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117-827: The M'zab is a limestone plateau , centred on the Wad M'zab ( Oued Mzab ) valley. The Mozabites ("Ath Mzab") are a branch of a large Berber tribe, the Iznaten , which lived in large areas of middle southern Algeria. Many Tifinagh letters and symbols are engraved around the Mzab Valley. After the Muslim conquest of the Maghreb , the Mozabites became Muslims of the Mu'tazili school. The indigenous Christian population persisted until

234-455: A Mohs hardness of 2 to 4, dense limestone can have a crushing strength of up to 180 MPa . For comparison, concrete typically has a crushing strength of about 40 MPa. Although limestones show little variability in mineral composition, they show great diversity in texture. However, most limestone consists of sand-sized grains in a carbonate mud matrix. Because limestones are often of biological origin and are usually composed of sediment that

351-463: A bloom of cyanobacteria or microalgae . However, stable isotope ratios in modern carbonate mud appear to be inconsistent with either of these mechanisms, and abrasion of carbonate grains in high-energy environments has been put forward as a third possibility. Formation of limestone has likely been dominated by biological processes throughout the Phanerozoic , the last 540 million years of

468-463: A reverse auction was needed to determine the dowry to be paid to a swain. In case of divorce without reason, a man was required to give his wife the dowry she brought as well as the bride price the husband gave. The return of dowry could be disputed, if the divorce was for a reason allowed under Babylonian law. A wife's dowry was administered by her husband as part of the family assets. He had no say, however, in its ultimate disposal; and legally,

585-433: A Russian advice book of the 16th century for upper classes, includes advice to set aside property for purposes of a dowry, and use it to accumulate linens, clothing, and other things for it, rather than have to suddenly buy it all for the wedding; if the daughter should happen to die, the dowry should be used to give alms and for prayers for her soul, although some might be set aside for other daughters. In late Tsarist Russia

702-496: A bride they care nothing whether she has a dowry and a handsome fortune, but look only to her beauty and other advantages of the outward person. Arrian , The Invasion of India by Alexander the Great , 3rd century BC Arrian's second book similarly notes, They (Indians) marry without either giving or taking dowries, but the women as soon as they are marriageable are brought forward by their fathers in public, to be selected by

819-434: A carbonate rock outcrop can be estimated in the field by etching the surface with dilute hydrochloric acid. This etches away the calcite and aragonite, leaving behind any silica or dolomite grains. The latter can be identified by their rhombohedral shape. Crystals of calcite, quartz , dolomite or barite may line small cavities ( vugs ) in the rock. Vugs are a form of secondary porosity, formed in existing limestone by

936-616: A central quartz grain or carbonate mineral fragment. These likely form by direct precipitation of calcium carbonate onto the ooid. Pisoliths are similar to ooids, but they are larger than 2 mm in diameter and tend to be more irregular in shape. Limestone composed mostly of ooids is called an oolite or sometimes an oolitic limestone . Ooids form in high-energy environments, such as the Bahama platform, and oolites typically show crossbedding and other features associated with deposition in strong currents. Oncoliths resemble ooids but show

1053-449: A change in environment that increases the solubility of calcite. Dense, massive limestone is sometimes described as "marble". For example, the famous Portoro "marble" of Italy is actually a dense black limestone. True marble is produced by recrystallization of limestone during regional metamorphism that accompanies the mountain building process ( orogeny ). It is distinguished from dense limestone by its coarse crystalline texture and

1170-949: A composition reflecting the organisms that produced them and the environment in which they were produced. Low-magnesium calcite skeletal grains are typical of articulate brachiopods , planktonic (free-floating) foraminifera, and coccoliths . High-magnesium calcite skeletal grains are typical of benthic (bottom-dwelling) foraminifera, echinoderms , and coralline algae . Aragonite skeletal grains are typical of molluscs , calcareous green algae , stromatoporoids , corals , and tube worms . The skeletal grains also reflect specific geological periods and environments. For example, coral grains are more common in high-energy environments (characterized by strong currents and turbulence) while bryozoan grains are more common in low-energy environments (characterized by quiet water). Ooids (sometimes called ooliths) are sand-sized grains (less than 2mm in diameter) consisting of one or more layers of calcite or aragonite around

1287-412: A considerable fraction of the limestone bed. At depths greater than 1 km (0.62 miles), burial cementation completes the lithification process. Burial cementation does not produce stylolites. When overlying beds are eroded, bringing limestone closer to the surface, the final stage of diagenesis takes place. This produces secondary porosity as some of the cement is dissolved by rainwater infiltrating

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1404-601: A different instrument than on the Continent. The Salic law , which required females to be disinherited and disenfranchised from land ownership, did not apply in England. Single women held many rights men did. The most famous example of this English female inheritance and agency right is perhaps Elizabeth I of England , who held all rights a male monarch did. While single women held rights to hold property equivalent to those of men, marriage and married women were affected by

1521-412: A dowry. Gioachino Rossini 's opera La Cenerentola makes this economic basis explicit: Don Magnifico wishes to make his own daughters' dowries larger, to attract a grander match, which is impossible if he must provide a third dowry. One common penalty for the kidnapping and rape of an unmarried woman was that the abductor or rapist had to provide the woman's dowry. Until the late 20th century this

1638-483: A drop of dilute hydrochloric acid is dropped on it. Dolomite is also soft but reacts only feebly with dilute hydrochloric acid, and it usually weathers to a characteristic dull yellow-brown color due to the presence of ferrous iron. This is released and oxidized as the dolomite weathers. Impurities (such as clay , sand, organic remains, iron oxide , and other materials) will cause limestones to exhibit different colors, especially with weathered surfaces. The makeup of

