and a clandestine state apparatus remained in occupied Poland. A significant part of Polish military personnel evacuated to Romania and Latvia; many of them later fought against the Axis in other theatres of

4859-445: The Holocaust of European Jews, as well as from massacres, starvation, and disease. Following the Allied powers' victory, Germany , Austria , Japan , and Korea were occupied, and war crimes tribunals were conducted against German and Japanese leaders . The causes of World War II included unresolved tensions in the aftermath of World War I and the rise of fascism in Europe and militarism in Japan . Key events leading up to

4972-419: The Italians. Italian aircraft losses were 21 including seven bombers and one fighter from enemy action, one fighter from friendly fire and ten fighters from fuel exhaustion. Somerville was knighted in recognition of his command of Force H during Operation Halberd. It was the second time Somerville had received that honour, and it occasioned a memorable congratulatory message from Andrew Cunningham "Fancy, twice

5085-475: The Mediterranean, Dandolo sailed on 13 August 1940 and passed the Strait of Gibraltar on 16 August for an Atlantic patrol to Bordeaux on 10 September. Dandolo sank one ship and damaged another en route to Bordeaux. After an unsuccessful patrol, Dandolo sank one ship on its second BETASOM patrol. After another unsuccessful patrol, Dandolo sailed from Bordeaux on 26 June, passed the Strait of Gibraltar on 2 July, and returned to Naples on 7 July. Dandolo spent

5198-422: The Mediterranean, Emo sailed on 29 August 1940 and passed the Strait of Gibraltar for an Atlantic patrol to Bordeaux on 3 October. Emo sank one ship en route to Bordeaux. After unsuccessful patrols from 31 October to 6 November 1940 and from 5 December to 1 January 1941, Emo sank one ship on its third BETASOM patrol. After another unsuccessful BETASOM patrol, Emo sailed from Bordeaux on 20 August and passed

5311-456: The Mediterranean, Morosini sailed on 25 October 1940 and passed the Strait of Gibraltar on 31 October for an Atlantic patrol to Bordeaux on 28 November. After unsuccessful patrols from 22 January to 24 February and from 30 April to 20 May 1941, Morosini sank two ships on its third BETASOM patrol. After two more unsuccessful patrols, Morosini sank two ships during Operation Neuland . While returning to France after sinking another ship during

5424-450: The Nationalists. Both Germany and the Soviet Union used this proxy war as an opportunity to test in combat their most advanced weapons and tactics. The Nationalists won the civil war in April 1939; Franco, now dictator, remained officially neutral during World War   II but generally favoured the Axis . His greatest collaboration with Germany was the sending of volunteers to fight on the Eastern Front . In July 1937, Japan captured

5537-444: The Pacific were halted in mid-1942 after its defeat in the naval Battle of Midway ; Germany and Italy were defeated in North Africa and at Stalingrad in the Soviet Union. Key setbacks in 1943—including German defeats on the Eastern Front, the Allied invasions of Sicily and the Italian mainland , and Allied offensives in the Pacific—cost the Axis powers their initiative and forced them into strategic retreat on all fronts. In 1944,

5650-452: The Royal Navy putting three Italian battleships out of commission after a carrier attack at Taranto , and neutralising several more warships at the Battle of Cape Matapan . Italian defeats prompted Germany to deploy an expeditionary force to North Africa; at the end of March 1941, Rommel 's Afrika Korps launched an offensive which drove back Commonwealth forces. In less than a month, Axis forces advanced to western Egypt and besieged

5763-423: The Soviet Union occupied the entire territories of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, as well as the Romanian regions of Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina, and the Hertsa region . In August 1940, Hitler imposed the Second Vienna Award on Romania which led to the transfer of Northern Transylvania to Hungary. In September 1940, Bulgaria demanded Southern Dobruja from Romania with German and Italian support, leading to

