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86-515: It is often described as the first steel frame house in the United States, and also an early example of the use of gunite (sprayed-on concrete). Neutra was familiar with steel construction due to his earlier work with the Chicago firm Holabird & Roche . Neutra served as the contractor for the project because no residential contractors were willing to construct a steel frame home due to

172-653: A World Heritage Site , describing it as "a masterpiece of modern city planning, architecture and art, created by the Venezuelan architect Carlos Raúl Villanueva and a group of distinguished avant-garde artists". In June 2007 UNESCO proclaimed Ciudad Universitaria of the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), in Mexico City , a World Heritage Site due to its relevance and contribution in terms of international style movement. It

258-453: A 52-foot trough, and natural materials such as mouse gray carpeting and natural-colored drapes. The library's design includes a cozy corner with access to an outdoor patio and features built-in telephones and furnishings that highlight the forerunner of modern American interior finishes. The interior reflects Neutra's interest in Cubism , transparency, and hygiene. The "minimal" detailing shows

344-488: A book-length critique of the International Style. Architectural historian Vincent Scully regarded Venturi's book as 'probably the most important writing on the making of architecture since Le Corbusier's Vers une Architecture . It helped to define postmodernism . Best-selling American author Tom Wolfe wrote a book-length critique, From Bauhaus to Our House , portraying the style as elitist. One of

430-560: A coating to insulate it from the heat of the fire or it can be protected by a fire-resistant ceiling construction. Asbestos was a popular material for fireproofing steel structures up until the early 1970s, before the health risks of asbestos fibres were fully understood. The exterior "skin" of the building is anchored to the frame using a variety of construction techniques and following a huge variety of architectural styles . Bricks , stone , reinforced concrete , architectural glass , sheet metal and simply paint have been used to cover

516-407: A column are thicker and wider than the flanges on a beam , to better withstand compressive stress in the structure. Square and round tubular sections of steel can also be used, often filled with concrete. Steel beams are connected to the columns with bolts and threaded fasteners, and historically connected by rivets . The central "web" of the steel I-beam is often wider than a column web to resist

602-461: A common struggle between old and new. These architects were not considered part of the International Style because they practiced in an "individualistic manner" and seen as the last representatives of Romanticism . The International Style can be traced to buildings designed by a small group of modernists, the major figures of which include Ludwig Mies van der Rohe , Jacobus Oud , Le Corbusier , Richard Neutra and Philip Johnson . The founder of

688-541: A complex reconstruction of the city which was inspired by functionalism and the Garden city movement . Tomas Bata Memorial is the most valuable monument of the Zlín functionalism . It is a modern paraphrase of the constructions of high gothic style period: the supporting system and colourful stained glass and the reinforced concrete skeleton and glass. With the rise of Nazism, a number of key European modern architects fled to

774-499: A conglomeration of three glass skyscrapers in downtown Ottawa, where the plans of the property developer Robert Campeau in the mid-1960s and early 1970s—in the words of historian Robert W. Collier, were "forceful and abrasive[;] he was not well-loved at City Hall"—had no regard for existing city plans, and "built with contempt for the existing city and for city responsibilities in the key areas of transportation and land use". Architects attempted to put new twists into such towers, such as

860-429: A hillside in three levels, connected by a long balcony on the third floor. These designs emphasized stepped masses and earth ramps leading to a tennis court, reflecting the natural integration central to Richard Neutra's architectural philosophy. Despite its later designation as the "Health House," none of the initial designs included the extensive exercise facilities originally envisioned by Dr. Lovell. In its final form,

946-431: A major building boom and few restrictions on massive building projects. International Style skyscrapers came to dominate many of Canada's major cities, especially Ottawa , Montreal , Vancouver , Calgary , Edmonton , Hamilton , and Toronto . While these glass boxes were at first unique and interesting, the idea was soon repeated to the point of ubiquity. A typical example is the development of so-called Place de Ville ,