1755-637: A few million years, as this is the most stable form of calcium carbonate. Ancient carbonate formations of the Precambrian and Paleozoic contain abundant dolomite, but limestone dominates the carbonate beds of the Mesozoic and Cenozoic . Modern dolomite is quite rare. There is evidence that, while the modern ocean favors precipitation of aragonite, the oceans of the Paleozoic and middle to late Cenozoic favored precipitation of calcite. This may indicate

1872-455: A few thousand years. As rainwater mixes with groundwater, aragonite and high-magnesium calcite are converted to low-calcium calcite. Cementing of thick carbonate deposits by rainwater may commence even before the retreat of the sea, as rainwater can infiltrate over 100 km (60 miles) into sediments beneath the continental shelf. As carbonate sediments are increasingly deeply buried under younger sediments, chemical and mechanical compaction of

1989-445: A fourth of the remaining wealth to her upkeep till she is ready to marry, and then give the rest to her to take with her into her married life. Dowry was common in different historic periods of China and continued through the modern history. Locally called " 嫁妝 ( Jiàzhuāng ), the dowry ranged from land, jewelry, money to a collection of clothing, sewing equipment and collection of household items. Mann and others find that dowry

2106-604: A historical Mosque in the centre of the ksar , and Bounoura (At Bounour) is a historical ksar which contain Azwil palm grove, while El Guerrara (Igraren) and Berriane (Iberguen) have been part of the M'zab since the 17th century. There are five qsur "walled villages" ( ksour ) located on rocky outcrops along the Wəd Mzab collectively known as the Pentapolis , founded between 1012 and 1350. They are: Ghardaïa ( Tagherdayt ),

2223-482: A historical correlation between the practices of "diverging devolution" (dowry) and the development of intensive plough agriculture on the one hand, and homogeneous inheritance (brideprice) and extensive hoe agriculture on the other. Drawing on the work of Ester Boserup , Goody notes that the sexual division of labour varies in intensive plough agriculture and extensive shifting horticulture. In sparsely populated regions where shifting cultivation takes place, most of

2340-607: A joint family. She would often sell this property for cash to overcome hard economic times or needs of her children and husband. In a few cases, she may transfer the property she brought as dowry to her daughter or daughter-in-law. Dowry assets once transferred in turn constituted separate wealth of the woman who received it ( sifang qian , etc.). Often a woman who brought a large dowry was considered more virtuous in Chinese culture than one who didn't. In parts of China, both dowry and brideprice ( pinjin ) were practiced from ancient eras to

2457-435: A limestone sample except in thin section and are less common in ancient limestones, possibly because compaction of carbonate sediments disrupts them. Limeclasts are fragments of existing limestone or partially lithified carbonate sediments. Intraclasts are limeclasts that originate close to where they are deposited in limestone, while extraclasts come from outside the depositional area. Intraclasts include grapestone , which

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2574-471: A lower Mg/Ca ratio in the ocean water of those times. This magnesium depletion may be a consequence of more rapid sea floor spreading , which removes magnesium from ocean water. The modern ocean and the ocean of the Mesozoic have been described as "aragonite seas". Most limestone was formed in shallow marine environments, such as continental shelves or platforms . Such environments form only about 5% of

2691-525: A lower diversity of organisms and a greater fraction of silica and clay minerals characteristic of marls . The Green River Formation is an example of a prominent freshwater sedimentary formation containing numerous limestone beds. Freshwater limestone is typically micritic. Fossils of charophyte (stonewort), a form of freshwater green algae, are characteristic of these environments, where the charophytes produce and trap carbonates. Limestones may also form in evaporite depositional environments . Calcite

2808-1116: A marital household, and therefore might include furnishings such as linens and furniture. Locally, dowry or trousseau is called jahez in Urdu , jahizie in Persian and Arabic ; dahej in Hindi , dāj in Punjabi , daijo in Nepali , çeyiz in Turkish , joutuk in Bengali , jiazhuang in Mandarin , varadhachanai in Tamil , khatnam in Telugu , streedhanam in Malayalam , miraz in Serbo-Croatian and in various parts of Africa

2925-523: A mechanism for dolomitization, with one 2004 review paper describing it bluntly as "a myth". Ordinary seawater is capable of converting calcite to dolomite, if the seawater is regularly flushed through the rock, as by the ebb and flow of tides (tidal pumping). Once dolomitization begins, it proceeds rapidly, so that there is very little carbonate rock containing mixed calcite and dolomite. Carbonate rock tends to be either almost all calcite/aragonite or almost all dolomite. About 20% to 25% of sedimentary rock

3042-451: A money dowry. In Romania in the late 18th and early 19th centuries (1750–1830s) the exclusion of dowered girls from the family inheritance led to increased cohesion within the nuclear family. The wife's male relatives controlled the dowry but she retained sole ownership of the dowry and wedding gifts. Her relatives could prosecute the husband for squandering a dowry; wives gained some ability to leave an abusive marriage. The long-term result

3159-416: A new household. Dos was given for the purpose of enabling the husband to sustain the charges of the marriage state (onera matrimonii). All the property of the wife which was not dowry, or was not a donatio propter nuptias, continued to be her own property, and was called Parapherna . The dowry could include any form of property, given or promised at the time of marriage, but only what remained after deducting

3276-448: A plausible source of mud. Another possibility is direct precipitation from the water. A phenomenon known as whitings occurs in shallow waters, in which white streaks containing dispersed micrite appear on the surface of the water. It is uncertain whether this is freshly precipitated aragonite or simply material stirred up from the bottom, but there is some evidence that whitings are caused by biological precipitation of aragonite as part of