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5876-418: The Soviet Union and Mongolia . The Japanese doctrine of Hokushin-ron , which emphasised Japan's expansion northward, was favoured by the Imperial Army during this time. This policy would prove difficult to maintain in light of the Japanese defeat at Khalkin Gol in 1939, the ongoing Second Sino-Japanese War and ally Nazi Germany pursuing neutrality with the Soviets. Japan and the Soviet Union eventually signed

5989-575: The Soviet Union should be eliminated and aimed for the conquest of Ukraine , the Baltic states and Byelorussia . However, other senior German officials like Ribbentrop saw an opportunity to create a Euro-Asian bloc against the British Empire by inviting the Soviet Union into the Tripartite Pact. In November 1940, negotiations took place to determine if the Soviet Union would join the pact. The Soviets showed some interest but asked for concessions from Finland, Bulgaria, Turkey, and Japan that Germany considered unacceptable. On 18 December 1940, Hitler issued

6102-400: The Soviet Union was ever signed, although the state of war between the two countries was terminated by the Soviet–Japanese Joint Declaration of 1956 , which also restored full diplomatic relations between them. World War I had radically altered the political European map with the defeat of the Central Powers —including Austria-Hungary , Germany , Bulgaria , and the Ottoman Empire —and

6215-489: The Strait of Gibraltar to La Spezia on 2 September. On its seventh patrol after return to the Mediterranean, Veniero was assumed sunk (identification not confirmed) by a Consolidated PBY Catalina on 7 June 1942. Andrea Provana (pennant number PR) was launched 16 March 1938. Provana was the first Italian submarine lost after Italy's declaration of war. Provana was sunk by the French sloop La Curieuse on 16 June 1940. Agostino Barbarigo (pennant number BO)

6328-434: The Strait of Gibraltar to return to Naples on 1 September 1941. After spending two months as a training boat at the submarine school in Pula , Emo completed several Mediterranean war patrols before being sunk by the naval trawler HMS Lord Nuffield on 7 November 1942 during the preliminary stages of Operation Torch . Francesco Morosini (pennant number MS) was launched 28 July 1938. After unsuccessful war patrols in

6441-424: The United Kingdom and France guaranteed their support for Polish independence ; when Italy conquered Albania in April 1939, the same guarantee was extended to the Kingdoms of Romania and Greece . Shortly after the Franco - British pledge to Poland, Germany and Italy formalised their own alliance with the Pact of Steel . Hitler accused the United Kingdom and Poland of trying to "encircle" Germany and renounced

6554-489: The United Kingdom attacked on 3   July in an attempt to prevent its seizure by Germany. The air Battle of Britain began in early July with Luftwaffe attacks on shipping and harbours . The German campaign for air superiority started in August but its failure to defeat RAF Fighter Command forced the indefinite postponement of the proposed German invasion of Britain . The German strategic bombing offensive intensified with night attacks on London and other cities in

6667-401: The United Kingdom. The Germans turned south against the weakened French army, and Paris fell to them on 14   June. Eight days later France signed an armistice with Germany ; it was divided into German and Italian occupation zones , and an unoccupied rump state under the Vichy Regime , which, though officially neutral, was generally aligned with Germany. France kept its fleet, which

6780-473: The United States was assisting China and the Western Allies, and had amended the Neutrality Act to allow "cash and carry" purchases by the Allies. In 1940, following the German capture of Paris, the size of the United States Navy was significantly increased . In September the United States further agreed to a trade of American destroyers for British bases . Still, a large majority of the American public continued to oppose any direct military intervention in

6893-412: The Western Allies and the Soviet Union, culminating in the fall of Berlin to Soviet troops; Hitler's suicide ; and the German unconditional surrender on 8 May 1945 . Following the refusal of Japan to surrender on the terms of the Potsdam Declaration , the US dropped the first atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki on 6 and 9 August. Faced with an imminent invasion of the Japanese archipelago ,

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7006-413: The Western Allies invaded German-occupied France at Normandy , while the Soviet Union regained its territorial losses and pushed Germany and its allies westward. At the same time, Japan suffered reversals in mainland Asia, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy and captured key islands . The war in Europe concluded with the liberation of German-occupied territories ; the invasion of Germany by