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1032-580: A model of a mid-rise housing development for Evanston , Illinois, by Chicago architect brothers Monroe Bengt Bowman and Irving Bowman , as well as a model and photos of Walter Gropius's Bauhaus building in Dessau. In the largest exhibition space, Room C, were works by Le Corbusier, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, J. J. P. Oud and Frank Lloyd Wright (including a project for a house on the Mesa in Denver, 1932). Room B

1118-587: A more organic and sensual International Style. He designed the political landmarks (headquarters of the three state powers) of the new, planned capital Brasilia . The masterplan for the city was proposed by Lúcio Costa . [REDACTED] Jakarta , Indonesia In 1930, Frank Lloyd Wright wrote: "Human houses should not be like boxes, blazing in the sun, nor should we outrage the Machine by trying to make dwelling-places too complementary to Machinery." In Elizabeth Gordon 's well-known 1953 essay, "The Threat to

1204-638: A new journal called L'Esprit Nouveau that advocated the use of modern industrial techniques and strategies to create a higher standard of living on all socio-economic levels. In 1927, one of the first and most defining manifestations of the International Style was the Weissenhof Estate in Stuttgart , overseen by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe. It was enormously popular, with thousands of daily visitors. The exhibition Modern Architecture: International Exhibition ran from February 9 to March 23, 1932, at

1290-483: A prototypical modern architect. After World War II, the International Style matured; Hellmuth, Obata & Kassabaum (later renamed HOK ) and Skidmore, Owings & Merrill (SOM) perfected the corporate practice, and it became the dominant approach for decades in the US and Canada. Beginning with the initial technical and formal inventions of 860-880 Lake Shore Drive Apartments in Chicago, its most famous examples include

1376-412: A rectangular grid to support the floors, roof and walls of a building which are all attached to the frame. The development of this technique made the construction of the skyscraper possible. Steel frame has displaced its predecessor, the iron frame , in the early 20th century. The rolled steel "profile" or cross section of steel columns takes the shape of the letter "Ɪ". The two wide flanges of

1462-707: A rooftop solarium, and rooms designed to maximize UV exposure. The home was one of the first in Los Angeles to include spaces dedicated to nude sunbathing, outdoor exercise, and vegetarian meal preparation, aligning with his belief in heliotherapy and drug-free living. Lovell's health-oriented ideals extended beyond architecture; he was a naturopath and a prominent health columnist for the Los Angeles Times . His columns, lectures, and radio broadcasts popularized alternative health practices in California, and

1548-727: A series of spirited, cantankerous exchanges with the museum." The gradual rise of the Nazi regime in Weimar Germany in the 1930s, and the Nazis' rejection of modern architecture, meant that an entire generation of avant-gardist architects, many of them Jews, were forced out of continental Europe. Some, such as Mendelsohn, found shelter in England, while a considerable number of the Jewish architects made their way to Palestine , and others to

1634-434: A spacious area featuring floor-to-ceiling plate glass windows, providing sweeping views of the ocean and city. A centrally positioned fireplace in this space allows guests to simultaneously enjoy warmth and the dramatic evening skyline, exemplifying Neutra's focus on blending comfort with scenic integration. A dedicated library space for over a thousand volumes showcases adjustable shelving, direct and indirect lighting through

1720-579: A thickness of 12 to 25 gauge . Heavy gauges, such as 12 and 14 gauge, are commonly used when axial loads (parallel to the length of the member) are high, such as in load-bearing construction. Medium-heavy gauges, such as 16 and 18 gauge, are commonly used when there are no axial loads but heavy lateral loads (perpendicular to the member) such as exterior wall studs that need to resist hurricane-force wind loads along coasts. Light gauges, such as 25 gauge, are commonly used where there are no axial loads and very light lateral loads such as in interior construction where

1806-481: A unity of approach and general principles: lightweight structures, skeletal frames, new materials, a modular system, an open plan, and the use of simple geometric shapes. The problem of the International Style is that it is not obvious what type of material the term should be applied to: at the same time, there are key monuments of the 20th century (Le Corbusier's Villa Savoye ; Wright's Fallingwater House ) and mass-produced architectural products of their time. Here it