3393-449: A radial rather than layered internal structure, indicating that they were formed by algae in a normal marine environment. Peloids are structureless grains of microcrystalline carbonate likely produced by a variety of processes. Many are thought to be fecal pellets produced by marine organisms. Others may be produced by endolithic (boring) algae or other microorganisms or through breakdown of mollusc shells. They are difficult to see in

3510-466: A strict organization of land and space. Each citadel has a fortress-like mosque , whose minaret served as a watchtower. Houses of standard size and type were constructed in concentric circles around the mosque. The architecture of the M'zab settlements was designed for egalitarian communal living, with respect for family privacy. The M'zab building style is of Libyan-Phoenician type, more specifically of Berber style and has been replicated in other parts of

3627-528: A woman's dowry was often returned to her family. Coverture never applied universally in Britain and was repealed in the 1800s. This effectively ended the concept of dowry as the property of a single woman was either retained by her after marriage or its income became marital property under joint control with a husband (not under his sole control as in coverture). In some parts of Europe, especially Eastern Europe, land dowries were common. The Domostroy ,

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3744-415: Is a payment, such as land property, monetary, cattle or any commercial asset that is paid by the bride's family to the groom or his family at the time of marriage. Dowry contrasts with the related concepts of bride price and dower . While bride price or bride service is a payment by the groom , or his family, to the bride, or her family, dowry is the wealth transferred from the bride, or her family, to

3861-560: Is also favored on the seaward margin of shelves and platforms, where there is upwelling deep ocean water rich in nutrients that increase organic productivity. Reefs are common here, but when lacking, ooid shoals are found instead. Finer sediments are deposited close to shore. The lack of deep sea limestones is due in part to rapid subduction of oceanic crust, but is more a result of dissolution of calcium carbonate at depth. The solubility of calcium carbonate increases with pressure and even more with higher concentrations of carbon dioxide, which

3978-545: Is an evolutionary model in which these historical variables may not be the decisive factors today. Susan Mann argues, in contrast, with examples where even in late Imperial China, dowry was a form of female inheritance. Stanley J. Tambiah later argued that Goody's overall thesis remained pertinent in North India , although it required modification to meet local circumstances. He points out that dowry in North India

4095-399: Is an obsolete and poorly-defined term used variously for dolomite, for limestone containing significant dolomite ( dolomitic limestone ), or for any other limestone containing a significant percentage of magnesium . Most limestone was formed in shallow marine environments, such as continental shelves or platforms , though smaller amounts were formed in many other environments. Much dolomite

4212-482: Is an uncommon mineral in limestone, and siderite or other carbonate minerals are rare. However, the calcite in limestone often contains a few percent of magnesium . Calcite in limestone is divided into low-magnesium and high-magnesium calcite, with the dividing line placed at a composition of 4% magnesium. High-magnesium calcite retains the calcite mineral structure, which is distinct from dolomite. Aragonite does not usually contain significant magnesium. Most limestone

4329-465: Is based on interpreting verses of ancient Sanskrit scriptures from India, not eyewitness accounts. Available eyewitness observations from ancient India give a different picture. One of these are the eyewitness records from Alexander the Great 's conquest ( ca . 300 BC), as recorded by Arrian and Megasthenes. Arrian's first book mentions a lack of dowry, They (these ancient Indian people) make their marriages accordance with this principle, for in selecting

4446-402: Is carbonate rock, and most of this is limestone. Limestone is found in sedimentary sequences as old as 2.7 billion years. However, the compositions of carbonate rocks show an uneven distribution in time in the geologic record. About 95% of modern carbonates are composed of high-magnesium calcite and aragonite. The aragonite needles in carbonate mud are converted to low-magnesium calcite within

4563-474: Is clusters of peloids cemented together by organic material or mineral cement. Extraclasts are uncommon, are usually accompanied by other clastic sediments, and indicate deposition in a tectonically active area or as part of a turbidity current . The grains of most limestones are embedded in a matrix of carbonate mud. This is typically the largest fraction of an ancient carbonate rock. Mud consisting of individual crystals less than 5 μm (0.20 mils) in length

4680-416: Is commonly white to gray in color. Limestone that is unusually rich in organic matter can be almost black in color, while traces of iron or manganese can give limestone an off-white to yellow to red color. The density of limestone depends on its porosity, which varies from 0.1% for the densest limestone to 40% for chalk. The density correspondingly ranges from 1.5 to 2.7 g/cm . Although relatively soft, with

4797-406: Is composed mostly of the minerals calcite and aragonite , which are different crystal forms of CaCO 3 . Limestone forms when these minerals precipitate out of water containing dissolved calcium. This can take place through both biological and nonbiological processes, though biological processes, such as the accumulation of corals and shells in the sea, have likely been more important for

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4914-420: Is controlled largely by the amount of dissolved carbon dioxide ( CO 2 ) in the water. This is summarized in the reaction: Increases in temperature or decreases in pressure tend to reduce the amount of dissolved CO 2 and precipitate CaCO 3 . Reduction in salinity also reduces the solubility of CaCO 3 , by several orders of magnitude for fresh water versus seawater. Near-surface water of

5031-545: Is converted to low-magnesium calcite. Diagenesis is the likely origin of pisoliths , concentrically layered particles ranging from 1 to 10 mm (0.039 to 0.394 inches) in diameter found in some limestones. Pisoliths superficially resemble ooids but have no nucleus of foreign matter, fit together tightly, and show other signs that they formed after the original deposition of the sediments. Silicification occurs early in diagenesis, at low pH and temperature, and contributes to fossil preservation. Silicification takes place through