7119-434: The Yellow River ; this manoeuvre bought time for the Chinese to prepare their defences at Wuhan , but the city was taken by October. Japanese military victories did not bring about the collapse of Chinese resistance that Japan had hoped to achieve; instead, the Chinese government relocated inland to Chongqing and continued the war. In the mid-to-late 1930s, Japanese forces in Manchukuo had sporadic border clashes with

7232-452: The aerial Battle of Britain and the Blitz , and naval Battle of the Atlantic . Through a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany took control of much of continental Europe and formed the Axis alliance with Italy , Japan , and other countries. In June 1941, Germany led the European Axis in an invasion of the Soviet Union , opening the Eastern Front and initially making large territorial gains. Japan aimed to dominate East Asia and

7345-485: The barrage of starboard wing destroyers to launch torpedoes at Nelson . Nelson turned to comb the torpedo tracks, and inadvertently steadied on the reciprocal course of a torpedo which struck the port side of the forecastle . Nelson slowed to 15 knots, but maintained position in the convoy. The Italian plane had released the torpedo at a range of only 450 yd (410 m) and endured concentrated anti-aircraft fire from Prince of Wales before being shot down by one of

7458-437: The beginning of the Pacific War include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or the earlier Japanese invasion of Manchuria , on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor , who stated that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously, and the two wars became World War II in 1941. Other proposed starting dates for World War II include

7571-405: The capital Nanking in December 1937. After the fall of Nanking, tens or hundreds of thousands of Chinese civilians and disarmed combatants were murdered by the Japanese . In March 1938, Nationalist Chinese forces won their first major victory at Taierzhuang , but then the city of Xuzhou was taken by the Japanese in May. In June 1938, Chinese forces stalled the Japanese advance by flooding

7684-403: The conflict well into 1941. In December 1940, Roosevelt accused Hitler of planning world conquest and ruled out any negotiations as useless, calling for the United States to become an " arsenal of democracy " and promoting Lend-Lease programmes of military and humanitarian aid to support the British war effort; Lend-Lease was later extended to the other Allies, including the Soviet Union after it

7797-448: The convoy after Force H retired before reaching the Sicilian narrows. Italian submarines deployed to ambush the British battleships thought to be planning a bombardment raid against the Italian coast. Dandolo , Adua and Turchese patrolled south of Ibiza while Axum , Serpente , Aradam and Diaspro patrolled east of the Balearic Islands . Squalo , Bandiera and Delfino patrolled Southwest of Sardinia and Narvalo

7910-487: The convoy was detected, but turned back after learning the strength of the escorting force. Air attacks by Italian bombers and fighters damaged several ships, and forced one of the merchant vessels to be scuttled. The rest of the convoy arrived at Malta and discharged their cargo. Operation Halberd was at the time the largest Malta supply effort of the war. Nine merchant ships carrying 81,000 tons of military equipment and supplies sailed from Liverpool on 16 September and from

8023-407: The convoy while Sicily deployed fifteen C.200 and three Reggiane Re.2000 fighters and nine Junkers Ju 87 with twenty-four Fiat BR.20 , SM.79 and SM.84 as high-level bombers and plus three with torpedoes. More Italian aircraft were operational but were assigned other missions including bombing Malta. Ships of the Mediterranean Fleet operating from Alexandria began making heavy radio traffic in

8136-498: The convoy, but "...decided to return home around 14:30 on 27 September when..." it "... learned that the British had two battleships, a carrier and six cruisers at sea." Aircraft from Ark Royal shadowed the Italian fleet from 15:15 to 17:50. Cr.42 fighters arrived at 15:30 to provide air cover but the squadron leader of the first flight was shot down by friendly fire from an Italian destroyer. Two more Italian pilots were lost when another flight of ten C.200s ran out of fuel and ditched in