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1892-434: A wide range of purposes, ranging from social housing and governmental buildings to corporate parks and skyscrapers . Nevertheless, these same qualities provoked negative reactions against the style as monotonous, austere, and incongruent with existing landscapes; these critiques are conveyed through various movements such as postmodernism , new classical architecture , and deconstructivism . Postmodern architecture

1978-423: Is a crime, truth to materials , form follows function ; and Le Corbusier 's description: "A house is a machine to live in". International style is sometimes understood as a general term associated with such architectural phenomena as Brutalist architecture , constructivism , functionalism , and rationalism . Phenomena similar in nature also existed in other artistic fields, for example in graphics, such as

2064-470: Is appropriate to talk about the use of recognizable formal techniques and the creation of a standard architectural product, rather than iconic objects. Hitchcock and Johnson's 1932 MoMA exhibition catalog identified three principles of the style: volume of internal space (as opposed to mass and solidity), flexibility and regularity (liberation from classical symmetry). and the expulsion of applied ornamentation ('artificial accents'). Common characteristics of

2150-471: Is characterized by modular and rectilinear forms, flat surfaces devoid of ornamentation and decoration, open and airy interiors that blend with the exterior, and the use of glass, steel, and concrete. The International Style is sometimes called rationalist architecture and the modern movement , although the former is mostly used in English to refer specifically to either Italian rationalism or

2236-409: Is closely related to " Modern architecture " and likewise reflects several intersecting developments in culture, politics, and technology in the early 20th century. After being brought to the United States by European architects in the 1930s, it quickly became an "unofficial" North American style, particularly after World War II. The International Style reached its height in the 1950s and 1960s, when it

2322-520: Is established with a horizontal track that is anchored to the floor and ceiling to outline each room. The vertical studs are arranged in the tracks, usually spaced 16 inches (410 mm) apart, and fastened at the top and bottom. The typical profiles used in residential construction are the C-shape stud and the U-shaped track, and a variety of other profiles. Framing members are generally produced in

2408-407: Is most evident in the repetitive use of factory-made window assemblies. In fact, Neutra's apprentice Harwell Hamilton Harris suggested that Neutra was drawn to America because of Henry Ford . The Lovell House design incorporates functional spaces that reflect both modernist principles and the needs of its inhabitants. The main staircase, described as wide and open, connects the living quarters with

2494-407: Is sometimes described as the "architecture of the modern movement" and credited with "single-handedly transforming the skylines of every major city in the world with its simple cubic forms". The International Style's emphasis on transcending historical and cultural influences, while favoring utility and mass-production methods, made it uniquely versatile in its application; the style was ubiquitous in

2580-441: Is true that hot rolled steel members often have a higher initial cost per component when compared to cold rolled steel, their cost-efficiency becomes increasingly evident when used in the construction of larger structures. This is due to the fact that hot rolled steel frames require fewer components to span equivalent distances, leading to economic advantages in bigger projects. The use of steel instead of iron for structural purposes

2666-587: The Bauhaus school, Walter Gropius , along with prominent Bauhaus instructor, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, became known for steel frame structures employing glass curtain walls.  One of the world's earliest modern buildings where this can be seen is a shoe factory designed by Gropius in 1911 in Alfeld , Germany, called the Fagus Works building. The first building built entirely on Bauhaus design principles

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2752-640: The International Typographic Style and Swiss Style . The Getty Research Institute defines it as "the style of architecture that emerged in The Netherlands, France, and Germany after World War I and spread throughout the world, becoming the dominant architectural style until the 1970s. The style is characterized by an emphasis on volume over mass, the use of lightweight, mass-produced, industrial materials, rejection of all ornament and colour, repetitive modular forms, and

2838-590: The Toronto City Hall by Finnish architect Viljo Revell . By the late 1970s a backlash was under way against modernism—prominent anti-modernists such as Jane Jacobs and George Baird were partly based in Toronto. The typical International Style or "corporate architecture" high-rise usually consists of the following: In 2000 UNESCO proclaimed University City of Caracas in Caracas , Venezuela , as