5148-503: Is deposited close to where it formed, classification of limestone is usually based on its grain type and mud content. Most grains in limestone are skeletal fragments of marine organisms such as coral or foraminifera . These organisms secrete structures made of aragonite or calcite, and leave these structures behind when they die. Other carbonate grains composing limestones are ooids , peloids , and limeclasts ( intraclasts and extraclasts  [ ca ] ). Skeletal grains have

5265-460: Is described as coquinite . Chalk is a soft, earthy, fine-textured limestone composed of the tests of planktonic microorganisms such as foraminifera, while marl is an earthy mixture of carbonates and silicate sediments. Limestone forms when calcite or aragonite precipitate out of water containing dissolved calcium, which can take place through both biological and nonbiological processes. The solubility of calcium carbonate ( CaCO 3 )

5382-617: Is described as micrite . In fresh carbonate mud, micrite is mostly small aragonite needles, which may precipitate directly from seawater, be secreted by algae, or be produced by abrasion of carbonate grains in a high-energy environment. This is converted to calcite within a few million years of deposition. Further recrystallization of micrite produces microspar , with grains from 5 to 15 μm (0.20 to 0.59 mils) in diameter. Limestone often contains larger crystals of calcite, ranging in size from 0.02 to 0.1 mm (0.79 to 3.94 mils), that are described as sparry calcite or sparite . Sparite

5499-462: Is distinguished from micrite by a grain size of over 20 μm (0.79 mils) and because sparite stands out under a hand lens or in thin section as white or transparent crystals. Sparite is distinguished from carbonate grains by its lack of internal structure and its characteristic crystal shapes. Geologists are careful to distinguish between sparite deposited as cement and sparite formed by recrystallization of micrite or carbonate grains. Sparite cement

5616-497: Is known as serotwana , idana , saduquat or mugtaf . Anthropologist Jack Goody 's comparative study of dowry systems around the world utilizing the Ethnographic Atlas demonstrated that dowry is a form of inheritance found in the broad swath of Eurasian societies from Japan to Ireland that practice "diverging devolution", i.e., that transmit property to children regardless of sex. This practice differs from

5733-560: Is one of the first minerals to precipitate in marine evaporites. Most limestone is formed by the activities of living organisms near reefs, but the organisms responsible for reef formation have changed over geologic time. For example, stromatolites are mound-shaped structures in ancient limestones, interpreted as colonies of cyanobacteria that accumulated carbonate sediments, but stromatolites are rare in younger limestones. Organisms precipitate limestone both directly as part of their skeletons, and indirectly by removing carbon dioxide from

5850-458: Is only partially used as a bride's conjugal fund, and that a large part goes directly to the groom's joint family. This would initially seem to discount Goody's model, except that in North India, the joint family is composed of the groom's parents, his married brothers and unmarried sisters, and their third generation children. This joint family controlled this part of the dowry, which they used to help fund their own daughter/sister's dowries. But when

5967-473: Is otherwise chemically fairly pure, with clastic sediments (mainly fine-grained quartz and clay minerals ) making up less than 5% to 10% of the composition. Organic matter typically makes up around 0.2% of a limestone and rarely exceeds 1%. Limestone often contains variable amounts of silica in the form of chert or siliceous skeletal fragments (such as sponge spicules, diatoms , or radiolarians ). Fossils are also common in limestone. Limestone

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6084-472: Is produced by decaying organic matter settling into the deep ocean that is not removed by photosynthesis in the dark depths. As a result, there is a fairly sharp transition from water saturated with calcium carbonate to water unsaturated with calcium carbonate, the lysocline , which occurs at the calcite compensation depth of 4,000 to 7,000 m (13,000 to 23,000 feet). Below this depth, foraminifera tests and other skeletal particles rapidly dissolve, and

6201-518: Is secondary dolomite, formed by chemical alteration of limestone. Limestone is exposed over large regions of the Earth's surface, and because limestone is slightly soluble in rainwater, these exposures often are eroded to become karst landscapes. Most cave systems are found in limestone bedrock. Limestone has numerous uses: as a chemical feedstock for the production of lime used for cement (an essential component of concrete ), as aggregate for

6318-447: Is the main town and capital of the M'zab, and El Atteuf (Tajnint) is the oldest settlement in the region. Beni Isguen (At Isgen) is the most sacred Berber Islamic town. It prohibits all non-M'zabites from various sections of the town, and all foreigners from spending the night within its walls. Melika (At Mlichet) is populated by a kabily town named Mlikch which is until now located near Bouira , and it contains spacious cemeteries and

6435-436: Is the type of property controlled by the household. Bridewealth circulates property and women, and is typical of societies where property is limited. Dowry concentrates property and is found in property owning classes or commercial or landed pastoral peoples. When families give dowry, they not only ensure their daughter's economic security, they also "buy" the best possible husband for her, and son-in-law for themselves. Even in

6552-619: Is unique today. Numerous details of Ibāḍiyya social life are ruled by this Islamic government, such as the weight of gold given as a dowry to a woman (maximum 60 g) to the length of wedding celebrations (three days). The council makes decisions on details such as dowries , celebrations, dress. It used to impose punishments including exile and a form of tabriyya " quarantine " in which the offender may not interact with his fellow citizens. However, with economic, social and political integration to Algeria, those sanctions are less effective, and tend to have more impact on women. The local language of

6669-464: The Norman Conquest changes to the law in the 12th century. Coverture was introduced to the common law in some jurisdictions, requiring property of a wife to be held in the husband's name, custody and control. The Normans also introduced the dowry in England replacing the earlier custom of the new husband giving a morning gift to his bride. At first the husband publicly gave the dowry at