8249-611: The convoy. Hermione detached from the convoy to bombard Pantelleria to put the airfield out of action when the convoy arrived in Malta. The damaged Imperial Star was scuttled without loss of life to maintain convoy speed and the convoy arrived in Malta on 28 September. Force H was attacked on its return journey by three submarines and Adua was sunk by Gurkha and Legion . Another Ark Royal Fulmar fell to friendly fire from Prince of Wales , raising British aircraft losses to three Fulmars from friendly fire and one Swordfish shot down by

8362-526: The creation of a " New Roman Empire ". Adolf Hitler , after an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the German government in 1923, eventually became the Chancellor of Germany in 1933 when Paul von Hindenburg and the Reichstag appointed him. Following Hindenburg's death in 1934, Hitler proclaimed himself Führer of Germany and abolished democracy, espousing a radical, racially motivated revision of

8475-459: The crew. After unsuccessful patrols in the Mediterranean, Marcello sailed on 31 October 1940 and passed the Strait of Gibraltar on 5 November for an Atlantic patrol to Bordeaux on 2 December. Marcello sank one ship on its first BETASOM patrol and was lost to unknown causes on its next patrol in late February 1941. Enrico Dandolo (pennant number DO) was launched 20 November 1937 and completed on 25 March 1938. After unsuccessful patrols in

8588-431: The directive to prepare for an invasion of the Soviet Union. Marcello class submarine#Dandolo Lorenzo Marcello ( pennant number ML) was launched on 20 November 1937 and completed on 5 March 1938. When Italy declared war, Marcello was temporarily disabled by air conditioning system leaks. Leakage of chloromethane refrigerants during submerged operations had caused central nervous system poisoning of

8701-402: The distinction between military and civilian resources. Tanks and aircraft played major roles , with the latter enabling the strategic bombing of population centres and delivery of the only two nuclear weapons ever used in war. World War II was the deadliest conflict in history, resulting in 70 to 85 million deaths , more than half being civilians. Millions died in genocides , including

8814-662: The end of May completed the German conquest of the Balkans. Partisan warfare subsequently broke out against the Axis occupation of Yugoslavia , which continued until the end of the war. In the Middle East in May, Commonwealth forces quashed an uprising in Iraq which had been supported by German aircraft from bases within Vichy-controlled Syria . Between June and July, British-led forces invaded and occupied

8927-575: The first step of what its government saw as the country's right to rule Asia , staged the Mukden incident as a pretext to invade Manchuria and establish the puppet state of Manchukuo . China appealed to the League of Nations to stop the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. Japan withdrew from the League of Nations after being condemned for its incursion into Manchuria. The two nations then fought several battles, in Shanghai , Rehe and Hebei , until

9040-469: The following patrol, Cappellini participated in rescue operations of the Laconia incident . After another unsuccessful patrol, Cappelini was converted to a transport submarine. Cappellini sailed on 11 May and reached Singapore on 13 July 1943 with 160 tons of mercury , aluminum , welding steel , 20mm guns , ammunition , bomb prototypes , bombsights and tank blueprints . Cappellini

9153-864: The former Chinese imperial capital of Peking after instigating the Marco Polo Bridge incident , which culminated in the Japanese campaign to invade all of China. The Soviets quickly signed a non-aggression pact with China to lend materiel support, effectively ending China's prior cooperation with Germany . From September to November, the Japanese attacked Taiyuan , engaged the Kuomintang Army around Xinkou , and fought Communist forces in Pingxingguan . Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek deployed his best army to defend Shanghai , but after three months of fighting, Shanghai fell. The Japanese continued to push Chinese forces back, capturing

9266-464: The hope of diverting Luftwaffe attention to possible preparations for a major operation in the eastern Mediterranean. On 24 September Admiral Somerville shifted his flag from Nelson to Rodney and Nelson sailed west into the Atlantic at 18:15 escorted by Garland , Piorun and Isaac Sweers to give the impression the strength of Force H was being reduced. Nelson turned back after dusk to join