2924-980: The United Nations headquarters , the Lever House , the Seagram Building in New York City , and the campus of the United States Air Force Academy in Colorado Springs, Colorado, as well as the Toronto-Dominion Centre in Toronto . Further examples can be found in mid-century institutional buildings throughout North America and the "corporate architecture" spread from there, especially to Europe. In Canada , this period coincided with

3010-487: The 1932 exhibition and book, Hitchcock had concerned himself with the themes of modern architecture in his 1929 book Modern Architecture: Romanticism and Reintegration . According to Terence Riley : "Ironically the (exhibition) catalogue, and to some extent, the book The International Style , published at the same time of the exhibition, have supplanted the actual historical event." The following architects and buildings were selected by Hitchcock and Johnson for display at

3096-649: The Bauhaus, who also pioneered the use of plywood and tubular steel in furniture design, and who after leaving the Bauhaus would later teach alongside Gropius at Harvard, is as well an important contributor to Modernism and the International Style. Prior to use of the term 'International Style', some American architects—such as Louis Sullivan , Frank Lloyd Wright , and Irving Gill —exemplified qualities of simplification, honesty and clarity. Frank Lloyd Wright's Wasmuth Portfolio had been exhibited in Europe and influenced

3182-527: The International Style in the 1930s. Many Jewish architects who had studied at the German Bauhaus school designed significant buildings here. A large proportion of the buildings built in the International Style can be found in the area planned by Patrick Geddes , north of Tel Aviv's main historical commercial center. In 1994, UNESCO proclaimed the White City a World Heritage Site , describing

3268-450: The International Style include: a radical simplification of form, a rejection of superfluous ornamentation, bold repetition and embracement of sleek glass, steel and efficient concrete as preferred materials. Accents were found to be suitably derived from natural design irregularities, such as the position of doors and fire escapes, stair towers, ventilators and even electric signs. Further, the transparency of buildings, construction (called

3354-467: The International Style went to the Soviet Union in 1930 to undertake huge, ambitious, idealistic urban planning projects, building entire cities from scratch. In 1936, when Stalin ordered them out of the country, many of these architects became stateless and sought refuge elsewhere; for example, Ernst May moved to Kenya. The White City of Tel Aviv is a collection of over 4,000 buildings built in

3440-593: The International Style were endorsed, while other styles were classed less significant. In 1922, the competition for the Tribune Tower and its famous second-place entry by Eliel Saarinen gave some indication of what was to come, though these works would not have been accepted by Hitchcock and Johnson as representing the "International Style". Similarly, Johnson, writing about Joseph Urban's recently completed New School for Social Research in New York, stated: "In

3526-408: The International Style. But later he evolved to a more traditional local architecture. Other notable Mexican architects of the International Style or modern period are Carlos Obregón Santacilia , Augusto H. Alvarez , Mario Pani , Federico Mariscal  [ es ] , Vladimir Kaspé , Enrique del Moral , Juan Sordo Madaleno , Max Cetto , among many others. In Brazil Oscar Niemeyer proposed

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3612-510: The Lovell House became a physical manifestation of his lifestyle beliefs. This combination of health and architecture marked a significant departure from traditional residential designs of the time. The Lovell house was an expensive house during the time. Lovell paid his contractor $ 58,672.32. Leah and Philip Lovell had differing views on what they remembered the cost estimate to be. Philip recalled $ 37,000, while Leah thought, $ 48,000. There

3698-521: The Museum of Modern Art (MoMA), in the Heckscher Building at Fifth Avenue and 56th Street in New York. Beyond a foyer and office, the exhibition was divided into six rooms: the "Modern Architects" section began in the entrance room, featuring a model of William Lescaze's Chrystie-Forsyth Street Housing Development in New York. From there visitors moved to the centrally placed Room A, featuring