6786-682: The (proposed) wife may give it back to him of her own will (if she does not want to marry). Al-Biruni , Chapter on Matrimony in India , about 1035 AD Al-Biruni further claims that a daughter, in 11th-century India, had legal right to inherit from her father, but only a fourth part of her brother. The daughter took this inheritance amount with her when she married, claimed Al-Biruni, and she had no rights to income from her parents after her marriage or to any additional inheritance after her father's death. If her father died before her marriage, her guardian would first pay off her father's debt, then allocate

6903-645: The 11th century. After the fall of the Rustamid state, the Rustamid royal family with some of their citizens chose the Mzab Valley as their refuge. However, the Rostemids were Ibadi and sent a preacher (Abu Bakr an-Nafusi) who successfully converted the indigenous Mozabites. France conquered Algeria in 1830 . The M'zab was annexed to France only in 1882 and reverted to Algerian indigenous rule in summer 1962 upon its national independence. Ghardaia (Taghardait)

7020-471: The 20th century. Though throughout the history of China, the practice of using a brideprice has largely been used instead of dowries, but has slowly diminished in modern times. Dowry was widely practiced in Europe until the early modern era. Folklorists often interpret the folk tale Cinderella as the competition between the stepmother and the stepdaughter for resources, which may include the need to provide

7137-747: The Archconfraternity of the Annunciation, a Roman charity dedicated to providing dowries, received the entire estate of Pope Urban VII . In 1425, the Republic of Florence created a public fund, called the Monte delle doti , to provide dowries to Florentine brides. Vast inheritances were standard as dowries for aristocratic and royal brides in Europe during the Middle Ages. The Portuguese crown gave two cities in India and Morocco as dowry to

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7254-521: The British Crown in 1661 when King Charles II of England married Catherine of Braganza , a princess of Portugal. In some cases, nuns were required to bring a dowry when joining a convent . At some times, such as Ancien Régime France, convents were also used by some parents to put less attractive daughters, so that the more marriageable daughters could have larger dowries. Ancien Régime families that could not provide proper dowries also used

7371-496: The Earth's history. Limestone may have been deposited by microorganisms in the Precambrian , prior to 540 million years ago, but inorganic processes were probably more important and likely took place in an ocean more highly oversaturated in calcium carbonate than the modern ocean. Diagenesis is the process in which sediments are compacted and turned into solid rock . During diagenesis of carbonate sediments, significant chemical and textural changes take place. For example, aragonite

7488-571: The English aristocracy sent few of their eligible daughters to convents. Failure to provide a customary, or agreed-upon, dowry could cause a marriage to be called off. William Shakespeare made use of such an event in King Lear : one of Cordelia's suitors gives up his suit upon hearing that King Lear will give her no dowry. In Measure for Measure , Claudio and Juliet's premarital sex was brought about by their families' wrangling over dowry after

7605-556: The Ibāḍiyya has preserved the area, and Ibāḍī Sezzaba continue to dominate the social life of the area. A federal council, Majlis Ammi Said , unites representatives of the seven settlements as well as Ouargla , an ancient town located 200 km South-East of the Mzab valley. This council forms a federative body for religious, social and, increasingly, cultural matters. The religious federal council represents an “Islamic type of government” that

7722-459: The Mozabites is Mozabite (Tumẓabt), a branch of the Zenati group of Berber languages . Ghardaya is also one of the four large military and administrative territories into which southern Algeria is divided. The Sezzaba are Ibadis. Limestone Limestone ( calcium carbonate CaCO 3 ) is a type of carbonate sedimentary rock which is the main source of the material lime . It

7839-542: The Sahara. In the summer, the M'zabites migrated to 'summer citadels' centred on palm grove oases. That is one of the major oasis groups of the Sahara Desert and is bounded by arid country known as chebka , crossed by dry river beds. The M'zab Valley was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1982, as an intact example of traditional human habitat perfectly adapted to the environment. The insular nature of

7956-434: The base of roads, as white pigment or filler in products such as toothpaste or paint, as a soil conditioner , and as a popular decorative addition to rock gardens . Limestone formations contain about 30% of the world's petroleum reservoirs . Limestone is composed mostly of the minerals calcite and aragonite , which are different crystal forms of calcium carbonate ( CaCO 3 ). Dolomite , CaMg(CO 3 ) 2 ,

8073-657: The beds. This may include the formation of vugs , which are crystal-lined cavities within the limestone. Diagenesis may include conversion of limestone to dolomite by magnesium-rich fluids. There is considerable evidence of replacement of limestone by dolomite, including sharp replacement boundaries that cut across bedding. The process of dolomitization remains an area of active research, but possible mechanisms include exposure to concentrated brines in hot environments ( evaporative reflux ) or exposure to diluted seawater in delta or estuary environments ( Dorag dolomitization ). However, Dorag dolomitization has fallen into disfavor as

8190-571: The beginning of 20th century, bridewealth , rather than dowry was the common custom, which often resulted in poor boys remaining unmarried. Stanley J. Tambiah claims the ancient Code of Manu sanctioned dowry and bridewealth in ancient India (typically in Rohtak) and especially in Kadia families, but dowry was the more prestigious form and associated with the Brahmanic (priestly) caste. Bridewealth

8307-423: The betrothal. Angelo's motive for forswearing his betrothal with Mariana was the loss of her dowry at sea. In Victorian England , dowries were viewed by some members of the upper class as an early payment of the daughter's inheritance . In some instances, daughters who had not received their dowries were the only female heirs entitled to part of the estate when their parents died. If a couple died without children,