9379-525: The invasion of the Ethiopian Empire (also known as Abyssinia ) by the armed forces of the Kingdom of Italy ( Regno d'Italia ), which was launched from Italian Somaliland and Eritrea . The war resulted in the military occupation of Ethiopia and its annexation into the newly created colony of Italian East Africa ( Africa Orientale Italiana , or AOI); in addition it exposed the weakness of

9492-422: The merchant ships from Convoy WS 11X, now renamed convoy GM 2 as the second convoy from G ibraltar to M alta. Force H separated from the merchant ships in the early hours of 25 September so Axis aerial reconnaissance might think only Force H was at sea. Fulmars from Ark Royal provided air cover over the convoy. Italian aircraft found Force H on the afternoon of 25 September, and assumed the battleships were on

9605-419: The merchant ships, while the destroyers Piorun and Legion assumed plane guard positions astern of Ark Royal . Italian aircraft correctly identified Ark Royal at 08:10, and at 10:45 reported the convoy speed of 16 kn (30 km/h; 18 mph), which indicated that merchant ships were with the convoy. The battleships from Naples rendezvoused with the cruisers from Taranto at 10:40 and were joined by

9718-545: The neutral Spanish freighter Navemar on 23 January 1942. Barbarigo sank one ship and damaged another during its seventh BETASOM patrol. Following an encounter with cruisers USS  Omaha and USS  Milwaukee coming to assist the damaged ship, Captain Grossi notoriously asserted he had sunk a battleship of the United States Navy . On the following patrol, a similarly unsuccessful launch of torpedoes at

9831-428: The port column of merchant ships while Sheffield and Hermione joined the starboard column as the remaining destroyers closed into a night steaming formation. The formation was attacked by a few torpedo bombers, and Imperial Star was struck by a single torpedo. Oribi took the damaged freighter in tow. Italian Motoscafo armato silurante (MAS torpedo boats) deployed through the Strait of Messina, but failed to find

9944-599: The port of Tobruk . By late March 1941, Bulgaria and Yugoslavia signed the Tripartite Pact ; however, the Yugoslav government was overthrown two days later by pro-British nationalists. Germany and Italy responded with simultaneous invasions of both Yugoslavia and Greece , commencing on 6 April 1941; both nations were forced to surrender within the month. The airborne invasion of the Greek island of Crete at

10057-414: The possibility of further atomic bombings, and the Soviet declaration of war against Japan and its invasion of Manchuria , Japan announced its unconditional surrender on 15 August and signed a surrender document on 2 September 1945 , marking the end of the war. World War II changed the political alignment and social structure of the world, and it set the foundation of international relations for

10170-722: The remainder of Czechoslovakia and subsequently split it into the German Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and a pro-German client state , the Slovak Republic . Hitler also delivered an ultimatum to Lithuania on 20 March 1939, forcing the concession of the Klaipėda Region , formerly the German Memelland . Greatly alarmed and with Hitler making further demands on the Free City of Danzig ,

10283-492: The remainder of the war in the Mediterranean damaging a neutral French tanker on 4 November 1941, sinking the neutral Spanish freighter Castillo Oropesa on 8 November 1941, and damaging the cruiser HMS  Cleopatra on 16 July 1943. Dandolo sailed to the United States after the Italian armistice , and was scrapped in 1948. Lazzaro Mocenigo (pennant number MO) was launched 20 November 1937. Mocenigo

10396-517: The rest of the 20th century and into the 21st century. The United Nations was established to foster international cooperation and prevent conflicts, with the victorious great powers—China, France, the Soviet Union, the UK, and the US—becoming the permanent members of its security council . The Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers , setting the stage for the Cold War . In

10509-436: The sea. At 14:46 Prince of Wales , Rodney , Sheffield , Edinburgh , and six destroyers steamed toward the Italian fleet but were recalled at 17:00 before making contact and rejoined the convoy at 18:30. Nelson , Rodney , Prince of Wales and Ark Royal turned west to return to Gibraltar, escorted by Duncan , Fury , Gurkha , Lance , Legion , Lively . Garland , Piorun , and Isaac Sweers . Euryalus fell in astern of