3784-659: The New School we have an anomaly of a building supposed to be in a style of architecture based on the development of the plan from function and facade from plan but which is a formally and pretentiously conceived as a Renaissance palace. Urban's admiration for the New Style is more complete than his understanding." California architect Rudolph Schindler 's work was not a part of the exhibit, though Schindler had pleaded with Hitchcock and Johnson to be included. Then, "[f]or more than 20 years, Schindler had intermittently launched

3870-602: The Next America", she criticized the style as non-practical, citing many instances where "glass houses" are too hot in summer and too cold in winter, empty, take away private space, lack beauty and generally are not livable. Moreover, she accused this style's proponents of taking away a sense of beauty from people and thus covertly pushing for a totalitarian society. In 1966, architect Robert Venturi published Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture , essentially

3956-544: The US. However, American anti-Communist politics after the war and Philip Johnson's influential rejection of functionalism have tended to mask the fact that many of the important architects, including contributors to the original Weissenhof project, fled to the Soviet Union . This group also tended to be far more concerned with functionalism and its social agenda. Bruno Taut , Mart Stam , the second Bauhaus director Hannes Meyer , Ernst May and other important figures of

4042-566: The US. When Walter Gropius and Marcel Breuer fled Germany they both arrived at the Harvard Graduate School of Design , in an excellent position to extend their influence and promote the Bauhaus as the primary source of architectural modernism. When Mies fled in 1938, he first fled to England, but on emigrating to the US he went to Chicago, founded the Second School of Chicago at IIT and solidified his reputation as

4128-534: The base material for the manufacture of cold-formed steel profiles. Sheet steel is then roll-formed into the final profiles used for framing. The sheets are zinc coated (galvanized) to increase protection against oxidation and corrosion . Steel framing provides excellent design flexibility due to the high strength-to-weight ratio of steel, which allows it to span over long distances, and also resist wind and earthquake loads. Steel-framed walls can be designed to offer excellent thermal and acoustic properties – one of

4214-474: The building’s form, as opposed to a solid mass"; (2) "Regularity in the facade, as opposed to building symmetry"; and (3) "No applied ornament". International style is an ambiguous term; the unity and integrity of this direction is deceptive. Its formal features were revealed differently in different countries. Despite the unconditional commonality, the international style has never been a single phenomenon. However, International Style architecture demonstrates

4300-624: The city as "a synthesis of outstanding significance of the various trends of the Modern Movement in architecture and town planning in the early part of the 20th century". In 1996, Tel Aviv's White City was listed as a World Monuments Fund endangered site. The residential area of Södra Ängby in western Stockholm , Sweden, blended an international or functionalist style with garden city ideals. Encompassing more than 500 buildings, most of them designed by Edvin Engström, it remains

4386-448: The demand for iron-based building products, due mainly to problems of producing steel from alkaline ores. These problems, caused principally by the presence of phosphorus, were solved by Sidney Gilchrist Thomas in 1879. It was not until 1880 that an era of construction based on reliable mild steel began. By that date the quality of steels being produced had become reasonably consistent. The Home Insurance Building , completed in 1885,

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4472-400: The exhibition Modern Architecture: International Exhibition : The exhibition excluded other contemporary styles that were exploring the boundaries of architecture at the time, including: Art Deco ; German Expressionism, for instance the works of Hermann Finsterlin ; and the organicist movement, popularized in the work of Antoni Gaudí . As a result of the 1932 exhibition, the principles of

4558-407: The frame to protect the steel from the weather. Cold-formed steel frames are also known as lightweight steel framing (LSF). Thin sheets of galvanized steel can be cold formed into steel studs for use as a structural or non-structural building material for both external and partition walls in both residential, commercial and industrial construction projects (pictured). The dimension of the room

4644-503: The grain structure of the steel and align its crystalline lattice. It is then passed through precision rollers to achieve the desired frame profiles. The distinctive feature of hot formed frames is their substantial beam thickness and larger dimensions, making them more robust compared to their cold rolled counterparts. This inherent strength makes them particularly well-suited for application in larger structures, as they show minimal deformation when subjected to substantial loads. While it