8424-455: The bottom with the concave face downwards. This traps a void space that can later be filled by sparite. Geologists use geopetal structures to determine which direction was up at the time of deposition, which is not always obvious with highly deformed limestone formations. The cyanobacterium Hyella balani can bore through limestone; as can the green alga Eugamantia sacculata and the fungus Ostracolaba implexa . Dowry A dowry

8541-664: The church door at the wedding. If the husband died first, which was frequent, there was a Widows dowry of one third of the husband's lands at the time of his marriage; the income, and in some cases, the management, of the lands, was assigned to her for the rest of her life. This concept is included in the Great Charter , and along with the recognition of female inheritance and absence of the Salic law , and women, particularly single women, holding many rights equivalent to those men held, manifests English law differing fundamentally from

8658-558: The convents as places to put their daughters. In the County of Bentheim in Lower Saxony , for instance, parents who had no sons might give a land dowry to their new son-in-law. It was commonly given with the condition that he take the surname of his bride, in order to continue the family name. Dowry was used in England. However, the right of daughters to inherit and of women to hold property and other rights in their own name made it

8775-403: The debts. Not only the bride's family, any person could donate his property as dowry for the woman. Two types of dowry were known— dos profectitia and dos adventitia . That dos is profectitia which was given by the father or father's father of the bride. All other dos is adventitia. Roman law also allowed for a species of dowry, called dos receptitia , which was given by some other person than

8892-466: The depositional fabric of carbonate rocks. Dunham divides the rocks into four main groups based on relative proportions of coarser clastic particles, based on criteria such as whether the grains were originally in mutual contact, and therefore self-supporting, or whether the rock is characterized by the presence of frame builders and algal mats. Unlike the Folk scheme, Dunham deals with the original porosity of

9009-469: The deposits are highly porous, so that they have a spongelike texture, they are typically described as tufa . Secondary calcite deposited by supersaturated meteoric waters ( groundwater ) in caves is also sometimes described as travertine. This produces speleothems , such as stalagmites and stalactites . Coquina is a poorly consolidated limestone composed of abraded pieces of coral , shells , or other fossil debris. When better consolidated, it

9126-439: The dowry had to be kept separate for it was expected to support the wife and her children. The wife was entitled to her dowry at her husband's death. If she died childless, her dowry reverted to her family, that is her father if he was alive, otherwise her brothers. If she had sons, they would share it equally. Her dowry was inheritable only by her own children, not by her husband's children or by other women. In archaic Greece ,

9243-467: The dowry in one lump sum. The practice of dowry in the Indian subcontinent is a controversial subject. Some scholars believe dowry was practiced in antiquity, but some do not. Historical eyewitness reports (discussed below) suggest dowry in ancient India was insignificant, and daughters had inheritance rights, which by custom were exercised at the time of her marriage. Documentary evidence suggests that at

9360-423: The dowry originally consisted of clothing for the bride, linen, and bedding. Linen became less common, a fact blamed on poor flax harvest and girls being poor spinners, but emphasis was added to the finest of the clothing, and a money dowry was sometimes added, particularly if the bride was regarded as having some fault. Prospective in-laws, usually concerned mostly with her working ability, grew more concerned about

9477-430: The dowry. According to Herodotus , auctions of maidens were held annually. The auctions began with the woman the auctioneer considered to be the most beautiful and progressed to the least. It was considered illegal to allow a daughter to be sold outside of the auction method. Attractive maidens were offered in an auction to determine the bride price to be paid by a swain, while in the case of maidens lacking attractivity

9594-406: The earth's oceans are oversaturated with CaCO 3 by a factor of more than six. The failure of CaCO 3 to rapidly precipitate out of these waters is likely due to interference by dissolved magnesium ions with nucleation of calcite crystals, the necessary first step in precipitation. Precipitation of aragonite may be suppressed by the presence of naturally occurring organic phosphates in

9711-434: The father or father of the bride's father, in consideration of marriage, but on the condition that it should be restored back to the dowry giver, on the death of the wife. The bride's family were expected to give a dowry when a girl married, and in proportion to their means. It was customary for the bride's family and friends to pay promised dowries in installments over three years, and some Romans won great praise by delivering

9828-399: The first refers to the grains and the second to the cement. For example, a limestone consisting mainly of ooids, with a crystalline matrix, would be termed an oosparite. It is helpful to have a petrographic microscope when using the Folk scheme, because it is easier to determine the components present in each sample. Robert J. Dunham published his system for limestone in 1962. It focuses on

9945-572: The formation of distinctive minerals from the silica and clay present in the original limestone. Two major classification schemes, the Folk and Dunham, are used for identifying the types of carbonate rocks collectively known as limestone. Robert L. Folk developed a classification system that places primary emphasis on the detailed composition of grains and interstitial material in carbonate rocks . Based on composition, there are three main components: allochems (grains), matrix (mostly micrite), and cement (sparite). The Folk system uses two-part names;

10062-429: The geologic record are called bioherms . Many are rich in fossils, but most lack any connected organic framework like that seen in modern reefs. The fossil remains are present as separate fragments embedded in ample mud matrix. Much of the sedimentation shows indications of occurring in the intertidal or supratidal zones, suggesting sediments rapidly fill available accommodation space in the shelf or platform. Deposition

10179-591: The groom's family gave the bridewealth, it tended to be given back as dowry to the bride as part of her conjugal estate. Michael Witzel , in contrast, claims the ancient Indian literature suggests dowry practices were not significant during the Vedic period. Witzel also notes that women in ancient India had property inheritance rights either by appointment or when they had no brothers. The findings of MacDonell and Keith are similar to Witzel, and differ from Tambiah; they cite ancient Indian literature suggesting bridewealth