10622-410: The significant territorial, colonial, and financial losses imposed by the Treaty of Versailles . Under the treaty, Germany lost around 13 percent of its home territory and all its overseas possessions , while German annexation of other states was prohibited, reparations were imposed, and limits were placed on the size and capability of the country's armed forces . The German Empire was dissolved in

10735-593: The strong Maginot Line fortifications on the Franco-German border, Germany directed its attack at the neutral nations of Belgium , the Netherlands , and Luxembourg . The Germans carried out a flanking manoeuvre through the Ardennes region, which was mistakenly perceived by the Allies as an impenetrable natural barrier against armoured vehicles. By successfully implementing new Blitzkrieg tactics,

10848-548: The wake of European devastation, the influence of its great powers waned, triggering the decolonisation of Africa and Asia . Most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery and expansion . World War II began in Europe on 1 September 1939 with the German invasion of Poland and the United Kingdom and France 's declaration of war on Germany two days later on 3 September 1939. Dates for

10961-537: The war included Japan's invasion of Manchuria , the Spanish Civil War , the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War , and Germany's annexations of Austria and the Sudetenland . World War II is generally considered to have begun on 1 September 1939, when Nazi Germany , under Adolf Hitler , invaded Poland , prompting the United Kingdom and France to declare war on Germany. Poland

11074-513: The war were not fulfilled in the peace settlement. From 1922 to 1925, the Fascist movement led by Benito Mussolini seized power in Italy with a nationalist, totalitarian , and class collaborationist agenda that abolished representative democracy, repressed socialist, left-wing, and liberal forces, and pursued an aggressive expansionist foreign policy aimed at making Italy a world power, promising

11187-475: The war. Germany annexed western Poland and occupied central Poland ; the Soviet Union annexed eastern Poland ; small shares of Polish territory were transferred to Lithuania and Slovakia . On 6 October, Hitler made a public peace overture to the United Kingdom and France but said that the future of Poland was to be determined exclusively by Germany and the Soviet Union. The proposal was rejected and Hitler ordered an immediate offensive against France, which

11300-512: The west halted the German advance for several days, but it was outflanked and encircled by the Wehrmacht . Remnants of the Polish army broke through to besieged Warsaw . On 17 September 1939, two days after signing a cease-fire with Japan , the Soviet Union invaded Poland under the supposed pretext that the Polish state had ceased to exist. On 27 September, the Warsaw garrison surrendered to

11413-707: The world order , and soon began a massive rearmament campaign . France, seeking to secure its alliance with Italy, allowed Italy a free hand in Ethiopia , which Italy desired as a colonial possession. The situation was aggravated in early 1935 when the Territory of the Saar Basin was legally reunited with Germany, and Hitler repudiated the Treaty of Versailles, accelerated his rearmament programme, and introduced conscription. The United Kingdom, France and Italy formed

11526-614: Was invaded by Germany. The United States started strategic planning to prepare for a full-scale offensive against Germany. At the end of September 1940, the Tripartite Pact formally united Japan, Italy, and Germany as the Axis powers . The Tripartite Pact stipulated that any country—with the exception of the Soviet Union—that attacked any Axis Power would be forced to go to war against all three. The Axis expanded in November 1940 when Hungary , Slovakia , and Romania joined. Romania and Hungary later made major contributions to

11639-770: Was divided between Germany and the Soviet Union under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact , in which they had agreed on " spheres of influence " in Eastern Europe. In 1940, the Soviets annexed the Baltic states and parts of Finland and Romania . After the fall of France in June 1940, the war continued mainly between Germany and the British Empire , with fighting in the Balkans , Mediterranean, and Middle East ,

11752-536: Was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 15 August 1945 ( V-J Day ), rather than with the formal surrender of Japan on 2 September 1945, which officially ended the war in Asia . A peace treaty between Japan and the Allies was signed in 1951. A 1990 treaty regarding Germany's future allowed the reunification of East and West Germany to take place and resolved most post–World War   II issues. No formal peace treaty between Japan and