4730-437: The higher bending moments that occur in beams. Wide sheets of steel deck can be used to cover the top of the steel frame as a "form" or corrugated mold, below a thick layer of concrete and steel reinforcing bars . Another popular alternative is a floor of precast concrete flooring units with some form of concrete topping. Often in office buildings, the final floor surface is provided by some form of raised flooring system with

4816-486: The honest expression of structure), and acceptance of industrialized mass-production techniques contributed to the international style's design philosophy. Finally, the machine aesthetic , and logical design decisions leading to support building function were used by the International architect to create buildings reaching beyond historicism . The ideals of the style are commonly summed up in three slogans: ornament

4902-485: The house incorporated innovative structural elements, such as open-web steel joists and four-inch-square steel posts spaced at five-foot intervals, emphasizing Neutra's mastery of steel construction techniques. While the steel cantilevers appear freestanding, they are supported by the roof structure. The exterior design features horizontal bands of metal lath and white stucco, creating visual rhythm by juxtaposing vertical and horizontal lines. These bands are further enhanced by

4988-685: The industry's unfamiliarity with and outright distaste for industrial materials employed for residential work. Philip Lovell was enchanted with the house and praised his architect publicly. Lovell had previously commissioned architect Rudolf Schindler to build the landmark Lovell Beach House in 1926. Neutra and Schindler were contemporaries in Europe and the Neutras lived with the Schindlers ( Schindler House ) when they first settled in Los Angeles in 1925. Lovell chose Neutra instead of Schindler to build his Los Angeles home while they were living under

5074-486: The influence of Irving Gill . In another nod to industrial production, Neutra installed two Ford Model-A headlights in the main stairwell. (The headlights were provided by Neutra apprentice Gregory Ain .) The Historic American Buildings Survey described the Lovell House as "a prime example of residential architecture where technology creates the environment." The exterior consisted of a lightweight steel frame construction. The building used standard sections that related to

5160-571: The interplay of steel-framed windows and screens, which create a modular appearance emblematic of modernist principles. The 4,800 sq ft (450 m), three-story house aesthetically follows many of the principles of the International Style . It was included in the 1932 exhibit at the Museum of Modern Art in New York that retrospectively defined the style. In essence it reflects Neutra's interest in industrial production, and this

5246-563: The largest coherent functionalist or "International Style" villa area in Sweden and possibly the world, still well-preserved more than a half-century after its construction in 1933–40 and protected as a national cultural heritage . Zlín is a city in the Czech Republic which was in the 1930s completely reconstructed on principles of functionalism. In that time the city was a headquarters of Bata Shoes company and Tomáš Baťa initiated

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5332-421: The living, dining, and guest rooms. The main level also had the kitchen while the top floor consisted of the family bedrooms. The house was used in the 1997 film L.A. Confidential as the home of Pierce Morehouse Patchett, played by David Strathairn . It was also depicted in the film Beginners ( Mike Mills , 2010) as the home of Oliver ( Ewan McGregor ) and his father Hal ( Christopher Plummer ). The house

5418-428: The members serve as framing for demising walls between rooms. The wall finish is anchored to the two flange sides of the stud, which varies from 1 + 1 ⁄ 4 to 3 inches (32 to 76 mm) thick, and the width of web ranges from 1 + 5 ⁄ 8 to 14 inches (41 to 356 mm). Rectangular sections are removed from the web to provide access for electrical wiring. Steel mills produce galvanized sheet steel,

5504-414: The museum's first architectural exhibition. The three of them toured Europe together in 1929 and had also discussed Hitchcock's book about modern art. By December 1930, the first written proposal for an exhibition of the "new architecture" was set down, yet the first draft of the book was not complete until some months later. The 1932 exhibition led to two publications by Hitchcock and Johnson: Previous to

5590-451: The same roof. Neutra was known for his relationships with his clients—he thought of himself as a therapist and the client his patient. He spent time getting to know his clients and analyzed their needs. The Lovell house was specially designed according to Dr. Phillip Lovell's naturopathic tendencies which included a program or guide to healthy living. The house paid homage to Lovell's desire for exposure to natural lighting. A practice that