10296-436: The groom, or his family. Similarly, dower is the property settled on the bride herself, by the groom at the time of marriage, and which remains under her ownership and control. Traditionalist dowry is an ancient custom that is mentioned in some of the earliest writings, and its existence may well predate records of it. Dowries continue to be expected and demanded as a condition to accept a marriage proposal in some parts of

10413-434: The last 540 million years. Limestone often contains fossils which provide scientists with information on ancient environments and on the evolution of life. About 20% to 25% of sedimentary rock is carbonate rock, and most of this is limestone. The remaining carbonate rock is mostly dolomite , a closely related rock, which contains a high percentage of the mineral dolomite , CaMg(CO 3 ) 2 . Magnesian limestone

10530-466: The law of the Continent, especially the law of the Holy Roman Empire . Thirteenth-century court records are filled with disputes over dowries, and the law became increasingly complex. The English dowry system permitted most noble families to marry off their daughters and thereby gain extended kin and patronage ties. Marriageable daughters were a valuable commodity to ambitious fathers, and

10647-410: The majority of Sub-Saharan African societies that practice "homogenous inheritance" in which property is transmitted only to children of the same sex as the property holder. These latter African societies are characterized by the transmission of the " bride price ", the money, goods or property given by the groom or his family to the parents of the bride (not the bride herself). Goody has demonstrated

10764-410: The ocean basins, but limestone is rarely preserved in continental slope and deep sea environments. The best environments for deposition are warm waters, which have both a high organic productivity and increased saturation of calcium carbonate due to lower concentrations of dissolved carbon dioxide. Modern limestone deposits are almost always in areas with very little silica-rich sedimentation, reflected in

10881-523: The oldest available records, such as the Code of Hammurabi in ancient Babylon , the dowry is described as an already-existing custom. Daughters did not normally inherit any of her father's estate. Instead, with marriage, the bride got a dowry from her parents, which was intended to offer her as much lifetime security as her family could afford. In Babylonia, both bride price and dowry auctions were practiced. However, bride price almost always became part of

10998-475: The owner's death ( mortis causa ). (This is a completely different definition of dowry to that given at the top of the article, which demonstrates how the term ‘dowry’ causes confusion.) A dowry (or dower ) establishes a type of conjugal fund, the nature of which may vary widely. This fund may provide an element of financial security in widowhood or against a negligent husband, and may eventually go to provide for her children. Dowries may also go toward establishing

11115-491: The parents die, and the joint family partitions, this jointly held wealth was then divided among the married sons, such that ultimately, the bride's dowry given to the joint family returned to her and her husband as their "conjugal fund." Schlegel and Eloul expanded on Goody's model through further statistical analysis of the Ethnographic atlas. They argue that a major factor in determining the type of marriage transaction

11232-550: The principal settlement today; Beni Isguen  [ fr ] ( At Isjen ) (Arabic: بني يزقن); Melika ( At Mlishet ); Bounoura ( At Bunur ); and El Atteuf ( Tajnint ), the oldest of the five settlements. Adding the more recent settlements of Bérianne and El Guerrara , the Mzab Heptapolis is completed. The combination of the functional purism of the Ibāḍī faith with the way of life necessary near an oasis has led to

11349-425: The property within the nuclear family. Close family are the preferred marriage partners so as to keep property within the group. There is a scholarly debate on Goody's theory. Sylvia Yanagisko argues, for example, that there are a number of societies including parts of Japan, Southern Italy, and China, that do not support Goody's claim that dowry is a form of female inheritance of male property. She notes that Goody's

11466-426: The reaction: Fossils are often preserved in exquisite detail as chert. Cementing takes place rapidly in carbonate sediments, typically within less than a million years of deposition. Some cementing occurs while the sediments are still under water, forming hardgrounds . Cementing accelerates after the retreat of the sea from the depositional environment, as rainwater infiltrates the sediment beds, often within just

11583-482: The relative purity of most limestones. Reef organisms are destroyed by muddy, brackish river water, and carbonate grains are ground down by much harder silicate grains. Unlike clastic sedimentary rock, limestone is produced almost entirely from sediments originating at or near the place of deposition. Limestone formations tend to show abrupt changes in thickness. Large moundlike features in a limestone formation are interpreted as ancient reefs , which when they appear in

11700-460: The rock. The Dunham scheme is more useful for hand samples because it is based on texture, not the grains in the sample. A revised classification was proposed by Wright (1992). It adds some diagenetic patterns to the classification scheme. Travertine is a term applied to calcium carbonate deposits formed in freshwater environments, particularly waterfalls , cascades and hot springs . Such deposits are typically massive, dense, and banded. When

11817-458: The root of paraphernalia ) and is referred to as paraphernal property or extra-dotal property . A dowry may also have served as a form of protection for the wife against the possibility of ill treatment by her husband and his family, providing an incentive for the husband not to harm his wife. This would apply in cultures where a dowry was expected to be returned to the bride's family if she died soon after marrying. In contemporary Greece, dowry

11934-479: The sediments increases. Chemical compaction takes place by pressure solution of the sediments. This process dissolves minerals from points of contact between grains and redeposits it in pore space, reducing the porosity of the limestone from an initial high value of 40% to 80% to less than 10%. Pressure solution produces distinctive stylolites , irregular surfaces within the limestone at which silica-rich sediments accumulate. These may reflect dissolution and loss of