11865-527: Was launched 12 June 1938. After unsuccessful patrols in the Mediterranean, Barbarigo sailed on 13 August 1940 and passed the Strait of Gibraltar for an Atlantic patrol to Bordeaux on 8 September. After unsuccessful BETASOM patrols from 14 October to 13 November 1940 and from 10 February to 8 March 1941, Barbarigo damaged the British freighter Manchester Port on 15 May 1941. Barbarigo sank two ships on its fourth BETASOM patrol. After an unsuccessful patrol from 22 October to 12 November 1941, Barbarigo sank

11978-479: Was led by the cruiser Edinburgh followed by Clan Ferguson , MV  Dunedin Star , HMS Breconshire and City of Lincoln . Rodney took position behind the port wing of the screen followed by Prince of Wales . Nelson took position behind the starboard wing of the screen followed by Ark Royal in formation with the anti-aircraft cruisers Euryalus and Hermione . The cruiser Sheffield took position astern of

12091-590: Was off the African shore of the Sicilian narrows. Light cruisers Muzio Attendolo and Luigi di Savoia Duca degli Abruzzi of the 8th cruiser division sailed from Palermo with Maestrale -class destroyers Maestrale , Grecale and Scirocco of the 10th destroyer flotilla to take position off La Maddalena . Battleships Vittorio Veneto and Littorio were prepared to sortie from Naples with Granatiere , Fuciliere , Bersagliere and Gioberti of

12204-456: Was postponed until the spring of 1940 due to bad weather. After the outbreak of war in Poland, Stalin threatened Estonia , Latvia , and Lithuania with military invasion, forcing the three Baltic countries to sign pacts allowing the creation of Soviet military bases in these countries; in October 1939, significant Soviet military contingents were moved there. Finland refused to sign

12317-709: Was repulsed with heavy Italian casualties; the campaign ended within months with minor territorial changes. To assist Italy and prevent Britain from gaining a foothold, Germany prepared to invade the Balkans, which would threaten Romanian oil fields and strike against British dominance of the Mediterranean. In December 1940, British Empire forces began counter-offensives against Italian forces in Egypt and Italian East Africa . The offensives were successful; by early February 1941, Italy had lost control of eastern Libya, and large numbers of Italian troops had been taken prisoner. The Italian Navy also suffered significant defeats, with

12430-673: Was required to go through the bureaucracy of the League of Nations, which rendered it essentially toothless. The United States, concerned with events in Europe and Asia, passed the Neutrality Act in August of the same year. Hitler defied the Versailles and Locarno Treaties by remilitarising the Rhineland in March 1936, encountering little opposition due to the policy of appeasement . In October 1936, Germany and Italy formed

12543-624: Was seized by Germany following the Italian armistice of September 1943 and commissioned into the Kriegsmarine as UIT-24 . UIT-24 was then seized by the Imperial Japanese Navy following German surrender in May 1945 and renamed I-503 . I-503 was found at Kobe when Japan surrendered and scuttled in Kii Suido by the United States Navy . Comandante Faà di Bruno (also called Faà di Bruno ) (pennant number FB)

12656-456: Was sunk off Cagliari during a 13 May 1943 USAAF air raid. Giacomo Nani (pennant number NI) was launched 16 January 1938. After unsuccessful patrols in the Mediterranean, Nani sailed on 29 September 1940 and passed the Strait of Gibraltar for an Atlantic patrol to Bordeaux on 4 November. Nani sank two ships en route to Bordeaux. Nani was lost to unknown causes sometime after 3 January 1941 on its first BETASOM patrol. j According to

12769-430: Was the first Axis submarine to pass Gibraltar during World War II , and the report of conditions delivered upon return to Naples on 1 August assisted future attempts to pass the strait. Veniero sailed on 28 September 1940 and passed the Strait of Gibraltar for an Atlantic patrol to Bordeaux on 2 November. After sinking two ships in six BETASOM patrols, Veniero sailed from Bordeaux on 8 August 1941 and returned through

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