5676-413: The spacing is 24 inches (610 mm) on center for all walls except for elevator and staircase wells. Hot Formed frames, also known as hot-rolled steel frames, are engineered from steel that undergoes a complex manufacturing process known as hot rolling. During this procedure, steel members are heated to temperatures above the steel’s recrystallization temperature (1700˚F).This process serves to refine

5762-514: The specific considerations when building using cold-formed steel is that thermal bridging can occur across the wall system between the outside environment and interior conditioned space. Thermal bridging can be protected against by installing a layer of externally fixed insulation along the steel framing – typically referred to as a 'thermal break'. The spacing between studs is typically 16 inches on center for home exterior and interior walls depending on designed loading requirements. In office suites

5848-408: The style that developed in 1920s Europe more broadly. In continental Europe , this and related styles are variably called Functionalism , Neue Sachlichkeit ("New Objectivity"), De Stijl ("The Style"), and Rationalism , all of which are contemporaneous movements and styles that share similar principles, origins, and proponents. Rooted in the modernism movement , the International Style

5934-498: The supposed strengths of the International Style has been said to be that the design solutions were indifferent to location, site, and climate; the solutions were supposed to be universally applicable; the style made no reference to local history or national vernacular. This was soon identified as one of the style's primary weaknesses. In 2006, Hugh Pearman , the British architectural critic of The Times , observed that those using

6020-408: The unit plan. The porches and balconies hung down from the roof level. This was done in order to avoid scattering the depth. The walls outside were 3.6" expanded metal reinforced with 1 1/4" of dense concrete walls (using spray-on concrete). The entrance of the house is on the top story, through a terrace. Upon entry, there is a framed view of an extravagant stairway. The main level of the house enclosed

6106-824: The use of flat surfaces, typically alternating with areas of glass." Some researchers consider the International Style as one of the attempts to create an ideal and utilitarian form. Around the start of the 20th century, a number of architects around the world began developing new architectural solutions to integrate traditional precedents with new social demands and technological possibilities. The work of Victor Horta and Henry van de Velde in Brussels , Antoni Gaudí in Barcelona , Otto Wagner in Vienna and Charles Rennie Mackintosh in Glasgow , among many others, can be seen as

6192-462: The void between the walking surface and the structural floor being used for cables and air handling ducts. The frame needs to be protected from fire because steel softens at high temperature and this can cause the building to partially collapse. In the case of the columns this is usually done by encasing it in some form of fire resistant structure such as masonry, concrete or plasterboard. The beams may be cased in concrete, plasterboard or sprayed with

6278-457: The work of European modernists, and his travels there probably influenced his own work, although he refused to be categorized with them. His buildings of the 1920s and 1930s clearly showed a change in the style of the architect, but in a different direction than the International Style. In Europe the modern movement in architecture had been called Functionalism or Neue Sachlichkeit ( New Objectivity ), L'Esprit Nouveau , or simply Modernism and

6364-547: The works of Europeans of the 1920s. Among these works was shown Alvar Aalto's Turun Sanomat newspaper offices building in Turku , Finland. After a six-week run in New York City, the exhibition then toured the US – the first such "traveling-exhibition" of architecture in the US – for six years. MoMA director Alfred H. Barr hired architectural historian and critic Henry-Russell Hitchcock and Philip Johnson to curate

6450-623: Was a section titled "Housing", presenting "the need for a new domestic environment" as it had been identified by historian and critic Lewis Mumford . In Room D were works by Raymond Hood (including "Apartment Tower in the Country" and the McGraw-Hill Building ) and Richard Neutra. In Room E was a section titled "The extent of modern architecture", added at the last minute, which included the works of thirty-seven modern architects from fifteen countries who were said to be influenced by

6536-480: Was designed in the late 1940s and built in the mid-1950s based upon a masterplan created by architect Enrique del Moral . His original idea was enriched by other students, teachers, and diverse professionals of several disciplines. The university houses murals by Diego Rivera , Juan O'Gorman and others. The university also features Olympic Stadium (1968). In his first years of practice, Pritzker Prize winner and Mexican architect Luis Barragán designed buildings in