12051-662: The sediments of the ocean floor abruptly transition from carbonate ooze rich in foraminifera and coccolith remains ( Globigerina ooze) to silicic mud lacking carbonates. In rare cases, turbidites or other silica-rich sediments bury and preserve benthic (deep ocean) carbonate deposits. Ancient benthic limestones are microcrystalline and are identified by their tectonic setting. Fossils typically are foraminifera and coccoliths. No pre-Jurassic benthic limestones are known, probably because carbonate-shelled plankton had not yet evolved. Limestones also form in freshwater environments. These limestones are not unlike marine limestone, but have

12168-426: The usual practice was to give a bride price ( hédnon ( ἕδνον )). Dowries ( pherné ( φερνή )) were exchanged by the later classical period (5th century B.C). A husband had certain property rights in his wife's dowry. In addition, the wife might bring to the marriage property of her own, which was not included in the dowry and which was, as a result, hers alone. This property was "beyond the dowry" (Greek parapherna ,

12285-533: The victor in wrestling or boxing or running or someone who excels in any other manly exercise. Arrian, Indika in Megasthenes and Arrian, 3rd century BC The two sources suggest dowry was absent, or infrequent enough to be noticed by Arrian. About 1200 years after Arrian's visit, another eyewitness scholar visited India named Abū Rayḥān al-Bīrūnī , also known as Al-Biruni, or Alberonius in Latin. Al-Biruni

12402-533: The water by photosynthesis and thereby decreasing the solubility of calcium carbonate. Limestone shows the same range of sedimentary structures found in other sedimentary rocks. However, finer structures, such as lamination , are often destroyed by the burrowing activities of organisms ( bioturbation ). Fine lamination is characteristic of limestone formed in playa lakes , which lack the burrowing organisms. Limestones also show distinctive features such as geopetal structures , which form when curved shells settle to

12519-553: The water. Although ooids likely form through purely inorganic processes, the bulk of CaCO 3 precipitation in the oceans is the result of biological activity. Much of this takes place on carbonate platforms . The origin of carbonate mud, and the processes by which it is converted to micrite, continue to be a subject of research. Modern carbonate mud is composed mostly of aragonite needles around 5 μm (0.20 mils) in length. Needles of this shape and composition are produced by calcareous algae such as Penicillus , making this

12636-444: The work is done by women. These are the societies that give brideprice . Boserup further associates shifting horticulture with the practice of polygamy , and hence bridewealth is paid as a compensation to her family for the loss of her labour. In plough agriculture farming is largely men's work; this is where dowry is given. In contrast, plough agriculture is associated with private property and marriage tends to be monogamous, to keep

12753-455: The world, mainly in parts of Asia . The custom of dowry is most common in strongly patrilineal cultures that expect women to reside with or near their husband's family ( patrilocality ). Dowries have long histories in Europe , South Asia , Africa , and other parts of the world. A dowry is the transfer of parental property to a daughter at her marriage (i.e. "inter vivos") rather than at

12870-439: Was a form of inheritance to daughters. In traditional China, the property owned by a family, if any, was earmarked for equal division or inheritance by sons only. Dowry was the only way assets were transferred to a daughter. It included immovable property such as land, and movable property like jewelry and fine clothing. The dowry she brought with her was typically sequestered from the property of her husband and other male members in

12987-466: Was an Islamic era Persian scholar who went and lived in India for 16 years from 1017 CE. He translated many Indian texts into Arabic, as well as wrote a memoir on Indian culture and life he observed. Al-Biruni claimed, The implements of the wedding rejoicings are brought forward. No gift (dower or dowry) is settled between them. The man gives only a present to the wife, as he thinks fit, and a marriage gift in advance, which he has no right to claim back, but

13104-486: Was considered reprehensible and forbidden by Manu and other ancient Indian scribes. Lochtefeld suggests that religious duties listed by Manu and others, such as 'the bride be richly adorned to celebrate marriage' were ceremonial dress and jewelry along with gifts that were her property, not property demanded by or meant for the groom; Lochtefeld further notes that bridal adornment is not currently considered as dowry in most people's mind. The above analysis by various scholars

13221-416: Was likely deposited in pore space between grains, suggesting a high-energy depositional environment that removed carbonate mud. Recrystallized sparite is not diagnostic of depositional environment. Limestone outcrops are recognized in the field by their softness (calcite and aragonite both have a Mohs hardness of less than 4, well below common silicate minerals) and because limestone bubbles vigorously when

13338-455: Was paid even in brahma- and daiva-types of marriage associated with the Brahmanic (priestly) upper caste. Dowry was not infrequent, when the girl suffered from some bodily defect. Property rights for women increased in ancient India, suggest MacDonell and Keith, over the Epics era (200 BC – 700 AD). Kane claims ancient literature suggests bridewealth was paid only in the asura-type of marriage that

13455-453: Was removed from family law through legal reforms in 1983. The Romans practiced dowry ( dos ). The dowry was property transferred by the bride, or on her behalf by anyone else, to the groom or groom's father, at their marriage. Dowry was a very common institution in Roman times, and it began out of a desire to get the bride's family to contribute a share of the costs involved in setting up

13572-405: Was restricted to the lower castes, who were not allowed to give dowry. He cites two studies from the early 20th century with data to suggest that this pattern of dowry in upper castes and bridewealth in lower castes persisted through the first half of the 20th century. However, it is more likely that marriages involved both reciprocal gifts between the two families, claims Tambiah, so that insofar as

13689-443: Was sometimes called wreath money , or the breach of promise . Providing dowries for poor women was regarded as a form of charity by wealthier parishioners. The custom of Christmas stockings springs from a legend of St Nicholas , in which he threw gold in the stockings of three poor sisters, thus providing for their dowries. St. Elizabeth of Portugal and St. Martin de Porres were particularly noted for providing such dowries, and

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