6622-417: Was developed in the 1960s in reaction to the International Style, becoming dominant in the 1980s and 1990s. The term "International Style" was first used in 1932 by the historian Henry-Russell Hitchcock and architect Philip Johnson to describe a movement among European architects in the 1920s that was distinguished by three key design principles: (1) "Architecture as volume – thin planes or surfaces create

6708-526: Was established as a cure for illness. The design of the house was fit for the environment and exercise. Through these specified design elements, the house was coined with the term the ' Health House .' Dr. Philip Lovell's unconventional health philosophies heavily influenced the design and purpose of the Lovell House . Known for his advocacy of natural living, Lovell emphasized the integration of health-focused features such as outdoor spaces for sunbathing,

6794-514: Was first photographed by Willard Morgan (1900-1967) . Photographs of the building were regarded highly so that the building could be seen by many other people. These images were included in the Modern Architecture exhibition of 1932 at the New York's Museum of Modern Art (MOMA) . Steel frame Steel frame is a building technique with a " skeleton frame" of vertical steel columns and horizontal I-beams , constructed in

6880-485: Was initially slow. The first iron-framed building, Ditherington Flax Mill , had been built in 1797, but it was not until the development of the Bessemer process in 1855 that steel production was made efficient enough for steel to be a widely used material. Cheap steels, which had high tensile and compressive strengths and good ductility, were available from about 1870, but wrought and cast iron continued to satisfy most of

6966-545: Was still an outstanding fee of $ 413 for Richard Neutra in 1930, which was apart of the estimated total of $ 5863. The Lovell House was purchased in 1961 by Morton and Betty Topper. It was added to the list of Registered Historic Places in Los Angeles in 1971. In 2021, art dealers Iwan and Manuela Wirth purchased the property for $ 8.75 million, "with plans to bring back its original lustre." The Lovell House underwent multiple design iterations before its final construction. Early designs included an L-shaped structure descending

7052-759: Was the concrete and steel Haus am Horn , built in 1923 in Weimar , Germany, designed by Georg Muche . The Gropius-designed Bauhaus school building in Dessau , built 1925–26 and the Harvard Graduate Center (Cambridge, Massachusetts; 1949–50) also known as the Gropius Complex, exhibit clean lines and a "concern for uncluttered interior spaces". Marcel Breuer , a recognized leader in Béton Brut (Brutalist) architecture and notable alumnus of

7138-656: Was the first to use skeleton frame construction, completely removing the load bearing function of its masonry cladding. In this case the iron columns are merely embedded in the walls, and their load carrying capacity appears to be secondary to the capacity of the masonry, particularly for wind loads. In the United States, the first steel framed building was the Rand McNally Building in Chicago, erected in 1890. The Royal Insurance Building in Liverpool designed by James Francis Doyle in 1895 (erected 1896–1903)

7224-499: Was the first to use a steel frame in the United Kingdom. International style (architecture) The International Style is a major architectural style and movement that began in western Europe in the 1920s and dominated modern architecture until the 1970s. It is defined by strict adherence to functional and utilitarian designs and construction methods , typically expressed through minimalism . The style

7310-655: Was very much concerned with the coming together of a new architectural form and social reform, creating a more open and transparent society. The "International Style", as defined by Hitchcock and Johnson, had developed in 1920s Western Europe, shaped by the activities of the Dutch De Stijl movement, Le Corbusier , and the Deutscher Werkbund and the Bauhaus . Le Corbusier had embraced Taylorist and Fordist strategies adopted from American industrial models in order to reorganize society. He contributed to

7396-481: Was widely adopted worldwide for its practicality and as a symbol of industry, progress, and modernity. The style remained the prevailing design philosophy for urban development and reconstruction into the 1970s, especially in the Western world . The International Style was one of the first architectural movements to receive critical renown and global popularity. Regarded as the high point of modernist architecture, it

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